The Works of the Gawain Poet (Penguin Classics)
Author: Putter, Ad; Stokes, Myra
Date: 2014-07-10
Publisher: Penguin Books Ltd
Rights: All rights reserved.

Edited by Ad Putter
and Myra Stokes

THE WORKS OF THE GAWAIN POET

Pearl, Cleanness, Patience, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Contents

Abbreviations

Introduction

The Poems and the Poet

Dialect and Inflections

The Alliterative Metre

Editorial Practice

Acknowledgements

THE WORKS OF THE GAWAIN POET

Pearl

Cleanness

Patience

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Notes to Pearl

Notes to Cleanness

Notes to Patience

Notes to Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Bibliography of Works Cited

Editorial Emendations

Glossary

List of Names

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PENGUIN CLASSICS

THE WORKS OF THE GAWAIN POET

AD PUTTER teaches at the English Department and the Centre for Medieval Studies of the University of Bristol, where he is Professor of Medieval English Literature. He has written extensively on English, European and Latin texts of the Middle Ages, and on metre. His monographs include Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and French Arthurian Romance (1996) and An Introduction to the Gawain Poet (1997). He has also edited, with Elizabeth Archibald, The Cambridge Companion to the Arthurian Legend (2009).

MYRA STOKES was formerly Senior Lecturer in the Department of English at Bristol University, and is now retired. Her chief interests are in medieval vernacular languages, literatures and metres. She is the author of Justice and Mercy in Piers Plowman (1984) and The Language of Jane Austen (1991), and has also written on Chaucer, the Gawain poet, Arthurian literature and the metre of alliterative verse.

Abbreviations

For a list of abbreviations of grammatical terms, please see the Glossary (pp. 801–2).

A&W | The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript, ed. Malcolm Andrew and Ronald Waldron
AN | Anglo-Norman
AND | Anglo-Norman Dictionary
ANTS | Anglo-Norman Texts Society
AV | Authorized Version (of the Bible)
C | Cleanness (in line references)
CA | Gower, Confessio Amantis
CFMA | Classiques Français du Moyen Age
CSEL | Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum
CT | Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales
DMF | Dictionnaire du Moyen Français
DOST | Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue
DT | Destruction of Troy
EETS | Early English Text Society
G | Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (in line references)
JEGP | Journal of English and Germanic Philology
MA | Morte Arthure (alliterative verse version, ed. Hamel)
ME | Middle English
MED | Middle English Dictionary
MLR | Modern Language Review
ModE | Modern English
MS | manuscript
OE | Old English
OED | Oxford English Dictionary
OF | Old French
ON | Old Norse
P3A | Parlement of the Thre Ages
Pa | Patience (in line references)
Pe | Pearl (in line references)
PL | Patrologia Latina
PMLA | Publications of the Modern Language Association
PP | Piers Plowman
RES | Review of English Studies
RS | Rolls Series
SAC | Studies in the Age of Chaucer
SATF | Société des Anciens Textes Français
SG | Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (in titles in secondary sources in the Bibliography)
SJ | Siege of Jerusalem
SND | Scottish National Dictionary
STS | Scottish Text Society
StE | St Erkenwald
T&G | Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, ed. Tolkien and Gordon, 2nd edn revised Norman Davis
WA | Wars of Alexander
WW | Winner and Waster

Introduction

THE POEMS AND THE POET

The four poems included in this edition are the sole contents of London, British Library MS Cotton Nero A.x.[1] This small manuscript was copied around 1400, and the poems cannot be very much earlier, since one of them, Cleanness, is demonstrably indebted to Mandeville’s Travels,[2] written in 1356 or 1367.[3] The manuscript makes up in fidelity to the texts what it lacks in finish and fashion; it is certainly not a de luxe production, and may have been competently home-made especially for these poems, rather than produced in a professional scriptorium. It was written by only one scribe, with a few corrections (and hypercorrections[4]) by a second hand. The scribe was careful, not prone to errors, though his script is not a standard one for the time and has been described as having ‘a very individualistic, small, sharp, angular character’.[5] Rubrication is non-ornate and functional, consisting simply of enlarged capitals to mark structural divisions (and, in Cleanness and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, smaller ones to mark significant narrative moments within those larger sections). Twelve accompanying illustrations (eleven full-page, one half-page) were added shortly after the text was written. English books of this period were rarely illustrated, and full-page pictures are completely without precedent.[6] In style, too, the illustrations are unusual. Relatively independent from iconographic traditions, they are more remarkable for their attempts to reflect the particular ‘texts and significant moments within them’[7] than for their technique (which is limited) or beauty. The poems themselves are extant only in this manuscript and do not appear to have attracted much notice at the time.

All four texts are almost certainly the work of the same poet. They share, linguistically, the same dialect (North-West Midland) and date (late fourteenth century), for there is not much sign of the layering or inconsistency that would suggest that the poet’s language was not substantially the same as that of the scribe(s) who copied his poems.[8] The poems also have pronounced similarities in style, alliterative collocations, procedure (for instance, Patience and Cleanness are both homilies based on a text drawn from the New Testament Beatitudes and exemplified by Old Testament narratives), themes and preoccupations (the pervasive interest in ‘courtesy’ in general, and the rituals of the feast in particular, being the most obvious example[9]). Nothing is known of this poet except what can be deduced from the poems. The dialect indicates that he came from south-east Cheshire, a provenance confirmed by the topographical features and associated terminology of the often precisely depicted landscapes in Sir Gawain.[10] Though some critics have surmised an association with the royal court in London,[11] there is no evidence that the poems circulated outside this dialect area.

Cheshire was a thriving world of its own at this period. Partly because of its status as a County Palatine (which conferred upon its earls semi-royal privileges), it regarded itself as separate from the rest of England (Cheshire men spoke of ‘going into England’[12]), and had a sturdy sense of its own political and cultural identity.[13] It provided the well-known Cheshire archers who formed Richard II’s bodyguard, and John Gower knew it as home to gentes bellatrices [warlike folk], fiercely loyal to the king.[14] Its people could be as rough as its weather and its landscape, which could provide shelter for the lawless,[15] especially in the Wirral.[16] But it had also a lively cultural life, and was markedly active in a number of arts and crafts. Chester possessed a major mint, and was a centre for moneyers and goldsmiths; the whole surrounding area specialized in the production of fine metalwork.[17] An important seaport into which came furs, wines and other goods, it was a centre ‘for luxury goods and specialized services’.[18] The production of cloth and clothing played an important part in the local economy. The upper ranks of society had an architectural presence, not only in Chester castle and various monasteries and abbeys, but also in a number of ‘elegant mansions, many of them set apart in parkland’, with which the Cheshire–Lancashire area was ‘bejewelled’;[19] and in this connection it may be noted that The Boke of Curtesye is among a number of significant texts to have been copied in Cheshire.[20]

For, most importantly, Cheshire lay at the centre of an area that had a strong and distinctive literary culture, and a diverse selection of some of the most important works of the period was composed in the county. Ranulph Higden, author of the Polychronicon, an influential and encyclopaedic world history in Latin, was a monk of St Werburgh’s Abbey (now Chester Cathedral), and brothers from this monastery and from others in the area copied not only Latin texts but also English poems.[21] The Stanzaic Life of Christ is also a Cheshire work, and John Barton, author of one of the oldest French grammars, Donait françois (early fifteenth century), was proud, not only of his Paris education, but also of his Cheshire birth and upbringing, which he mentions in the prologue to his book. The town also had its own cycle of mystery plays, though these may be post-fourteenth century. The Cheshire gentry, furthermore, seem (from somewhat later evidence) to have included reading and writing men who took an active interest in literature,[22] as testified by the poems of his own which Humfrey Newton of Pownell (1466–1536) copied into his commonplace book[23] and by the Stanley poems, a group of poems celebrating the Stanley family, who were Cheshire magnates.[24] Most crucially, the county was situated at the heart of that area that had pioneered the so-called ‘Alliterative Revival’: that is, the use in new and substantial poems of a modified form of the unrhymed alliterative metre in which Anglo-Saxon verse had been written – the metre of Cleanness, Patience and Sir Gawain. This literary movement was associated especially with the west and the north, and Cheshire was thus pre-eminently exposed to its influence and made important contributions to it: the poet of one of the best of its products, St Erkenwald, second only to Sir Gawain in literary merit,[25] was a Cheshire man,[26] as probably were the poets both of one of the earliest extant exercises in the metre, Winner and Waster from c.1352,[27] and of one of the last, Scotish Ffeilde, whose subject is the battle of Flodden (1513) and which was written by someone who proclaims himself to have been a gentleman of Baguley in Cheshire (lines 416–19). Likewise associated with the west and the north were related experiments in highly florid stanzaic and rhyming forms of alliterating verse. Some of these poems are in eight-line stanzas, such as ‘Marie Mayden, Moder Mylde’ and ‘Ilk a wys wiht scholde wake’,[28] both from Cheshire;[29] others, such as Awntyrs off Arthure, Summer Sunday, Pistel of Susan and Three Dead Kings, were written in the newly fashionable thirteen-line bob-and-wheel stanza. This is relevant both to the elaborate stanzas of Pearl (written in alliterating lines of rhyming verse) and to the novel use in Sir Gawain of a rhyming bob-and-wheel (see Foreword to Sir Gawain, p. 244) to round off varying numbers of unrhymed alliterative lines, and so group them into ‘stanzas’. Cheshire thus forms a background pertinent, not only to the assured handling of the colourful metres used in the Cotton Nero poems, but also to their equally colourful alternation between stormy energies (hunts, cataclysms, snowstorms) and the closely described intricacies of cultural constructs and rituals, mealtime etiquette, courtly manners and courtesies, castle with hunting park, nautical tackle and manoeuvres, fabrics, furnishings, costumes and, especially, jewels and metalwork. Such topics were popular in alliterative verse, but are developed by this poet with unrivalled vigour, texture and wealth of specific detail.

Apart from his provenance, only more general facts can be deduced about the author. He appears to have had rather more than a basic schooling and to have read widely in Latin, French and English. As the notes to the poems will illustrate, he not only knew the Bible (in its Latin Vulgate form) extremely well indeed, but could also cope with demanding Latin verse, for Cleanness and Patience show him to have been familiar with Latin verse paraphrases of the Bible.[30] He had certainly read with close attention the French texts that formed the core of well-thought-of and polite literature at this period: he accurately paraphrases a passage from Le Roman de la rose, citing its continuator by name, at lines 1057–64 of Cleanness, a poem for which he also used a French text of Mandeville’s Travels; and Sir Gawain shows him to have read intensively and extensively in French chivalric romance (especially the lengthy cycle of prose romances known as the Vulgate Lancelot, the romances of Chrétien de Troyes and probably also those of the Anglo-Norman Hue de Rotelande[31]). His familiarity and ease with French loan words, including some highly rare and specialized ones, likewise suggests a man widely conversant with French.

Since the descriptions of such things as castle architecture, hunts and the products of goldsmithery are highly detailed and technical, the poet must also have had at least access to courtly and sophisticated environments, though in what capacity, and whether ecclesiastical or secular, it is hard to tell. The familiarity with the Bible and biblical verse, and the use of a homiletic structure in Cleanness and Patience, might suggest he had a clerical education, but, if so, he must have remained in minor orders, for the death of a daughter (the theme of Pearl, a poem narrated in the first person) indicates that he was not celibate, as priests were required to be. When he refers to Church sermons and rituals, he certainly places himself with the congregation rather than with the officiating priest (‘The prest us schewes’, Pe 1210; cf. Pa 9). And, since some of his theological statements are distinctly eccentric (see Foreword to Cleanness, pp. 91–2), it is hard to imagine him as an academically trained theologian. It may be that a clerical training either gave way to, or was supplemented by, some secular activity, since he might have had family or personal connections with the jewellery and/or mercery trades (see Foreword to Pearl, pp. 9–10), which, since jewels were often stitched into costumes, were closely connected.[32]

Of his personal life, he tells us two things, one probably, the other certainly, true. He indicates in Patience that he had known poverty (35, 46, 528), which would not be surprising for a cleric who could not progress beyond minor orders. The claim functions partly as a captatio benevolentiae [courting the good will of the hearer], for the poet does not want to dis-implicate himself from the patient endurance of adversity which he preaches. But the rhetorical stratagem would sadly backfire if he were known to be in comfortable circumstances. For things at this period were not as they are today, when a dust jacket can give information on an actual author, between whom and the ‘I’ of his fiction there can be wide discrepancies. Such inconsistencies at this time would have caused confusion to no artistic purpose. Many poems (the present ones included) may have circulated first or exclusively among a local audience, and it is unlikely that the wry claim to personal experience of poverty in Patience is one that such an audience would have known to be false.

These and other considerations apply with even more force to the autobiographical ‘fact’ the poet attributes to himself in Pearl: the death of a nearly-two-year-old daughter. It was and is still sometimes argued that this claim is not necessarily true. But the poem would make no sense at all if it were false: the text owes its emotional power precisely to the assumption that the poet is himself deeply, personally and painfully implicated in the situation he represents, that his ‘I’ really is ‘I’. Elegies, including medieval ones (such as Chaucer’s Book of the Duchess, occasioned by the death of Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster, and Boccaccio’s Olympia, an elegy on his lost daughter Violante), presuppose that the death mourned and other purported ‘facts’ are real. That is one of the rules of the genre. The dream-vision mode of Pearl is also importantly relevant here. This was the framework by which a poet signalled that the forthcoming matter had no ‘authority’ in the form of history or a pre-existing story, the events having therefore as much or as little authority as a dream of his own, which might be fantasy or vision (the several different categories into which dreams were at this period divided was useful here).[33] It is thus in a dream which the poet classifies as a veray avysyoun [true vision: 1184] that the meeting with the spirit of the poet’s dead daughter is depicted as occurring: i.e. it is not something that history books will vouch for, but has a kind of higher truth. From these same rules of the genre it followed that the narrating ‘I’, the sole authority for the content of the poem, represented the poet and that any biographical data given were to be taken as reflecting real life.[34] This explains why it was most often in the context of the dream-vision that vernacular poets identified themselves, giving their actual names and introducing other details of their real lives. For instance, the dreamer in Chaucer’s House of Fame is addressed as ‘Geffrey’ (729) by the eagle, who likewise alludes to his work as a customs official (652–3).[35] The conventions governing both elegy and dream-vision thus indicate that the ‘I’ who speaks as a bereaved father in Pearl is one with the poet himself.

The poems are here presented in the order in which they appear in the manuscript (Pearl, Cleanness, Patience, Sir Gawain), since that is as likely as any other to reflect the order of composition. It is often in elegy that a talent for verse is first prompted to sustained formal organization of itself. ‘The Death of Friends, first gave my Muse a Birth’, claimed one later poetess,[36] implying that it was not uncommon for an amateur talent to attempt at such moments a first major original work. The poet of the highly accomplished Pearl had plainly written before, but it may well have been at the death of his daughter that he first endeavoured to write something that should be worthy of being recorded and preserved. The Book of the Duchess seems similarly to be the earliest recorded work of Chaucer that has come down to us, though he may well have translated part of the Romaunt of the Rose and composed at least some ‘balades, roundels, virelayes’ (Legend of Good Women F423) before that. Of the remaining long-line alliterative poems in the present manuscript, it makes sense that the two exercises in the ‘classic’ form of the metre, Cleanness and Patience, should have preceded Sir Gawain, where that metre receives innovative refinement. And, as between the two verse homilies, it likewise makes sense to assume that a line like ‘Godes glam to him glod, that him unglad made’ (Pa 63) should have come to the mind of a poet who had already used the alliterative metre to produce the more predictable collocation found at C 499, ‘Then Godes glam to hem glod that gladed hem alle’. The poet was certainly, even in Cleanness, already a master of the collocational and lexical repertoire and manoeuvres of the alliterative metre, which he everywhere handles with expressiveness and virtuosity.

DIALECT AND INFLECTIONS

Since, in the preceding section, some significance has been attached to provenance, the non-specialist might like to have an idea of the kind of evidence on which localization in the North-West Midlands is based, and of how that dialect differs from the London English of Chaucer. Some of the chief northern characteristics of the poem texts are:

- the inflection -es (rather than southern -eth) in third-person singular (he loves, he holdes, he dredes); the north tended to extend the -s inflection to other persons, so that we also find it used (instead of -est) for second-person singular both in the present (thou blames, thou thretes, thou says) and past (thou lestes [lost], thou kyssedes), and on occasion for present plurals (thay [trees] borgounes and beres; yow, that … weldes[37]). The ending -(e)s (rather than the southern -eth) is also used for the plural (or polite) imperative: Dos teches me; Displeses not if I speke errour

- the present participle suffix -ande (as opposed to -inde/ende or -ing in the south): that malscrande [stupefying] mere; fannande fax [fanning hair]; gladande glory

- the auxiliary can (as opposed to the southern gan), found in these poems with the characteristically western rounding of a to o before nasals (m, n, ng): con take [did take], con answare [did answer]

- the verbs make and take can appear in contracted form: he mas him … mery; thay ta me; tan on honde [taken in hand]

- the adverb bylive [promptly], which figures as blive in southern texts: raykes [goes] bylive; neghed [approached] bylive

- several items of vocabulary that are northernisms: muckel [great(ly)], farande [fine], brent [steep: G 2165], stange [pole: G 1614], bodworde [news] (C 473)

- a high number of words of Scandinavian origin: as well as such words as carp [speak], ill, [bad(ly)], kyrk [church], ugly [sinister], which were common in northern dialects, there are a number of colourful and unusual ones, such as skayned [grazed], snart [smartingly] and snitered [snowed] (G 2167, 2003)

A dialect area well to the north is, however, ruled out by the absence of some features that would indicate it, and by the presence of some that were more characteristic of the south:

- there is no regular retention of Old English long a (which had been rounded in the south to o). Forms in a are the exception, and often occur only for rhyming purposes. Thus, where rhyme requires a, brade and mare each occur once (at Pe 138 and 145 respectively), and hame twice (G 1534, 2451), but all three words are otherwise spelled with o, that vowel being confirmed by rhyme at e.g. G 967 (brode : goode). The evidence thus suggests a poet familiar with a forms, but more regularly using o forms

- northern forms such as gud [good], buk [book] and sall [shall] are not found

- though the northern spelling qu- is often used for words beginning with hw- in Old English (e.g. quat and quen, regularized in the present edition to what and when), hw-derived words (even when spelled qu-) alliterate on w (e.g. MS querso [wheresoever] alliterates with world and worschipes at G 1227), and there is no sign of the falling together of the sounds of Old English cw- and hw- (leading to the alliteration of e.g. what with queen) which occurs in some dialects to the north of Cheshire (as in The Wars of Alexander and in the Lancashire poem The Destruction of Troy)[38]

- third-person-plural present-tense verbs (though they sometimes have no ending, sometimes -e, and sometimes northern -s) frequently have the -en inflection typical of the more conservative Midlands, confirmed by metre at e.g. G 1163: ‘What! Thay [the deer] brayen and bleden, by bonkes thay dyen’[39]

An area towards the south of the northern dialect region is therefore indicated, and, as between east and west, the following features, among others, are westernisms:

- the occasional unvoicing of final -b, -g and -d to -p, -k and -t, especially after nasals. We have regularized many such spellings where they serve no metrical purpose (e.g. MS ȝonke þynk at G 1526 appears in our text as yong thing), but fonte [found] at Pe 170, for instance, has not been regularized, because it is required (and confirmed) by rhyme. Final -d after an unstressed syllable was also unvoiced in the west, and occurs in e.g. Hadet [beheaded] at G 681

- the form ho [she], which occurs frequently (and is confirmed by alliteration at G 948)

- the raising of o to u before -ng (which makes possible the rhyme of ‘long’ and ‘strong’ with ‘tongue’ at G 32–6)

- the rounding of a to o before a nasal, witnessed in e.g. bonk [bank], plonttes [plants], etc

Inflections were lost more rapidly from northern dialects than from elsewhere, and there is evidence from rhyme and metre that the poet did not always use or sound the ones discussed below where metre did not require them. But metre often does require, as well as medial -e- and adverbial -e, a sounded final -e for: first-person present-tense verbs; plural verbs; infinitives (which can also end in -y and in -(e)n); weak adjectives (used after the definite article the, after demonstrative and possessive adjectives such as that and his, and in vocatives); plural adjectives; dative nouns. Final -e is historically justified in these cases and this poet, like others from the North Midlands, made good use of it.[40] The -es termination for plural or possessive nouns and for present-tense verbs, as well as past tense and participle -de/te and -ed, likewise often has syllabic value, especially when applied to monosyllabic stems. These inflections often assist the poet in supplying an unstressed syllable demanded by either (1) the iambics of Pearl and of the bob-and-wheel in Sir Gawain or (2) the alliterative line, which required a dip of two syllables (or more) in the second half of the line and (usually) between the alliterating stresses of the first half of the line, as well as one unstressed syllable at line ending (see the section on alliterative metre below).[41] The following examples are representative:

Of all my joy the highë gate (Pe 395: weak adjective)

to flyë ful highë (G 524b: infinitive; adverb)

And then he cryëd so cler   that kennë myght allë (Pa 357: past tense; infinitive; plural pronoun)

All that glydës and gos (C 325a: present tense)

I durë to longë (Pa 488b: first-person present-tense verb; adverb)

his luflychë deghter (C 939b: plural disyllabic adjective)

on wyngës ful scharpë (C 475b: plural noun; plural adjective)

of Arthurës wonderes (G 29b: possessive)

blenk on the snawë [glitter on the snow] (G 2315b: dative)

THE ALLITERATIVE METRE

Alliterative metre is based, not on a regular number of syllables in lines linked by rhyme (a metrical form imported from Latin and French), nor on iambic alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, but on a regular number of stresses linked by alliteration. Each line has four stresses (also known as staves), two in the first half-line (the a-verse) and two in the second half-line (the b-verse), with a caesura, or metrical pause, dividing the two halves of the line. In the so-called ‘classic’ form of the metre, alliteration links the first three of the stresses, but not the last, in an aa/ax pattern:

Clànnes whoso kỳndely   còuthë commèndë (1)[42]

Words beginning with vowels alliterate in these poems (and some others) with any other vowel or with h-:

Thay hondel there His owne body   and usen hit bothë (11)

The sounds s-, sk-, sp-, st- and sh- are normally treated as distinct, each alliterating only with itself:

Then segges to the soverayn   sayden thereafter (93)

Stightled with the steward,   stad in the hallë (90)

On spec of a spot   may spedë to myssë (551)

Ascaped over the skyre wateres,   and scaylëd the wallës (1776)

Thus in the last-quoted line the Norse-derived skyre [bright] has replaced the Anglo-Saxon-derived schyr(e) found elsewhere in the manuscript, the poet being very ready to exploit, for metrical as for stylistic purposes, the Scandinavian loan words in which his dialect was so rich (see p. xviii above).

Alliteration can fall on a final consonant which, in pronunciation, attaches itself to a following word beginning with a vowel; C 1779 thus alliterates on n:

Withinne an houre of the night   an entre thay hadë

Alliterative needs may be satisfied by an unaccustomed stress on a prefix rather than on the root syllable, something which (especially in the case of Romance loan words) figures so frequently as to suggest that it was an accepted practice in alliterative poetry:[43]

Then cònfourme thee to Cryst,   and thee clene makë (1067)

Prèsented him the presoneres   in pray that thay token (1297)

The possibility of stress on prefixes gave poets useful options. For instance, some words occur with alliterative stress falling either on the prefix or on the root: compare ‘He dèvised his dremës’ (1604a) with ‘Devìsed he the vesselment’ (1288a); ‘Was dìsstryed with dìstresse’ (1160a) with ‘I schal strenkle my distrèsse’ (307a); ‘Oght that was ùngoderly’ (1092a) with ‘Thou art a gome ungòderly’ (145a);[44] and ‘He brek the barers as bỳlive’ (1239a) with ‘to sech him bylìvë’ (1615b).

Alliterative stress falls generally on open-class words – classes of words to which new items are easily added (nouns, adjectives, adverbs and most verbs). Closed-class words (grammatical-function words such as prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs) do not normally bear alliterative stress. Not all open-class words bear stress, however (even if they alliterate: as in G 2: ‘The burgh brittened and brent to brondes and askes’). This is frequently the case with such common words as ‘thing’, ‘man’, ‘lord’, ‘take’, ‘have’, with adverbs of degree, quantifying adjectives, and with adjective + noun and adverb + verb combinations:

And if He lovës clene layk   that is our lord richë (1053)

So brod bulde in a bay   that blonkes myght rennë (1392)

Schot with his schulderes   his fayrë schelde under (G 2318)

The man marred on the molde,   that myght him not hydë (Pa 479)

Though other patterns can occur in Sir Gawain, the aa/ax rule is followed in Cleanness and Patience with such regularity as to justify editors in regarding as corrupt any non-aa/ax lines (e.g. C 345, 422, 427) and in emending them wherever a plausible emendation suggests itself.

Recent research by Hoyt Duggan[45] and by Thomas Cable[46] has established certain rules governing the metrical shape of the b-verse (the second half of the line): one of the two stresses must be preceded by a ‘long’ dip – that is, by more than one unstressed syllable – and only one such ‘long’ dip can figure in the verse. The b-verses of the lines quoted above and below furnish examples, and also illustrate the operation of another rule: the line must end in one (and only one) unstressed syllable. That this is a rule (and not merely a strong tendency, as Duggan himself describes it) is readily demonstrable. Where the poet had a choice of forms, the disyllabic one is regularly selected at line-ending position: compare line-ending selven (1745), spylled (1248), schined (1532) with non-line-ending self (1418), spylt (1220), schon (G 772, 956). Some disyllabic forms are found only at line ending: lys [lies], for instance, appears as lygges only at line ending (1126 and 1792). Similarly, now only ever appears at line ending as nowthe (Pa 412; G 1251, 1784, 1934, 2466). No syllable bearing secondary stress can occur at line ending: thus suffixes such as -ing or -ly/lych do not figure in that position, nor does the second syllable of such words as warlow or coltour; in short, virtually the only vowel sounds that can occur at line ending are schwa (the indistinct vowel heard in the second syllable of, for instance, china) and unstressed i (as in the second syllable of merry).

With regard to the a-verse, a long dip (at least two unstressed syllables) between the two stresses is the norm, and this poet makes deliberate and demonstrable adjustments to achieve it. For instance, adverbs and adjectives in -lych(e) are used in these poems only for metrical reasons: unlike -ly (the poet’s usual, unmarked form, which was always monosyllabic in later Middle English), the suffix -lych permitted the addition of inflectional -e (though this has been mostly lost from the -lych spellings of the manuscript), so producing a disyllabic suffix.[47] This is clear from both a- and b-verses:

In His comlychë court,   that kyng is of blissë (546)

And other luflychë lyght,   that lemëd ful fayrë (1486)

Of that wynnelychë Wye   that wonës in heven (1807)

At this causë the knight   comlychë hadë (G 648)

The poet’s other forms of these words (lovely/lufly, comly and wynne [joyous, glorious]) would not have permitted the -e inflection for adverb (at G 648), plural adjective (at 1486) or weak adjective (at 546 and 1807) that in these lines ensures the inter-stress long dip in the a-verse. The insertion of redundant for before to + infinitive is likewise, in this manuscript and elsewhere, metrically motivated, and that too occurs to ensure the inter-stress two-syllable dip in the a-verse:

And had a wyf for to welde,   a worthilyche quenë (1351)

Now is set for to serve   Satanas the blakë (1449)

Insertion of ful [very] – before, for instance, a post-positioned adjective – is likewise a common metrical manoeuvre used to the same end:

Was long and ful large   and ever ilyche swarë (1386)

Then a dotage ful depe   drof to his hertë (1425)

The disyllabic dip between the two alliterating staves is dispensed with only where the want of it is compensated by an opening dip of four or more syllables – e.g. ‘And there was the kyng caght’ (1215a) – or by a verse-ending dip that is long (two or more syllables) and/or heavy (i.e. a syllable with secondary stress such as is banned from line ending), e.g. ‘In the burgh of Babyloyn’ (1335a).

Since English (unlike French) is a stress-timed rather than a syllable-timed language, the alliterative metre is in some ways more natural to it than are octosyllabic or decasyllabic iambics. But there is another sense in which it is the metre ‘native’ to English. The four-stressed alliterating line had been the metrical norm in Anglo-Saxon verse before the Norman Conquest, and that Old English alliterative line is evidently the ancestor of the Middle English one. Some of the alliterative synonyms used in Old English verse also continue into Middle English alliterative poems, though a number of them were, by this time, otherwise rare or archaic usages. The synonyms for ‘man’, for instance – burn, freke, gome, hathel, lede, renk, schalk, segge, wye – are all found in both Old and Middle English alliterative verse.

Historically and prosodically ‘natural’ to English though it may be, that word should not be taken to imply that alliterative verse is therefore any less ‘artful’ or rule-bound than rhymed verse, though the absence of rhyme and regularly recurring identical feet may make it look at first blush ‘freer’ than, for instance, the rhymed iambic pentameters of Chaucer. As will by now be clear, there are complex rules regarding rhythm and alliteration that impose no less pattern on normal or prose usage – and which will, for instance, occasionally necessitate the same artful deviation from normal word order as occurs in rhymed verse. When, for example, Belshazzar’s scholars fail to interpret ‘What tythyng ne tale, tokened tho draghtes’ (1557), and he sends for men ‘That were wyse of wychecraft, and warlowës other’ (1560), the word order in the b-verses is dictated by the alliterative aa/ax pattern (which, in the strict form of the metre observed in Cleanness and Patience, cannot be varied to aa/xa), and by the requirements for a long dip in the b-verse and for a single unstressed syllable at line ending, which would preclude ‘tho draghtes tokened’ or ‘other warlowes’.

Pronounced final -e plays an important role in the rhythms of alliterative verse. Sometimes this -e is inflectional (see ‘Dialect and Inflections’ above), and sometimes it is an organic part of the word. In order to hear the metre, those unfamiliar with the grammatical and etymological principles which dictate what -es are sounded need only remember to sound such -es as will ensure the two-syllable dip between the a-verse stresses and will produce the two-syllable dip that must occur once in the b-verse, and should bear in mind that all alliterative long lines end in one unstressed syllable. Thus:

That all that longëd to luther   ful lodly He hated (1090)

Wel clener then any craft   couthë devisë (1100)

Bot if my gaynlychë God   such gref to me woldë (Pa 83)

Then eft lastës hit likkës,   He loses hit illë (1141)

A reliable rule of thumb is that all instances of -e that effectively turn monosyllables into disyllables must be sounded (as in the lines above). After an unstressed syllable, however, -e, final or in -es or -ed terminations, was often unsounded:

Then confourme thee to Cryst,   and thee clene makë,

That ever is polysed as playn   as the perle selven. (1067–8)

The required long dip (of two or more syllables) will normally indicate where such an -e needs to be pronounced, as with relykës (< OF reliques) or solemnë (< OF solempne) in the following lines:

And robbëd the rèlygioun   of relykës allë (1156)

He sat on Salomones solie   on solemnë wysë (1171)

‘The Alliterative Revival’ is a phrase often used to categorize the group of narrative poems – which includes Cleanness, Patience and Sir Gawain – written from about the mid-fourteenth century onwards in the alliterative metre that is otherwise virtually unrecorded after Layamon’s Brut (composed around 1200 during the transition from Old to Middle English). But there are problems with the term ‘revival’. It can scarcely be the case that these poets returned to a mode for which practically their only models were Anglo-Saxon and very early Middle English. Quite apart from the absence of any evidence as to significant manuscript circulation of those earlier poems, the changes in English were sufficient to have rendered that corpus far from easily accessible to fourteenth-century readers. The similarities with Old English verse (the four-stressed aa/ax metre and the many shared items of ‘poetic’ vocabulary) are unlikely, on the other hand, to have been the result of an alliterative metre reinvented without reference to its forerunners. There was obviously some kind of continuing tradition, and what was ‘revived’ in the mid-fourteenth century was probably not the metre itself, but the use of it (now that English – as opposed to French or Latin – had re-established itself as a medium suitable for serious verse) for major and lengthy poems. The alliterative poets were thus doing something new in their refurbishment of the old, and should not be regarded as ‘dated’ in their choice of metre. The poet of Cleanness was certainly familiar with the French models for rhyming verse, as his extended reference to Le Roman de la rose at 1057–64 indicates; and Pearl and the bob-and-wheel lines in Sir Gawain show that he could handle iambic and rhyming verse very effectively if he chose. The alliterative metre was not selected, therefore, for want of acquaintance or skill with the more ‘modern’ (though by this time somewhat predictable) metrical forms. The poet was plainly an enthusiast for the new/old alliterative mode, for he shows a wide familiarity with its collocational patterns and stylistic techniques – and he handles the line to produce many striking and very varied effects.

EDITORIAL PRACTICE

In line with the conventions of this series, the orthography of the manuscript (and of texts cited in the endnotes) has been partially modernized and regularized. The obsolete characters thorn and yogh (þ and ȝ) have been replaced by their modern equivalents: þ by th, and ȝ (used in the manuscript to represent a number of different sounds) by, variously, gh, w, s and y, and where yogh represents a vowel, it has been omitted without replacement: thus, for example, þe becomes the, and riȝt, boȝed, fautleȝ, tryȝe [try] become right, bowed, fautles and trye. The idiosyncratic -tȝ in words such as hatȝ and watȝ has been replaced with -s. Where w represents a vowel (e.g. remwe, grwe, knwe), it has been replaced by u or by whatever more familiar spelling of the word in question is elsewhere used by the scribe. In medieval spelling i and j were interchangeable; we have used whichever symbol accords with modern practice: for instance, iuggement becomes juggement. The letters u and v were earlier distinguished by position in the word: v was typically used initially (vnto [unto], vs [us], etc), and u medially (preued [proved], saue [save], etc); we have transcribed these letters in accord with the modern convention, using u to represent a vowel sound, and v a consonant.

We have also attempted to simplify the various spellings and forms found for any given word, following J. A. Burrow’s practice in his Penguin edition of Sir Gawain. Spelling was unstandardized in this period, and the scribe often uses a number of different spellings and/or dialectal or other forms for the same word. We have retained variants that reflect distinct derivation, e.g. from Old English and Old Norse, and so ‘though’ figures as both thogh and thagh. But otherwise we have regularized, for instance, man/mon to man, cast-/kest- to cast-, myght-/moght- to myght-, are/ar/arn(e) to are, were/wer/weren/wern to were, hold-/hald- to hold- (despite the fact that the o form figures only once in the manuscript), saw/sey(en)/sye to saw(en), sprang/sprong/spronge to sprang. We have, that is, generally regularized the variants to whichever scribal form is least likely to confuse a modern English reader, even if the scribe uses that form only once, except where the variant is one required by the metre (thus sprenged is retained at the end of the alliterative line, where it supplies the line-final unstressed syllable that sprang would not supply: see p. xxiv). We have sometimes taken advantage of manuscript variation to make distinctions it does not consistently make: for instance, we have transcribed Gawan when the name alliterates on g, but Gawayn when iambic beat or rhyme falls on its second syllable. Only in exceptional cases, however, have we regularized to spellings that are not found in the manuscript.[48]

Final -e is retained where it is metrically significant (see pp. xxvi–xxvii) and where it has a grammatical significance that the scribe’s practice elsewhere suggests was usually observed. But a grammatically correct -e missing from the manuscript spelling has not been supplied where it is not metrically needed. We have not, however, hesitated to supply a grammatically and/or historically justifiable final -e where metre does require it. For, accurate and careful though the scribe generally seems to have been, he was not a poet, and often omitted a final -e that had in his dialect no necessity other than metrical. For instance, myght [could] is frequently found at line ending, but not (except in the case of the MS forms moghtes, second-person singular, at C 655 and moghten, plural, at G 1953) written with the inflectional ending which conservative grammar would give it and which the line-ending position (where an unstressed syllable was a rule of the alliterative metre) requires. We have in all relevant cases transcribed the word myghte. Metrically irregular lines which are not susceptible of regularization by restoration of inflection or other obvious and minor emendation, and which make sense as they stand, have not been emended. But we have, as indicated, regularly restored such inflectional endings as the poet himself demonstrably used for the following metrical purposes (see p. xxi): to ensure iambic metre, or, in the alliterative line (on the rules of which see the previous section), to ensure the line-ending unstressed syllable, the single long dip required in the b-verse and (though here we have been less rigorous, since the rules are not yet finally established) the long dip usually required between the two alliterative stresses in the a-verse.[49] On some occasions, as in the case of myghte, we have emended to a form of the word which does not actually occur in the manuscript. And line-ending -e as it occurs in the manuscript has in some rare cases been retained even where it does not appear to be justified (e.g. Gode at C 1730), since the form may have some as yet unknown explanation.

Emendations made metri causa do not always figure in the list of editorial emendations provided at pp. 794–800. Any word supplied or deleted is, of course, included, as are even trivial occasions where the scribe has (e.g. by omitting a letter or a contraction sign) produced an implausible form of the word we assume was intended. But in a normalized-spelling edition, it would not make sense to include all changes to manuscript forms of words. For example, in the last thirteen stanzas of Sir Gawain, modifications of the following kind do not figure in the list of emendations: to ensure the unstressed syllable required at line ending, historically justified final -e has been supplied – in, for instance, faste (2215: adverb), lyghte (2220: infinitive), paye (2247: < OF paie), herte (2277, 2438: < OE heorte), myghte (2291: past tense), raghte (2297: past tense), maye (2298: subjunctive), nekke (2310: OE hnecca), hente (2323: past participle), tryste (2325: plural imperative), nighte (2347: dative), alse (2360, 2513: a variant form of als used at line ending; cf. manuscript alce at 2492), laste (2497: weak and dative adjective as noun); line-ending bihous (2296) has been emended to behoves. In most cases these emendations are supported by forms and spellings found elsewhere in the manuscript. Final -e has similarly been supplied in order to ensure the b-verse has its required long dip (of two or more syllables) in the following cases: greme (2251: regularized to the form with etymological -e that the poet always elsewhere uses), starte (2286: infinitive), comlyche (2411: weak adjective), gostlyche (2461: adverb), wyste (2490: past-tense plural); and manuscript venquyst (2482) has, for the same reason, been emended to the recorded alternative form venquished.

Punctuation, capitalization and word division follow modern practice. (There is no punctuation in the manuscript and few capitals, while word division is not always clearly marked, as spacing is irregular.) Patience and Cleanness are not always printed in the quatrains in which they are here presented, but there can be no doubt that the poet, like a number of others in the alliterative tradition,[50] wrote in four-line units.[51] The scribe marks the beginning of every fifth line with two strokes in the left margin, and, since this is the same mark he uses in Pearl and Sir Gawain to signal what rhyme proves to be clearly a new stanza, we have interpreted the symbol as similarly marking off sections of text in the unrhymed poems. The sense, moreover, characteristically falls into four-line units. The quatrains in which we have laid out these poems thus clarify sense and structure, and provide the same welcome subdivision in long poems as do the rhyme-based stanzas in Pearl and Sir Gawain.

The on-page footglosses are fuller for Sir Gawain than for the other poems, as we have assumed this will usually be the first of the four poems (and sometimes the only one) which students will read and that, since it is deservedly famous, it may be read by non-specialists who have had no experience or training in Middle English. We have therefore, for Sir Gawain, footglossed anything that might cause difficulty to a modern reader. With the other poems, the footglosses are more sparing and used chiefly as a supplement to the Glossary – to elucidate features of syntax and construction that might remain obscure even when individual words are understood or recognized, or to alert readers to ‘false friends’ (words for which the Glossary might not be consulted because they look familiar, but which have a sense different from that which they bear in Modern English). Otherwise, it is, for the texts other than Sir Gawain, generally only very unusual words that are footglossed, or those which occur only once in the manuscript, while for lexical elucidation in other cases the student is referred to the Glossary.

The endnotes are devoted to more detailed discussion of cruces, vocabulary, style, interpretation, sources, analogues, and to other matters not necessary to the explication of the immediate sense and significance, which is given in the footglosses (and in the Glossary). The Bibliography contains all material we have anywhere cited. Each of the poems is preceded by a Foreword which discusses genre, form and literary art and which ends with a few suggestions for further reading.

Where the poet is versifying the Bible, the equivalent passages from the Authorized Version are quoted serially at intervals – in bold italics, so that those wishing to compare the poem with its source can easily pick them out; where relevant, words or phrases from the Latin Vulgate the poet himself would have been following are also given (in italics); a slash divides AV from Vulgate chapter or verse numbering where the two diverge and where it is thought desirable to cite both. Since the endnotes are full and frequent, cross-references to them are only in exceptional cases included in the footglosses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the British Library for giving us permission to edit the poems from the original manuscript. We also wish to extend our very particular thanks to our colleagues John Burrow and Jill Mann and to our copy-editor Kate Parker. All three went through the entire work with minute attention to detail, gave generously of their time and interest, and left the edition much improved by their efforts and advice.

PEARL

Foreword

Pearl is a narrative told in the first person, and its narrative form is that of the dream-vision: a mourner falls into unconsciousness over the grave of what is gradually revealed to have been a daughter who died before reaching the age of two; he is transported in sleep to a jewelled landscape in which he encounters this lost ‘pearl’, now one of the élite 144,000 virgin brides of the Lamb (as described in Revelation 14); in the ensuing dialogue, she attempts to replace his mortal with her own divine perspective, and finally leads him to a literal sight of the heavenly Jerusalem (described, following Revelation 21–2, as constructed of jewels); when he attempts on impulse to join her in this place by crossing the river which divides him from it and her, and which he has been told he cannot cross, his dream is broken, and he wakes, regretting his disobedience and resigning himself to the will of God.

The poem is remarkable for both the richness and sophistication with which it develops the central image of the jewel and for its complementary beauty and intricacy of form. Form and imagery are in fact closely interrelated. The image of the ‘perfect pearl’ is used to concatenate and mark the gradual progression from the human and earthly to the divine and glorious: it is, successively, what the child was to her father (1ff); the sign of her spiritual purity as a bride of the Lamb (271ff); the ‘pearl of great price’ (Matthew 13:45–6) which forms a scriptural figure of salvation and heaven (729ff); and the pearl of which each of the ‘pearly gates’ of the New Jerusalem consists (1037). Concatenation is also a feature of the verse form: one word is repeated from the last line of each stanza in the first line of the following one, this word remaining the same over five stanzas (in one case, six). This device divides the poem into different sections (marked by Roman numerals in the edited text) and confers upon each a lexical ‘key-note’ in the form of the refrain word. The ‘endeles rounde’ (738) perfection of the pearl (in all its varied significances) also finds a formal equivalent: the poem is itself circular, repeating in its last line the key words of its opening line, and its 101 stanzas (the same number as those of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight) also suggest a numerical equivalent to a cycle completed and rejoining its beginning at a higher level of significance. To create 101 stanzas in twenty sections, the poet had to make one section longer than the others: section XV, appropriately marked by the refrain words ‘never the lesse’, has six stanzas rather than the normal five. The numerical figure associated with perfection in the poem (144,000) is yet a further feature of its content that is imitated in its form – which is organized according to twelve-line stanza units and completes itself at line 1212 with an artistic appropriateness that must have been primarily for the poet’s private aesthetic satisfaction, since no indication of line numbering is given for verse in this, or any English, manuscript. In these ways, the poem pays tribute to the different kinds of perfection of the pearl and its ‘preciousness’ (to her father while she lived, and, in spiritual terms, to the God who glorified her and to whom she now belongs).

The poet imposes on himself a demanding stanzaic rhyme-scheme (ababababbcbc), [1] with the added restriction that the c rhymes must be continued (because of the use of a refrain word) throughout each five-stanza group. In addition, most lines have alliteration, although Pearl (unlike the other poems in the manuscript) is not written in the alliterative metre as such (on which, see pp. xxi–xxvii). Quite apart from having a different rhythm (iambic), Pearl is not a poem in which alliteration is a condition of metricality, and it is not therefore found in each and every line; but it does make a significant contribution to the rich music of the verse of this poem.

These heavy formal constraints are met in large part by an exceptionally wide and varied vocabulary, a lexical competence both flexible and inventive. An English word-stock (inherited from Anglo-Saxon), incorporating a number of dialect words peculiar to the region of the North-West Midlands, is supplemented by words of Scandinavian etymology (more numerous in areas, such as this one, which had been part of the Danelaw than in, for instance, Chaucer’s London dialect); by a number of French-derived words which extensive exposure to spoken and written French put within the poet’s competence and understanding; by learned and technical words, both from the speculative and from the mechanical arts; and by the group of somewhat unusual and archaic words that formed a stock of ‘poetic diction’ traditionally used in verse written in the alliterative metre which the poet himself elsewhere uses (in Cleanness, Patience and Sir Gawain).[2] An ear which had registered variant pronunciations current slightly outside his own dialect area (especially rather further north), and variant stress-positioning in French loan words (e.g. dàmysel, damysèlle), occasionally helps him to fulfilment of rhyming, metrical or alliterative patterns – practices to which other poets of this period occasionally had recourse.

The metre is iambic tetrameter: that is, four stressed syllables each separated from the next by an unstressed syllable. Clashing stress – i.e. two stressed syllables in succession without intervening unstressed syllable(s) – is markedly avoided. Since English is stress-timed, not syllable-timed, the pulse of the line is not affected by the occasional inclusion of more than one unstressed syllable in the ‘dips’ between the stresses. This in fact happens less often than might appear, since elision of vowels in unstressed syllables (especially before liquid or nasal consonants) is common in spoken English and is certainly to be assumed at a number of points in this text, as in the following lines, where the italicized vowels should not be sounded: ‘Of còuntes [countess], dàmysel, pàr ma fày’ (489); ‘Blòd and wàter of bròdë wòunde’ (650); ‘The apòstel in Apòkalypse in tème con tàke’ (944).[3] The specific types of metrical variation in the first foot which iambic poets generally allowed themselves also occur: headless lines (lacking the initial unstressed syllable), as at 650 (quoted in the preceding sentence); lines beginning with a double dip (two unstressed syllables), as at 697 and 700; and lines with a reversed first foot (/x rather than x/), as at 542 and 543. One may also find the so-called ‘epic caesura’, where the third foot is reversed to place two stresses in a row in the middle of the line, with a slight pause for a syntactic break, grandeur and emphasis being often the result: ‘That àll the lògh [body of water] lèmëd of lìght’ (119).

The iambics will be for the most part perceptible to non-specialists, who will need to make only minor adjustments. Stress patterns in French-derived words, for instance, may be different in Middle English, as in ‘And burnist white was her vestùre’ (220). Final -e and final inflections such as -ed and -es should be pronounced where the metre requires: e.g. ‘Her kyrtel of self sutë schene’ (203); ‘The day was all apassëd date’ (540). Words such as ‘never’, ‘ever’, ‘heaven’ are often monosyllabic, as in ‘That ever I herde of speche spent’ (1132). Sithen [since], other [or] and also had monosyllabic counterparts for which there existed the variant forms syn, or and als, and these words we have therefore transcribed in whatever form the metre requires. We have also sometimes, metri causa, supplied a (historically justifiable) final -e, which does occur in the manuscript spelling on some occasion(s), though not at that point.[4]

To those unfamiliar with Middle English pronunciation, the rhymes may occasionally appear imperfect. But in fact the poet does not ‘cheat’ or resort to pararhyme or half rhyme, though sound changes that have occurred since his time may sometimes obscure the truth of his rhymes to modern English ears – to which, however, the poem’s musicality should not in any other way prove inaudible.

MODE AND MEANING

The poem begins in allegorical mode: the little girl’s death and burial are referred to consistently as the dropping of a pearl into the ground in an arbour (9–10, 30, 41; cf. 245, 1172–3). This serves to transform the distressing facts into images of courtly beauty, both jewels and arbours connoting wealth and gentle status. To the girl are attributed aspects of typical courtly beauty; and to the mourning father the suffering typical of the lover languishing from the ‘wound’ received from Love’s arrow (11). In fact, a first-time reader might well at this point assume the death to be that of a mistress.

Loose parallels for the mode and subject can be found in Chaucer’s Book of the Duchess, which also, in dream-vision form, addresses the grief of one who mourns a feminine paragon, termed ‘White’ in punning reference to her Christian name of Blanche (Duchess of Lancaster and wife to John of Gaunt). ‘Pearl’ might similarly be an allusion to the girl’s real name, Margaret or Margery (a Middle English synonym for ‘pearl’ used in the poem at 199, 206 and 1037). The two poems are obviously working in a broadly similar context of thought and literary form. The tropes introduced in the opening lines of Pearl (the arbour, the pearl, the courtly lady) are more than passing allusions. The narrator of the first section speaks as an expert jeweller when he says that he has weighed his pearl’s value against that of other pearls; the verbs he uses in this context (‘proved’, 4, ‘jugged’, 7, ‘set’, 8) could all be used in a professional sense of the assay and evaluation of minerals. Later in the poem (252–300) he calls himself a ‘jeweller’ and is addressed as such by his beatified daughter. Perhaps this term had some literal applicability to the mourner in his waking life. The attention given in the four poems to the products of goldsmithery (rings, girdles, gold, silver, enamel, jewels, ecclesiastical and domestic vessels) certainly does seem more recurrent and less local than the informed and appreciative interest which this poet brings generally to all varieties of skill and craft.

The setting of the arbour gives way in the second section to the dazzling surroundings of heaven. Both landscapes are exercises in the description of the locus amoenus [fair place].[5] By his juxtaposition of two variations on the topos, the Pearl poet produces a contrast between the earthly place and its divine counterpart. In the mortal arbour, the emphasis falls on one element only of the locus amoenus: the sweet-scented flowers, which the poem associates with the cycles of growth and decay that characterize plant (and indeed all) life on earth (25–44). The heavenly locus, on the other hand, constructed of jewels, is associated with the brilliance and permanence of gems. And some features of the standard locus amoenus (such as birdsong and running water) are reserved for this second place, making it appear also as more refreshing and alive than the overpoweringly scented turf (57–8) of the first. The running water is given a climactic position in the description of the splendid landscape. It appears to be no sweetly purling brook such as is the fiumicello with its ‘tiny ripples’ that runs through Dante’s paradise (Purgatorio XXVIII.26, 35): it evidently has a swift current – cf. ‘scheres’ (107), ‘Swangeande’, ‘swepe’ (111), ‘raykande aryght’ (112) – and its vigorous motion complements the invigorating effect the place has on the dreamer, who is prompted to motion by it (101–2, 125–6). It provides, moreover, a climactic intensification of the bejewelled radiance of the landscape, a radiance now multiplied and refracted into a veritable ‘pool of light’ which elicits a cry of wonder from the dreamer as the refrain (on ‘adubbement’ [ornamentation]) is pushed into exclamatory mode: ‘Lord, dere was hit adubbement!’ (108).

A comparison with the locus amoenus in Dunbar’s The Golden Targe reveals what is traditional and what new in Pearl. The Targe shares with Pearl ‘resplendent’ rocks (44; cf. Pe 159), water whose stones appear as ‘clere as stern in frosty nycht’ (36; cf. Pe 115–16), and which intensifies the dazzle (caused in Dunbar by the early-morning sun) so that ‘all the lake as lamp did leme of licht’ (30; cf. Pe 119). In Dunbar, too, a river provides the climax to a scene of what, in a series of similes and metaphors, are represented as ‘crystal’ beams, ‘beryl’ light, ‘pearly’ drops, ‘ruby’ dawn, ‘sapphire’ sky, etc. But, of course, in Pearl the jewels are real rather than figurative, and crystallize into actuality what would otherwise be the merely rhetorical: ‘crystal clyffes’ (74), tree-trunks ‘as blue as ble of ynde’ (76), leaves ‘as burnist sylver’ (77), riverbanks ‘As fildore fyne’ (106) could all be read as tropes of the kind found in The Golden Targe (and might well at first be read in exactly that way); but they demand to be taken more seriously when interspersed with unambiguous declarations that certain natural features were actually pearls or beryl (81–2, 110). Especially relevant are lines 113–18:

In the founs there stonden stones stepe,

As glent thurgh glasse that glowed and glyght,

As stremande sternes, when strothe-men slepe,

Staren in welkyn in wynter night;

For uch a pobbel in pole there pyght

Was emerad, saffer, or gemme gent …

We learn first that stones [pebbles] stonden [are situated or set] in the river-bed, appeared stepe [bright],[6] and glittered like light refracted by glass and (as in Dunbar) like stars in a winter (i.e. frosty and clear) night. But the ensuing explanation (‘For’: 117) that each stone really was a precious gem gives added point to the similes and reveals a further potential meaning in the words stonden and stones in 113: ‘shine, stand out’[7] and ‘precious stones’.

The main function of this landscape is to provide a setting in which the dreamer’s lost ‘pearl’ may most appropriately appear, and the third and fourth sections are about his vision of her. She materializes out of that part of the bejewelled landscape that is beyond the river and tormentingly perceptible but inaccessible to the dreamer (158–61). Shining white (163) in her resplendent setting (159), the colour of her array immediately suggests the lost ‘pearl’, as does the tense understatement (164) that she was not a complete stranger to the dreamer. The exact nature of the bereavement, however, is acknowledged to the audience (and even perhaps to the first-person speaker himself) only indirectly and gradually. The fact that his initial recognition leaves room for increasing degrees of certitude (167–8) is not immediately puzzling, given the factors of distance and dazzle; but those factors are complicated by a further ‘obscuring’ effect, for her form and appearance have undergone some transformation not at once as obvious to the audience, who do not yet know that the loved one the dreamer mourns was in fact a small child. Significantly, his first references to her in his vision are (161–2) as ‘faunt’[8] and ‘mayden’ (which in Middle English had the additional sense of ‘young girl, daughter’). The following portrait, however, suggests an older girl than the two-year-old she is later revealed to have been when she died, an imposing lady who both is and is not the dreamer’s lost infant. She is possessed of adult poise and magnificence, the vocabulary of high courtliness, here and throughout, providing a means of expressing in human terms the girl’s present divine and spiritual refinement and grace: she is of ‘mensk’ (of status and presence deserving of ‘honour’) and ‘debonere’ (162), possessed of a social graciousness that, in this poem, is the sign of heavenly grace. But that same high courtliness assimilates the identifying nouns faunt and mayden into some loose courtly sense of ‘young lady’ and obscures from the reader their specificity, in which lies both the past and present real essence of this pearl: for it is later made clear that it is actually the very fact of her death as a faunt and mayden that gives her the presently visible form and elegance bestowed on her innocence by God (765–8).

The girl’s actions and the dramatic effects these have on the dreamer also suggest the close emotional bond that once connected the two (and in the case of the dreamer still does). The girl’s few collected and understatedly decorous gestures – raising her face (177), rising (191), walking a few steps down to the opposite bank (230) and delivering a composed curtsy and formal greeting (236–8) – are all performed against a tumult of strong emotional and sense impressions on the part of the beholder, through whose report they appear to occur in almost painfully slow motion (the four brief and sequential movements occupying almost 100 lines). The use of the historic present for the most unremarkable of her actions (‘veres’, 177, ‘Rises’, 191) contributes to the sense of suspense that arises from the contrast between the girl’s undramatic actions and the dramatic responses of the dreamer:

The more I frayste her fayre face,

Her figure fyne when I had fonte,

Such gladande glory con to me glace

As little before thereto was wont.

To calle her lyst con me enchace,

Bot baysment gave myn hert a brunt:

I saw her in so strange a place,

Such a bur myght make myn herte blunt. (169–76)

The inventiveness of the poet’s vocabulary is beautifully illustrated here: gladande glory is a concentrated expression that illustrates the important role played by present participles in the poet’s style and involves a novel extension to the sense of the word glory which is without parallel, but whose emotional logic is instantly comprehensible. By contrast with the French-derived glory, Germanic vocabulary is, here as elsewhere (cf. 17–18), the medium for forceful images expressing strong emotions (brunt, bur, blunt; cf. stonge at 179). The verb enchace (173) in the sense of ‘chase, pursue’ was a French-derived hunting term that occurs only here used metaphorically with an abstract noun (lyst) as subject. The conflicting emotions of 173–4 – where the mourner is both ‘chased’ by desire towards, and sent reeling back by shock from, the same quarter – also involve innovative applications of the words brunt [assault], bur [impetus, blow] and blunt [dull, stupid] to metaphorical (emotional) ‘shock’.

As she gets nearer to the dreamer, the girl comes into ever-clearer focus, and the generalizing phrase ‘figure fyne’ (170) leads into a highly detailed description of her pearl-studded clothing. Her curtsy at last confirms (though only indirectly) the ‘daughter’ indicated by the dreamer’s statement that she was someone ‘nearer’ to him than aunt or niece (233): obeisance and bearing the head were gestures of the deference due to parents from well-bred children (though these courtesies of ‘wommon lore’ (236) are ones the girl could scarcely have been old enough to acquire while alive). But when the headwear politely removed by a child is a crowne, the implied inferiority is obviously under some question. The oddly incongruous gesture marks both what the relationship had been and the radically changed terms on which the two now meet.

This change becomes very apparent in the dialogue that follows. The girl’s very first words are a correction (her father has not chosen his words, his ‘tale’, quite accurately: 257) – a self-possessedly polite correction it would be unnerving to hear from one’s own child, and one which redefines the daughterly deference (the Sir and ye) with which it is delivered. The father’s apology only lands him in further trouble, for, as she points out, he has in the course of apologizing committed, through lack of consideration, three solecisms in one breath. Her logical and systematic exposition of these (‘Thou says … An other … The thrid’: 295–9) has an almost comically schoolmistressy air which underlines the complete reversal of roles, between instructor and instructed, that has occurred.

This reversal is made palpable in many different ways, including forms of address and pronouns. Middle English had two singular pronouns of address: the informal thou and the formal ye (based on the plural form of address). The pearl maiden first addresses her father as ye (257), but soon moves to the unceremonious thou (264). When she does use ye, it is not the respectful singular, but an ordinary plural, as in ‘ye men’ (290), a dismissive usage that places him in a group she does not belong to. In these and other instances, ye stands in implicit or explicit (see 857–9) contrast with we, a pronoun the girl uses to group herself always with the blessed, never with her father. The father, on the other hand, uses the first-person plural pronoun to speak of the two of them;[9] and he responds to his daughter’s rebukes like a humbled child, his respectful ye and your (371, 369) complementing the parental downward thou which his daughter uses when addressing herself to the wayward distress of her father. Only when his own human sense of justice is offended (by the queen’s status she claims for herself in heaven) does he briefly revert to the thou forms (473–4), which reflect his instinct to bring his daughter down from what he feels is a ‘height’ she has no claim to.

Reversal of the roles of child and parent is also apparent in the expression of emotional needs. In railing against his misfortune, the father understandably looks for her sympathy, but the girl, now integrated into a heavenly bliss which leaves her untouched and untouchable by human pain, has none to give, seeing in his distress only perverse blindness to the essential sources of true bliss and pointless opposition to the will of God. For the poem is not entirely consolatory in effect or purpose. Christian faith in an afterlife does not make bereavement any easier to bear, for it becomes clear to the father that, if his daughter lives on, she lives on in a form so different as to make no less absolute the loss of the child he knew, who really is gone for ever, and with whom he can never re-establish the relationship he once had. In fact, when he learns from his daughter that he cannot cross the river to join her, he delivers, against the felt hollowness of the Christian promise, its failure to reunite the bereaved with his lost one, a passionate outcry which is utterly persuasive in emotional terms and gains much of its plangent force from the connections and oppositions that the alliteration points up:

‘Demes thou me,’ quoth I, ‘my swete,

To doel agayn, then I dewyne.

Now have I founde that I forlete,

Schal I eft forgo hit ere ever I fyne?

Why schal I hit both mysse and mete?

My precious perle dos me gret pine:

What serves tresor bot gares men grete,

When he hit schal eft with tenes tyne? …

When I am partles of perles myne,

Bot durande doel what may men deme?’ (325–36)

The assurance of a life preserved and transformed beyond death which has been staged and visualized by the poem is found here simply to condemn or deme the mourner to the same doel [grief] in which to dewyne [languish] again (cf. 51, 11) that it had seemed to rescue him from (280). The alliterative antitheses founde/forlete (327) and mysse/mete (329) focus on the cruel delusion felt in an assurance which appears to restore what it in fact continues to withhold; and other-worldly life and language seem merely to mock the jeweller with the literal truth they turn out not to have: he is not to recover the pearl of whose preservation he had apparently been assured (257–8), and a jeweller dispossessed of jewels – partles of perles (335) – is necessarily condemned to durande doel (336).

The girl does have some limited success in getting her father to see things differently. Her arguments in section VI – for acceptance of what cannot be changed, and trust in the promises and mercy of the Christian God – were both available to the mourner prior to his vision, and he was not unaware of them, but had confessed himself unable to heed them (52–6); they now, however, gain a personalized force, when imagined as uttered in vigorous scorn by his own daughter, that makes them less unacceptable to a deeply personal loss than the depersonalized and depersonalizing wisdom of general dicta. Not wanting to embitter his relations with his child, the father attempts in section VII to re-establish communications on a more harmonious footing by changing to a non-contentious subject: he feels it would be some consolation to be able to picture how her days are spent (390–92) and reminds himself that his chief concern as a parent is (or ought to be), not for proximity, but for the welfare and honour of his child, which, in the present case, patently provide him with something to be happy about (393–6). But, far from establishing a safe common ground, her replies to these questions give rise to further contention and misunderstanding. Thus he finds it hard to accept her claim that she has become a ‘queen’ in heaven. The mourner had himself attributed ‘peerlessness’ and synglerty to his lost pearl (4, 8); but he had been speaking of her irreplaceability in a personal relationship and is surprised to find that God had found her singular enough to raise her to what he takes to be the singular honour of the status of ‘queen’ of heaven – especially since that was, by convention, the title of the Virgin Mary, whose claims to synglerty (429), based as they were on giving birth to God and being simultaneously virgin and mother, seemed to rest so completely secure from challenge. But his mortal terms of reference turn out to be inappropriate to heaven, where personal relationships and synglerty have no place: his daughter is now part of a corporate body (457–68), and shares in a common sovereign status (447–8).

The dreamer’s failure to understand the logic of heaven, here and at other points, is designed, not to expose his ‘errors’ (as is sometimes assumed), but to create of heaven a realm that really does prove inaccessible to human reason. In earthly terms, the title of king or queen, and the distinction it implies, become meaningless if the title is common to all. It also makes no sense in the same earthly terms that the girl should have gained the reward of queenship after only two years of service in the world, for that would mean that length of distinguished service cannot be recognized by any correlative distinction of status – which is plainly unfair.

To ‘solve’ this particular problem, the daughter retells the Parable of the Vineyard (Matthew 20) in sections IX and X. But the moral of this story (in which those who labour for less time both get paid the same wage as those who worked longer and get paid first) is notoriously difficult, and the expression which has passed into common speech (translated at 554), ‘(those who) have borne the heat and burden of the day’, is normally used in such a way as to suggest an instinctive sympathy for the position taken up by the complainants. The poet’s own realistically visualized version does nothing to make the story’s logic more palatable, and the overall effect of the parable in Pearl is therefore to sharpen the sense of some basic incompatibility between human and divine criteria of justice and reason.

The girl, after a long response to her father’s continued objections, introduces more briefly another parable from St Matthew’s Gospel: that of the ‘pearl of great price’ (Matthew 13:45–6), where the pearl for which the merchant sold all his goods represents salvation in heaven. The accretive complexity of the image of the pearl becomes particularly evident at this point. The girl, herself identified as a peerless and spotless pearl, cites a biblical parable in which the pearl stands for the ‘reme [realm] of hevens clere’ (735), pointing simultaneously to the particularly fine pearl she wears on her breast. The figurative and literal ‘pearls’ seem in fact to merge in spite of logical distinctions:

‘This makeles perle, that boght is dere,

The jueler gave for all his god,

Is like the reme of hevens clere

(So sayd the Fader of folde and flod):

For hit is wemles, clene and clere,

And endeles rounde, and blythe of mod,

And commune to all that ryghtwys were.

Lo, even in-myddes my brest hit stode …’ (733–40)

The biblical simile is here developed by the addition of other attributes (besides value) shared by a matchless pearl and the kingdom of heaven. Perfection, flawlessness and circular infinitude (737–8) are logical enough; but blythe of mod and common possession by all who lived worthy lives (738–9) are not attributes of a pearl, and become so only when the pearl set on the girl’s breast is pointed to (740) as if it were the makeles perle of the parable (733) given visible reality: it now clearly betokens the bliss inherited by her purity of heart or mod and is thus (as is later confirmed: 1103–4) the commune possession of all the brides of the Lamb.

These lines herald a change. The father has now not spoken for some 150 lines (601–744). His earlier ‘argument’ with her – characterized on both sides by the exchange of textual authorities (especially scriptural ones) – is reminiscent of Middle English debate verse (which was in turn modelled on academic debate). However, the debate turns out to have been, not the horizontal one found in such poems as The Owl and the Nightingale or Winner and Waster (where there is no a priori inequality in the credibility of the disputants), but a vertical one, in which one of the disputants (here, the erring mortal) is, however persuasive, by definition wrong if he contradicts the other (a beatified soul with perfect understanding: 859). When the father speaks again at 745 it is not to press or even to concede the point he had been arguing, but to ask a wondering question that suggests he is in some sense seeing the girl for the first time, and which introduces a new mood (of marvelling, rather than resistant, incomprehension). This in turn prompts a modulation in mode – as the dialogue is resumed, not now in the mode of a debate, but in the question-and-answer form (found in such medieval texts as Sidrak and Bokkus or Dives and Pauper) that implies the unquestioned acceptance of the authority of the answerer. The question he puts to her (who is the author of your visible form and being?) is something a father could in no other context ask of his daughter, and here measures the distance he now senses between himself and his erstwhile child.

The change in his understanding is further suggested in other ways. For example, on its first appearance, the account had introduced the crown as something which the girl, no less than all the saved, enjoyed (447–8); but as the poem starts to direct itself towards the apocalyptic vision of heaven, she is introduced as one of the 144,000 brides of the Lamb in Revelation (785–7) and the crown as one of the attributes (virginity: 767) that qualifies her for inclusion in that divine élite. The two exegeses are not, strictly, absolutely compatible with one another, belonging rather to phases of the developing awareness of the child’s status in heaven: the first establishes her as qualifying for no less than others, despite her youth; the second corresponds to her emphasis (625–72) on the in fact superior claims of innocence over righteousness.

But the now humbler father finds her status as ‘bride’ of the Christ-Lamb no less problematic than he had her rank as ‘queen’ of heaven. The more corporate and less individual emphasis in the divine realm again proves resistant to mortal comprehension (for in the known world a crown and a wife imply singularity and superiority or selection over others). He therefore assumes she has ‘beaten’ a number of rival claimants: ‘stout and stif’, she managed to ‘depres’ [subjugate, overthrow, drive out] them all (777–80). The limitations and yet the inevitability of a ‘human’ perspective on the divine are implicitly recognized in the touching comedy of these words which cast the girl as a kind of Brünnhilde – whose triumphs are recorded with an audible touch of paternal pride by a father obviously not displeased at the idea of his little girl having sturdily elbowed aside all the opposition to land herself the most eligible bachelor in the cosmos. His desire to know why the Lamb chose her is one of a series of questions in which interest in the deity and the afterlife can emerge only out of an interest more specifically directed towards the lost daughter: what life does she lead (390–92), who made her and who is her consort (747, 771), what accommodation is provided for her and her fellow brides (925ff)? And his request to be shown the heavenly city of the New Jerusalem is one with a desire to view ‘thy blysful bour’ (964).

This last request to his daughter, that she might lead him to see her dwelling place, is thus like and unlike his first (389–92): it marks the culmination of a process in which his interest in the girl’s present state has led him from her to her wider context, to the Lamb (769ff) and now to heaven itself. For the girl partially succeeds in imposing the perspective she urges on her father: his interest should be, not in her, but in the glorious whole of which she is a part, a whole in which individual identity is subsumed. In a mark of that success, the poem now replays itself to produce a parallel to the earlier climactic vision of her, across the river that divides the mortal from the immortal realm, in a second vision, in which she is replaced by the heavenly city, which now is similarly seen across the river, having replaced her as the focus of the dreamer’s present preoccupation. The text now returns to the mode of visual description in a way that makes the culmination of this dream-vision a fusion of actual with intellectual ‘seeing’: in his closing vision of the heavenly city, which draws heavily and self-consciously on the Book of Revelation, the father sees his pearl, in an affirmation of the corporate nature of identity in heaven, in a group of 144,000 brides, all in identical attire, and all having eyes only for the Lamb.

But this God-centred perspective, the heavenly ‘view’ of things in which all individuality is sunk in a corporate charity (cf. 445–68), he can enjoy only briefly: with the unerring eye of a parent, he picks out from the crowd of queens ‘my little quene’ (1147) – and this fatally alters the perspective from divine to mortal and precipitates the end of the dream. The dreamer remains to the end a human, subject to mortal priorities and impulses, and – compared with St John’s Apocalypse – his vision of heaven is accordingly limited. His sight is a qualified knowledge only, not a complete ‘Revelation’: it is only sight, not entrance (966–8), sight that is brief and aborted, and, as the girl warns him, from the ‘outside’ only, not from the inside (969–70). Awareness of the strictly limited comprehension of the next world that can be gained by a mortal understanding is therefore a feature of the text that persists even into its culminating ‘vision’.

Recommended Further Reading: Kean 1967; Bishop 1968; Spearing 1970; Mann 1983; Aers 1993; Putter 1996: 147–98; Newman 2007; Gaylord 2009

Pearl

I

Perle, plesaunt to princes pay

To clanly close in gold so clere –

Out of orient, I hardily say,

Ne proved I never her precious pere:

5  So rounde, so reken in uch aray,

So smal, so smothe her sides were,

Wheresoever I jugged gemmes gay,

I set her sengeley in synglere.

Alas, I lest her in an erbere:

10  Thurgh gresse to grounde hit fro me yot.

I dewyne, fordolked of luf-daungere

Of that privy perle withouten spot.

Syn in that spot hit fro me sprang,

Oft have I wayted, wyschande that wele,

15  That wont was while devoyde my wrang

And heven my hap and all my hele;

That dos bot thrych my herte thrange,

My brest in bale bot bolne and bele.

Yet thoght me never so swete a sange

20  As stille stounde let to me stele;

For sothe there fleten to me fele,

To thenk her colour so clad in clot:

O moul, thou marres a mery juele,

My privy perle withouten spot.

25  That spot of spyces mot nedes sprede

There such rychess to rot is runne.

Blomes blayke and blue and rede

There schines ful schyr agayns the sunne.

Flour and fruyt may not be fede

30  There hit doun drof in moldes dunne.

For uch gresse mot grow of graynes dede:

No whete were elles to wones wonne.

Of good uch good is aye begonne:

So semely a sede myght fayle not

35  That spryngande spyces up ne sponne

Of that precious perle withouten spot.

To that spot that I in speche expoun

I entred in that erber grene,

In Augoste in a high sesoun,

40  When corne is corven with crokes kene.

On huyle there perle hit trendeled doun

Schadowed these wortes ful schyre and schene,

Gilofre, gyngure and gromyloun,

And pyonys powdered aye bitwene.

45  If hit was semely on to sene,

A fayr reflayr yet fro hit flot.

There wones that worthly, I wot and wene,

My precious perle withouten spot.

Before that spot my hande I spenned,

50  For care ful colde that to me caght.

A devely doel in my hert denned:

Thagh resoun set myselven saght,

I playned my perle that there was penned

With fyrce skylles that faste faght;

55  Thagh kynde of Cryst me comfort kenned,

My wreched wille in wo aye wraghte.

I fel upon that floury flaght,

Such odour to my hernes schot;

I slode upon a slepyng slaght

60  On that precious perle withouten spot.

II

Fro spot my spyryt there sprang in space;

My body on balke there bode in sweven;

My gost is gon in Godes grace

In aventure there mervayles meven.

65  I ne wyst in this world where that hit was,

Bot I knew me cast there clyffes cleven.

Toward a forest I bere the face,

Where rokkes rich were to discreven:

The lyght of hem myght no man leven,

70  The glemande glory that of hem glent;

For were never webbes that wyes weven

Of half so dere adubbement.

Dubbed were all tho downes sides

With crystal clyffes so clere of kynde;

75  Holtwodes bryght aboute hem bides,

Of boles as blue as ble of ynde;

As burnist sylver the lef on slydes,

That thik con trylle on uch a tynde:

When glem of glodes agayns hem glydes,

80  With schymeryng schene ful schrylle thay schinde;

The gravayl that on grounde con grynde

Were precious perles of orient: –

The sunnebemes bot blo and blynde

In respecte of that adubbement.

85  The adubbement of tho downes dere

Garten my gost all gref forgete.

So fresche flavores of fruytes were,

As fode hit con me fayr refete.

Fowles there flowen in frith in fere,

90  Of flaumbande hues, both smal and grete;

Bot sytole stryng and gyternere

Her reken mirthe myght not retrete;

For when those bryddes her wynges bete,

Thay songen with a swete asent;

95  So gracious gle couth no man gete

As here and see her adubbement.

So all was dubbed on dere assyse

That frith there fortune forth me feres:

The derthe thereof for to devise

100  Nis no wye worthy that tonge beres.

I welke aye forth in wely wyse:

No bonk so big that did me deres;

The ferre in the frith, the fayrer con rise

The playn, the plonttes, the spyce, the peres, –

105  And rawes and randes and rich reveres,

As fildore fyne her bonkes brent.

I wan to a water by schore that scheres:

Lord, dere was hit adubbement!

The dubbement of tho derworth depe

110  Were bonkes bene of beryl bryght.

Swangeande swete the water con swepe,

With a rounande rurd raykande aryght.

In the founs there stonden stones stepe,

As glent thurgh glasse that glowed and glyght,

115  As stremande sternes, when strothe-men slepe,

Staren in welkyn in wynter night;

For uch a pobbel in pole there pyght

Was emerad, saffer, or gemme gent,

That all the logh lemed of lyght,

120  So dere was hit adubbement.

III

The dubbement dere of down and dales,

Of wode and water and wlonke playnes,

Bylde in me blisse, abated my bales,

Fordidden my stresse, disstryed my paynes.

125  Doun after a strem that dryly hales

I bowed in blisse, bredful my braynes.

The ferre I folwed those floty vales,

The more strenthe of joy myn herte straynes, –

As Fortune fares thereas ho fraynes:

130  Whether solace ho sende or elles sore,

The wye to whom her wille ho waynes

Hittes to have aye more and more.

More of wele was in that wyse

Then I couth telle, thagh I tom hade:

135  For urthely hert myght not suffyse

To the tenthe dole of tho gladnes glade.

Forthy I thoght that Paradise

Was there over gayn tho bonkes brade.

I hoped the water were a devise

140  Bitwene mirthes by meres made;

Biyonde that brok, by slente or slade,

I hoped that mote merked wore;

Bot the water was depe – I durst not wade,

And ever me longed aye more and more.

145  More and more, and yet wel mare,

Me lyst to see the brok biyonde:

For if hit was fayr there I con fare,

Wel loveloker was the ferre londe.

Aboute me con I stote and stare;

150  To fynde a forde fast con I fonde;

Bot wothes mo, iwysse, there ware,

The ferre I stalked by the stronde;

And ever me thoght I schuld not wonde

For wo, there weles so wynne wore.

155  Then newe note me com on honde

That meved my mynde aye more and more.

More mervayl con my dome adaunt:

I saw biyonde that mery mere

A crystal clyff ful relusaunt;

160  Mony ryal ray con fro hit rere;

At the fote thereof there sat a faunt,

A mayden of mensk, ful debonere;

Blysnande white was her bleaunt.

I knew her wel: I had sene her ere.

165  As glysnande gold that man con schere,

So schon that schene anunder schore.

On lenghe I loked to her there:

The lenger, I knew her more and more.

The more I frayste her fayre face,

170  Her figure fyne when I had fonte,

Such gladande glory con to me glace

As little before thereto was wont.

To calle her lyst con me enchace,

Bot baysment gave myn hert a brunt:

175  I saw her in so strange a place,

Such a bur myght make myn herte blunt.

Then veres ho up her fayre frount,

Her visage white as playn yvore.

That stonge myn hert ful stray atount, –

180  And ever the lenger, the more and more.

IV

More then me lyst my drede aros;

I stod ful stille and durst not calle;

With iyen open and mouth ful clos,

I stod as hende as hawk in halle;

185  I hoped that gostly was that purpose;

I dred anende what schuld befalle,

Lest ho me eschaped that I there chos

Ere I at steven her myght stalle.

That gracious gay withouten galle,

190  So smothe, so smal, so seme slyght,

Rises up in her aray ryalle,

A precious pece in perles pyght.

Perles pyght of ryal pris

There myght man by grace have sene,

195  When that fresch as flor-de-lys

Doun the bonk con bow bydene:

All blysnande white was her beau mys,

Open at sides, and bounden bene

With the meriest margarys at my devise

200  That ever I saw yet with myn ene,

With lappes large, I wot and wene,

Dubbed with double perle and dight,

Her kyrtel of self sute schene

With precious perles all umbe pyght.

205  A pyght coroune yet wer that gyrle

Of margarys and non other stone,

High pinacled of clere white perle,

With flurted flowres perfet upon;

To hed had ho non other werle.

210  Her lere hit leke, all her umbe-gon,

Her semblaunt sad for duk or erle,

Her ble more blaght then whalles bon.

As schorne gold schyr her fax then schon,

On schulderes that lay unlapped lyght;

215  Her depe colour yet wonted non

Of precious perles in porfyl pyght.

Pyght was poyned and uch a hemme –

At hande, at sides, at overture –

With white perle and non other gemme,

220  And burnist white was her vesture.

Bot a wonder perle withouten wemme

In-myddes her brest was set so sure;

A manes dome myght dryly demme

Ere mynde myght malt in hit mesure;

225  I hope no tonge myght endure

No saverly sawe say of that sight,

So was hit clene and clere and pure,

That precious perle, there hit was pyght.

Pyght in perle, that precious pece

230  On wyther-half water com doun the schore;

No gladder gome hethen into Grece

Then I, when ho on brymme wore;

Ho was me nerre then aunt or nece:

My joy forthy was much the more.

235  Ho profered me speche, that special spyce,

Enclynande lowe in wommon lore:

Caght of her crowne of grete tresore,

And haylsed me with a lote lyght.

Wel was me that ever I was bore

240  To sware that swete in perles pyght!

V

‘O, perle,’ quoth I, ‘in perles pyght,

Art thou my perle that I have playned,

Regretted by myn one on nighte?

Much longing have I for thee layned

245  Syn into gresse thou me aglyghte.

Pensyf, payred, I am forpayned, –

And thou in a lif of lykyng lyght,

In Paradise erde, of stryf unstrayned.

What wyrde has hider my juel wayned

250  And done me in this doel and gret daunger?

Fro we in twynne were towen and twayned,

I have ben a joyles jueler.’

That juel then, in gemmes gent,

Vered up her vys with iyen gray,

255  Set on her crowne of perle orient,

And soberly after then con ho say:

‘Sir, ye haf your tale mysetente,

To say your perle is all away,

That is in cofer so comly clente

260  As in this garden gracious gay,

Hereinne to leng for ever and play,

There mysse ne mournyng com never here:

Here were a forser for thee, in fay,

If thou were a gentyl jueler.

265  ‘Bot, jueler gent, if thou schal lose

Thy joy for a gemme that thee was lef,

Me think thee put in a mad purpose

And busyes thee aboute a resoun bref:

For that thou lestes was bot a rose,

270  That flowred and fayled as kynde hit gef.

Now, thurgh kynde of the kyst that hit con close,

To a perle of pris hit is put in pref, –

And thou has called thy wyrde a thef

That oght of noght has made thee cler;

275  Thou blames the bote of thy meschef:

Thou art no kynde jueler.’

A juel to me then was this gest,

And jueles were her gentyl sawes.

‘Iwysse,’ quoth I, ‘my blysful best,

280  My gret distresse thou all to-drawes.

To be excused I make requeste:

I trowed my perle done out of dawes;

Now have I founde hit, I schal ma fest,

And wone with hit in schyr wodschawes,

285  And love my Lord and all his lawes,

That has me broght this blisse ner.

Now were I at yow biyonde these wawes,

I were a joyful jueler.’

‘Jueler,’ sayd that gemme clene,

290  ‘Why bourde ye men? So mad ye be.

Thre wordes has thou spoken at ene:

Unavysed for sothe were all thre;

Thou ne wost in world what one dos mene;

Thy word before thy wyt con fle.

295  Thou says thou trowes me in this dene,

Bicause thou may with iyen me see;

An other, thou says in this countre

Thyself schal wone with me right here;

The thrid, to passe this water fre, –

300  That may no joyful jueler.

VI

‘I holde that jueler little to prayse

That loues wel that he saw with iye,

And much to blame and uncortayse

That leves our Lord wolde make a lye,

305  That lelly hyght your lif to rayse,

Thagh fortune did your flesch to die.

Ye setten His wordes ful westernays

That loues no thing bot ye hit sye.

And that is a poynt of sorquydrye,

310  That uch good man may evel biseme,

To leve no tale be true to trye

Bot that his one skylle may deme.

‘Deme now thyself if thou con dayle

As man to God wordes schuld heve:

315  Thou says thou schal wone in this bayle:

Me think thee burde first ask leve,

And yet of graunt thou myghtes fayle.

Thou wilnes over this water to weve:

Ere most thou kever to other counsayle;

320  Thy corse in clot mot colder keve;

For hit was forgart at Paradise greve;

Our yore fader hit con mysse-yeme.

Thurgh drury deth bos uch man dreve

Ere over this dam him Dryhtyn deme.’

325  ‘Demes thou me,’ quoth I, ‘my swete,

To doel agayn, then I dewyne.

Now have I founde that I forlete,

Schal I eft forgo hit ere ever I fyne?

Why schal I hit both mysse and mete?

330  My precious perle dos me gret pine:

What serves tresor bot gares men grete,

When he hit schal eft with tenes tyne?

Now rech I never for to declyne,

Ne how fer of folde that man me fleme:

335  When I am partles of perles myne,

Bot durande doel what may men deme?’

‘Thou demes noght bot doel-distresse,’

Then sayd that wyght. ‘Why dos thou so?

For dyn of doel of lures lesse,

340  Oft mony man forgos the mo.

Thee oghte better thyselven blesse,

And love aye God in wele and wo,

For anger gaynes thee not a cresse.

Who nedes schal thole, be not so thro.

345  For thogh thou daunce as any do,

Braundysch and bray thy brathes breme,

When thou no ferre may, to ne fro,

Thou most abide that He schal deme.

‘Deme Dryhtyn, ever Him adyte, –

350  Of the way a fote ne wil He wrythe;

Thy mendes mountes not a myte,

Thagh thou for sorw be never blythe.

Stynt of thy strot and fyne to flyte,

And sech His blythe ful swyft and swythe, –

355  Thy prayer may His pyty bite,

That mercy schal her craftes kythe;

His comfort may thy langour lythe,

And thy lures of lyghtly leme.

For, marre or madde, mourne and mythe,

360  All lys in Him to dight and deme.’

VII

Then demed I to that damyselle:

‘Ne worthe no wrath unto my Lorde,

If rapely I rave, spornande in spelle:

My hert was all with mysse remorde,

365  As wallande water gos out of welle.

I do me aye in His myserecorde.

Rebuke me never with wordes felle,

Thagh I forloyne, my dere endorde,

Bot kythes me kyndly your coumforde,

370  Pitously thenkande upon this:

Of care and me ye made acorde,

That ere was grounde of all my blisse.

‘My blisse, my bale, ye haf ben bothe,

Bot much the bigger yet was my mone:

375  Fro thou was wroken fro uch a wothe,

I wyst never where my perle was gon;

Now I hit see, now lethes my lothe.

And when we departed, we were at one;

God forbede we be now wrothe,

380  We meten so selden by stok or stone.

Thagh cortaysly ye carpe con,

I am bot mul, and maneres mysse:

Bot Crystes mercy, and Mary and John,

These are the grounde of all my blisse.

385  ‘In blisse I see thee blythely blent,

And I a man all mornyf mate:

Ye take thereon ful little tente,

Thagh I hent ofte harmes hate.

Bot now I am here in your present,

390  I wolde beseche, withoute debate,

Ye wolde me say, in sobre asent,

What lif ye leden, erly and late;

For I am ful fayn that your astate

Is worthen to worschip and wele, iwysse:

395  Of all my joy the highe gate,

It is in grounde of all my blisse.’

‘Now blisse, burn, mot thee bityde,’

Then sayd that lufsum of lyth and lere,

‘And welcom here to walk and bide,

400  For now thy speche is to me dere.

Maysterful mod and high pryde,

I hete thee, are heterly hated here;

My Lord ne loves not for to chyde,

For meke are all that wones Him nere;

405  And when in His place thou schal apere,

Be depe devout in hole mekenisse.

My Lord the Lamb loves aye such chere,

That is the grounde of all my blisse.

‘A blysful lif thou says I lede:

410  Thou woldes know thereof the stage.

Thou wost wel, when thy perle con schede,

I was ful yong and tender of age;

Bot my Lord the Lamb, thurgh His godhede,

He toke myself to His maryage,

415  Corounde me quene in blisse to brede,

In lenghe of dayes that ever schal wage,

And sesed in all His heritage

His lef is. I am holly His:

His prese, His pris, and His parage

420  Is rote and grounde of all my blisse.’

VIII

‘Blysful,’ quoth I, ‘may this be true?

Displeses not if I speke errour.

Art thou the quene of hevens blue

That all this world schal do honour?

425  We leven on Mary, that grace of grewe,

That bere a barn of vyrgyn flour;

The crowne fro her who myght remue,

Bot ho her passed in sum favour?

Now, for synglerty of her dousour,

430  We calle her Fenyx of Arraby,

That freles flewe of her Fasor,

Like to the quene of courtaysye.’

‘Cortays quene,’ then sayd that gay,

Knelande to grounde, folde up her face,

435  ‘Makeles moder and merriest may,

Blessed begynner of uch a grace!’

Then ros ho up and con restay,

And speke me toward in that space:

‘Sir, fele here porchases and fonges pray,

440  Bot supplantores none within this place:

That emperise all hevens has,

And erthe and helle, in her bayly;

Of heritage yet none wil ho chace,

For ho is quene of courtaysye.

445  ‘The court of the kyndom of God alyve

Has a property in hitself beyng:

Alle that may therein aryve

Of all the reme is quene or kyng,

And never other yet schal depryve,

450  Bot uchone fayn of otheres hafyng,

And wolde her crownes were worth tho fyve,

If possyble were her mendyng.

Bot my lady, of whom Jesu con spryng,

Ho holdes the empire over us ful high,

455  And that displeses none of our gyng,

For ho is quene of courtaysye.

‘Of courtaysye, as says Saynt Poule,

All are we membres of Jesu Cryst:

As hed and arme and legg and naule

460  Temen to his body ful true and tryste,

Right so is uch a Krystyin saule

A longande lym to the Mayster of myste.

Then loke what hate or any gawle

Is tached or tyed thy lymmes bytwyste:

465  Thy hed has nauther greme ne gryste,

On arme or finger thagh thou bere bye:

So fare we all with luf and lyst

To kyng and quene, by courtaysye.’

‘Courtaysye,’ quoth I, ‘I leve,

470  And charyte gret be yow among;

Bot, my speche that yow ne greve,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Thyself in heven over high thou heve,

To make thee quene that was so yong.

475  What more honour myght he acheve

That had endured in worlde strong,

And lyved in penaunce his lyves long,

With bodyly bale him blisse to bye?

What more worschip myght he fonge

480  Then corounde be kyng by courtaysye?

IX

‘That courtaysye is to fre of dede,

If hit be soth that thou cones say.

Thou lyved not two yere in our thede;

Thou couthes never God nauther plese ne pray,

485  Ne never nauther Pater ne Crede:

And quene made on the firste day! –

I may not trow, so God me spede,

That God wolde wrythe so wrong away.

Of countes, damysel, par ma fay,

490  Were fayr in heven to holde astate,

Or elles a lady of lesse array; –

Bot a quene! Hit is to dere a date.’

‘There is no date of His godness,’

Then sayd to me that worthy wyght,

495  ‘For all is trauthe that He con dresse,

And He may do no thing bot right.

As Mathew meles in your Messe,

In sothfol Gospel of God Almyght,

In sample He con ful graythly gesse,

500  And lyknes hit to heven lyght:

“My regne,” He says, “is like on hyght

To a lord that had a vyne, I wate”;

Of tyme of yere the terme was tyght:

To labor vyne was dere the date.

505  ‘That date of yere wel knowe these hyne.

The lord ful erly up he ros

To hyre werkmen to his vyne,

And fyndes there summe to his purpose.

Into acorde thay con declyne

510  For a peny on a day, and forth thay gos,

Wrythen and worken and don gret pine,

Kerven and caggen and man hit clos.

Aboute under, the lord to marked tos,

And ydel men stande he fyndes thereat.

515  “Why stand ye ydel?” he sayd to those,

“Ne knowe ye of this day no date?”

‘ “Ere date of day hider are we wonne,”

So was all samen her answar soght,

“We haf standen here syn ros the sunne,

520  And no man biddes us do right noght.”

“Gos into my vyne, dos that ye conne,”

So sayd the lord, and made hit toght:

“What resounable hyre by night be runne

I yow pay, in dede and thoght.”

525  Thay went into the vyne and wroght. –

And all day the lord thus yede his gate,

And new men to his vyne he broght,

Wel negh while day was passed date.

‘At the date of day of evensong,

530  On houre before the sunne go doun,

He saw there ydel men ful strong,

And sayd to hem with sobre soun,

“Why stand ye ydel this dayes long?”

Thay sayden her hyre was nowhere boun.

535  “Gos to my vyne, yemen yong,

And workes and dos that that ye moun.”

Sone the world becom wel broun;

The sunne was doun and hit wex late.

To take her hyre he made sumoun:

540  The day was all apassed date.

X

‘The date of the day the lord con know;

Called to the reve: “Lede, pay the meyny:

Gif hem the hyre that I hem owe;

And ferre, that non me may reprene,

545  Set hem all upon a rowe,

And gif uchone inlyche a peny;

Begyn at the last that standes lowe,

Til to the first that thou atteny.”

And then the first begonne to pleny,

550  And sayden that thay had travayled sore:

“These bot on houre hem con streny;

Us think us oghe to take more.

‘ “More haf we served, us think so,

That suffred haf the dayes hete,

555  Then these that wroght not houres two, –

And thou dos hem us to counterfete.”

Then sayd the lord to one of tho:

“Frende, no waning I wil thee yete;

Take that is thyn owne and go.

560  And I hyred thee for a peny agrete,

Why begynnes thou now to threte?

Was not a peny thy covenaunt thore?

Ferre then covenaunt is not to plete:

Why schalt thou then aske more?

565  ‘ “More, whether louyly is me my gift,

To do with myne whatso me likes?

Or elles thyn iye to luther is lyfte

For I am good and non byswykes?”

“Thus schal I,” quoth Cryst, “hit skyfte:

570  The last schal be the first that strikes,

And the first the last, be he never so swyft;

For many ben called, thagh few be mykes.”

Thus pore men her part aye pikes,

Thogh thay com late and little wore;

575  And thagh her sweng with little atslykes,

The mercy of God is much the more.

‘More have I of joy and blisse hereinne,

Of ladyschyp gret and lyves blom,

Then all the wyes in the world myght wynne,

580  By the way of right to aske dome.

Whether wel negh now I con begynne –

In eventide into the vyne I com –

First of my hyre my lord con mynne:

I was payed anon of all and sum;

585  Yet other there were that toke more tom,

That swange and swat for longe yore,

That yet of hyre no thing thay nome,

Peraunter noght schal to-yere more.’

Then more I meled, and sayd apert:

590  ‘Me think thy tale unresounable.

Godes right is redy and evermore rert,

Or Holy Writ is bot a fable:

In Sauter is sayd a verce overte,

That spekes a poynt determynable:

595  “Thou quytes uchone as his desert,

Thou High-Kyng aye pertermynable.”

Now he that stod the long day stable,

And thou to payment com him before,

Then the lesse in werk to take more able,

600  And ever the lenger the lesse, the more.’

XI

‘Of more and lesse in Godes ryche,’

That gentyl sayd, ‘lys no joparde:

For there is uch man payed inlyche,

Whether little or much be his rewarde.

605  For the gentyl cheftayn is no chyche,

Whether-so-ever He dele, nesch or hard:

He laves His giftes as water of diche,

Or gotes of golf that never charde.

His fraunchis is large that ever dard

610  To Him that mas in synne rescowe.

No blisse bes fro hem reparde,

For the grace of God is gret inow.

‘Bot now thou motes, me for to mate,

That I my peny have wrong tan here:

615  Thou says that I, that com to late,

Am not worthy so gret lowere.

Where wystes thou ever any burn abate,

Ever so holy in his prayere,

That he ne forfeted, by sum kyn gate,

620  The mede sumtyme of hevens clere?

And aye the ofter, the alder thay were,

Thay laften right and wroghten woghe.

Mercy and grace moste hem then stere,

For the grace of God is gret inogh.

625  ‘But inogh of grace has innocent:

As sone as thay are born, by line

In the water of baptem thay dyssente.

Then are thay broght into the vyne;

Anon the day, with derk endent,

630  The night of deth dos to enclyne;

That wroght never wrong ere then thay went,

The gentyl Lord then payes His hyne.

Thay diden His hest: thay were thereinne;

Why schuld He not her labour alow,

635  Yis, and pay hem at the firste fyne?

For the grace of God is gret inow.

‘Inow is knowen that mankynde grete

First was wroght to blisse parfyt;

Our forme fader hit con forfete,

640  Thurgh an apple that he upon con bite;

All were we dampned for that mete

To die in doel, out of delit,

And sithen wende to helle hete,

Thereinne to wone withoute respite.

645  Bot thereon com a bote as tite:

Rich blod ran on rode so rogh,

And wynne water then at that plyt:

The grace of God wex gret inogh.

‘Inogh there wex, out of that welle,

650  Blod and water of brode wounde;

The blod us boght fro bale of helle,

And delyvered us of the deth secounde;

The water is baptem, the soth to telle,

That folwed the glayve so grymly grounde,

655  That wasches away the gyltes felle

That Adam with in deth us drownde.

Now is there noght in the worlde rounde

Bitwene us and blisse bot that He withdrow

And that is restored in sely stounde;

660  And the grace of God is gret inow.

XII

‘Grace inow the man may have

That synnes then new, if him repente;

Bot with sorw and syt he mot hit crave

And bide the payne thereto is bent.

665  Bot resoun of right that con not rave

Saves evermore the innocent:

Hit is a dome that never God gave

That ever the gyltles schuld be schent.

The gyltyf may contryssyoun hent

670  And be thurgh mercy to grace thryght;

Bot he to gile that never glent

At innocence is saf and right.

‘Right thus I know wel in this case, –

Two men to save is good by skylle:

675  The ryghtwys man schal see His face;

The harmles hathel schal come Him tille.

The Sauter hit says thus in a pace:

“Lord, who schal clym thy highe hille,

Or rest withinne thy holy place?”

680  Himself to answare he is not dille:

“Hondelynges harme that did not ille,

That is of hert both clene and lyght,

There schal his stepe stable stille”: –

The innocent is aye saf by right.

685  ‘The ryghtwys man also sertayn,

Aproche he schal that proper pyle,

That takes not her lif in vayn,

Ne glaveres her nieghbor with no gile.

Of this ryghtwys saw Salomon playn

690  How koynt duitour he con aquyle:

By wayes ful streght ho con him strayn,

And schewed him the regne of God awhyle,

As who says, “Lo, yon lovely ile,

Thou may hit wynne, if thou be wight.”

695  Bot hardily, withoute peril,

The innocent is aye saf by right.

‘Anende ryghtwys men yet says a gome, –

David, in Sauter, if ever ye saw hit:

“Lord, thy servant draw never to dome,

700  For non lyvande to thee is justyfyet.”

Forthy to court when thou schal come,

There all our causes schal be triet,

Alegge the right, thou may be innome,

By this ilk speche I have aspyet.

705  Bot He on rode that blody dyet,

Delfully thurgh handes thryght,

Gyve thee to passe, when thou art triet,

By innocence, and not by right.

‘Ryghtwysly who con rede,

710  He loke on boke and be avayed

How Jesus Him welke in arethede

And burnes her barnes unto Him brayde:

For hap and hele that fro Him yede,

To touch her childer thay fayr Him prayed;

715  His dessyples with blame let be hem bede,

And with her resouns ful fele restayed;

Jesus then hem swetely sayd:

“Do way, let childer unto me tyght:

To such is hevenryche arayed.” –

720  The innocent is aye saf by right.

XIII

‘Jesus con calle to Him His mylde,

And sayd His ryche no wye myght wynne,

Bot he com thider right as a childe,

Or elles nevermore com therinne, –

725  Harmles, true and undefylde,

Withoute mote or mascle of sulpande synne;

When such there knoken on the bylde,

Tite schal hem men the yate unpynne,

There is the blisse that con not blynne,

730  That the jueler soght thurgh perre pres,

And sold all his god, both wolen and lynne,

To bye him a perle was mascelles.

‘This makeles perle, that boght is dere,

The jueler gave for all his god,

735  Is like the reme of hevens clere

(So sayd the Fader of folde and flod):

For hit is wemles, clene and clere,

And endeles rounde, and blythe of mod,

And commune to all that ryghtwys were.

740  Lo, even in-myddes my brest hit stode:

My Lord the Lamb, that sched His blod,

He pyght hit there, in token of pese.

I rede thee forsake the worlde wod,

And porchase thy perle mascelles.’

745  ‘O mascelles perle, in perles pure,

That beres,’ quoth I, ‘the perle of pris,

Who formed thee thy fayr figure?

That wroght thy wede, he was ful wyse.

Thy beaute com never of nature;

750  Pymalyon paynted never thy vys,

Ne Arystotel nauther by his lettrure

Of carped the kynde these propertes;

Thy colour passes the flor-de-lys,

Thyn angel-havyng so clene cortes.

755  Breve me, bryght, what kyn offys

Beres the perle so mascelles?’

‘My makeles Lamb, that all may bete,’

Quoth scho, ‘my dere destine,

Me chese to His make, althagh unmete

760  Sumtyme semed that assemble.

When I went fro your worlde wete,

He called me to His bonerte:

“Com hider to me, my lemman swete,

For mote ne spot is non in thee.”

765  He gave me myght and als beaute;

In His blod He wesch my wede on dese,

And corounde clene in vergynte,

And pyght me in perles mascelles.’

‘Why, mascelles bryd, that bryght con flambe,

770  That reiates has so rich and ryf,

What kyn thing may be that Lamb

That thee wolde wedde unto His wyf?

Over all other so high thou clambe,

To lede with Him so ladyly lif:

775  So many a comly anunder cambe

For Cryst haf lyved in much stryf, –

And thou con all tho dere out dryf,

And fro that maryage all other depres,

All only thyself, so stout and stif,

780  A makeles may and mascelles!’

XIV

‘Mascelles,’ quoth that mery quene,

‘Unblemyst I am, withouten blot,

And that may I with mensk menteene;

Bot “makeles” quene then sayd I not.

785  The Lambes wyves in blisse, we ben

A hundred and fourty-four thousande flot,

As in the Apokalypce hit is sene:

Saynt John hem saw all in a knot,

On the hille of Syon, that semely clot;

790  The apostel hem saw in gostly dreme,

Arayed to the weddyng in that hil-coppe,

The Newe City of Jerusalem.

‘Of Jerusalem I in speche spelle;

If thou wil know what kyn He be,

795  My Lamb, my Lord, my dere juelle,

My joy, my blisse, my lemman fre,

The prophete Ysaye of Him con melle,

Pitously, of His debonerte:

That glorious gyltles that man con quelle,

800  Withouten any sake of felonye,

“As a schep to the slaght there lad was He;

And as lamb that clypper in hande nem,

So closed He His mouth fro uch query”,

When Jues Him jugged in Jerusalem.

805  ‘In Jerusalem was my lemman slayn,

And rent on rode with boyes bolde:

All our bales to bere ful bayn,

He toke on Himself our cares colde;

With buffetes was His face flayn

810  That was so fayr on to beholde;

For synne He set Himself in vayn

That never had non Himself to wolde;

For us He let Him flye and folde,

And brede upon a bustwys bem;

815  As meke as lamb that no playnt tolde,

For us He swalt in Jerusalem.

‘Jerusalem, Jordan and Galalye,

Thereas baptysed the good Saynt John, –

His wordes acorded to Ysaye:

820  When Jesus con to-him-warde gon,

He sayd of Him this professye:

“Lo, Godes Lamb, as true as stone,

That dos away the synnes drye

That all this world has wroght upon”;

825  Himself ne wroghte never yet non;

Whether on Himself He con all clem.

His generacyoun who rekken con,

That dyed for us in Jerusalem?

‘In Jerusalem thus my lemman swete

830  Twyes for lamb was taken thare,

By true recorde of ayther prophete,

For mod so meke and all His fare.

The thrid tyme is thereto ful mete,

In Apokalypce wryten ful yare:

835  In-myddes the throne there sayntes sete,

The apostel John Him saw as bare,

Lesande the boke with leves sware,

There seven syngnettes were set in seme;

And at that sight uch douth con dare,

840  In helle, in erthe, and Jerusalem.

XV

‘This Jerusalem Lamb had never peche

Of other hue bot white jolyf

That mote ne mascle myght on streche,

For wolle white, so ronk and ryf;

845  Forthy uch saule that had never teche

Is to that Lamb a worthly wyf;

And thagh uch day a store He feche,

Among us comes nauther strot ne stryf,

Bot uchone enle we wolde were fyf:

850  The mo, the merier, so God me blesse;

In compayny gret, our luf con thryf,

In honour more, and never the lesse.

‘Lesse of blisse may non us bryng

That beren this perle upon our brest;

855  For thay of mote couthe never mynge

Of spotles perles that beren the crest.

Althagh our corses in clottes clynge,

And ye remen for routhe withouten rest,

We thurghoutly haf knawyng:

860  Of on deth ful our hope is drest;

The Lamb us glades, our care is kest,

He mirthes us all at uch a messe;

Uchones mirthe is brem and best,

And never ones honour yet never the lesse.

865  ‘Lest les thou leve my tale farande,

In Apokalypce is wryten in wro,

“I saw” (says John) “the Lamb Him stande

On the Mount of Syon, ful thryven and thro,

And with Him maydenes an hundred thousande,

870  And foure and forty thousand mo;

On all her forhedes wryten I fande

The Lambes name, His faderes also;

A hue from heven I herde tho,

Like flodes fele laden runnen on resse;

875  And as thunder throwes in torres blo,

That lote, I leve, was never the lesse.

‘ “Nautheles, thagh hit schowted scharp,

And ledden loud althagh hit were,

A note ful new I herde hem warp,

880  To lysten that was ful lovely dere:

As harpores harpen in her harpe,

That newe song thay song ful clere;

In sounande notes, a gentyl carp,

Ful fayr the modes thay fonge in fere.

885  Right before Godes chayere,

And the foure bestes that Him obes

And the alder men so sad of chere,

Her song thay songen never the lesse.

‘ “Nautheles non was never so quoynt,

890  For all the craftes that ever thay knewe,

That of that song myght syng a poynt,

Bot that meyny the Lamb that sue;

For thay are boght fro the erthe aloynte

As newe fruyt to God ful due,

895  And to the gentyl Lamb hit are anjoynt,

As like to Himself of lote and hue:

For never lesyng ne tale untrue

Ne touched her tong, for no distresse;

That moteles meyny may never remue

900  Fro that mascelles mayster, never the lesse.” ’

‘Never the lesse let be my thonk,’

Quoth I, ‘my perle, thagh I appose;

I schuld not tempte thy wyt so wlonk,

To Crystes chamber that art ichose:

905  I am bot mokke and mul amonk,

And thou so rich a reken rose,

And bides here by this blysful bonk,

There lyves lyst may never lose.

Now, hende that sympelnesse cones enclose,

910  I wolde thee aske a thing expresse,

And thagh I be bustwys as a blose,

Let my bone vayle never the lesse.

XVI

‘Never the lesse cler I yow bycalle,

If ye con see hit be to done,

915  As thou art glorious withouten galle,

Withnay thou never my ruful bone:

Haf ye no wones in castel-walle,

Ne maner there ye may mete and wone?

Thou telles me of Jerusalem the rich ryalle,

920  There David dere was dight on throne;

Bot by these holtes hit con not hone,

Bot in Judee hit is, that noble note.

As ye are mascelles under mone,

Your wones schuld be withouten mote.

925  ‘This moteles meyny thou cones of mele,

Of thousandes thryght so gret a route,

A gret city, for ye are fele,

Yow behoved have, withouten doute:

So comly a pakke of joly juele

930  Were evel done schuld lye thereoute.

And by these bonkes there I con gele,

I see no byggyng nowhere aboute.

I trow alone ye leng and loute

To loke on the glory of this gracious gote.

935  If thou has other byggynges stoute,

Now tech me to that mery mote.’

‘That mote thou menes in Judee londe,’

That special spyce then to me spakk,

‘That is the city that the Lamb con fonde

940  To suffer in sore for manes sake, –

The olde Jerusalem to understonde;

For there the olde gylt was done to slake.

Bot the newe, that lyght of Godes sonde,

The apostel in Apokalypse in teme con take;

945  The Lamb there, withouten spottes blake,

Has feryed thider His fayre flote;

And as His flok is withouten flake,

So is His mote withouten mote.

‘Of motes two to carpe clene, –

950  And “Jerusalem” hyght bothe, nautheles:

That nis to yow no more to mene

Bot “city of God” or “sight of pese”.

In that one, our pese was made at ene:

With payne to suffer, the Lamb hit chese.

955  In that other is noght bot pese to glene,

That aye schal last, withouten reles;

That is the burgh that we to pres,

Fro that our flesch be layd to rote,

There glory and blisse schal ever encres

960  To the meyny that is withouten mote.’

‘Moteles may, so meke and mylde,’

Then sayd I to that lovely flour,

‘Bryng me to that bygly bylde,

And let me see thy blysful bour.’

965  That schene sayd, ‘That God will schylde:

Thou may not enter withinne His tour.

Bot of the Lamb I have thee aquylde

For a sight thereof, thurgh gret favour.

Outwith to see that clene cloystor

970  Thou may, bot inwith not a fote:

To strech in the strete thou has no vygour,

Bot thou were clene, withouten mote.

XVII

‘If I this mote thee schal unhyde,

Bow up toward this bornes heved,

975  And I anende thee on this side

Schal sue, til thou to a hille be weved.’

Then wolde I no lenger bide,

Bot lurked by launces so lovely leved,

Til on a hille that I aspyed

980  And blusched on the burgh, as I forth dreved,

Biyonde the brok fro-me-warde keved,

That schyrer then sunne with schaftes schon.

In the Apokalypce is the fasoun preved,

As devises hit the apostel John.

985  As John the apostel hit saw with sight,

I saw that city of gret renoun:

Jerusalem so new and ryally dight,

As hit was lyght fro the heven adoun.

The burgh was all of brende gold bryght,

990  As glemande glasse burnist broun,

With gentyl gemmes anunder pyght:

With bantels twelve on basyng boun,

The fundementes twelve of rich tenoun;

Uch tabelment was a serlepes stone,

995  As derely devises this ilk toun

In Apokalypce the apostel John.

As John these stones in writ con nemme,

I knew the name after his tale.

Jasper hyght the firste gemme

1000  That I on the firste base con wale:

He glente grene in the lowest hemme;

Saffer helde the secounde stale;

The calsydoyne then withouten wemme

In the thridde table con purely pale;

1005  The emerad the furthe, so grene of scale,

The sardonyse the fyfthe stone;

The sexte the ruby he con hit wale,

In the Apokalypce the apostel John.

Yet joyned John the crysolyt,

1010  The seventhe gemme in fundament;

The aghtthe, the beryl, clere and white;

The topace twynne-hue, the nente endent;

The crysopase the tenth is tyt;

The jacynght, the enleventhe gent;

1015  The twelfthe, the gentylest in uch a plyt,

The amatyst purpre with ynde blent;

The wal above the bantels bent

Of jasper, as glasse that glysnande schon.

I knew hit by his devisement,

1020  In the Apokalypce, the apostel John.

As John devised, yet saw I thare:

These twelve degres were brod and stayre;

The city stod above ful sware,

As long as brod as high ful fayre,

1025  The stretes of gold as glasse all bare,

The wal of jasper that glent as glayre;

The wones withinne enurned ware

With all kynnes perre that myght repayre.

Then helde uch sware of this manayre

1030  Twelve forlonge space ere ever hit fon,

Of hyght, of brede, of lenthe to kayre,

For meten hit saw the apostel John.

XVIII

As John him wrytes, yet more I sye:

Uch pane of that place had thre yates;

1035  So twelve in poursent I con aspye,

The portales pyked of riche plates,

And uch a yate of a margerye,

A parfyt perle that never fates;

Uchone in scrypture a name con plye

1040  Of Israel barnes, folwande her dates, –

That is to say, as her byrth-whates:

The aldest aye first thereon was done.

Such lyght there lemed in all the strates,

Hem nedde nauther sunne ne mone.

1045  Of sunne ne mone had thay no nede:

The self God was her lambe lyght,

The Lamb her lantyrne, withouten drede;

Thurgh Him blysned the burgh all bryght.

Thurgh wowe and won my lokyng yede:

1050  For sotyle clere, noght lette no lyght;

The highe throne there myght ye hede,

With all the apparaylmente umbe-pyght

As John the apostel in termes tyght;

The high Godes self hit sat upon;

1055  A rever of the throne there ran out right,

Was bryghter then both the sunne and mone.

Sunne ne mone schon never so swete

As that foysoun flod out of that flet;

Swythe hit swange thurgh uch a strete,

1060  Withouten fylthe or galle or glet.

Kyrk thereinne was non yete,

Chapel ne temple that ever was set:

The Almyghty was her mynster mete,

The Lamb the sacrefyce there to refet.

1065  The yates stoken was never yet,

Bot evermore open at uch a lone;

There entres non to take reset

That beres any spot anunder mone.

The mone may thereof acroche no myght:

1070  To spotty ho is, of body to grym;

And also there nis never night:

What schuld the mone there compas clym

And to even with that worthly lyght

That schines upon the brokes brym?

1075  The planetes are in to pore a plyght,

And the selve sunne ful fer to dym.

Aboute that water are tres ful schym,

That twelve fruytes of lif con bere ful sone:

Twelve sythes on yere thay beren ful frym,

1080  And renowles new in uch a mone.

Anunder mone so gret mervayle

No fleschly hert ne myght endure

As when I blusched upon that bayle,

So ferly thereof was the fasure;

1085  I stod as stille as dased quayle

For ferly of that fresch figure,

That felde I nauther rest ne travayle,

So was I ravyste with glymme pure.

For I dar say, with concience sure,

1090  Had bodyly burn abiden that bone,

Thagh alle clerkes him had in cure,

His lif were lost anunder mone.

XIX

Right as the maynful mone con rise

Ere then the day-glem drive all doun,

1095  So sodenly on a wonder wyse

I was ware of a prosessyoun:

This noble city of rich enprise

Was sodenly ful, withoute sumoun,

Of such vergynes in the same gyse

1100  That was my blysful anunder crowne;

And corounde were all of the same fasoun,

Depaynt in perles and wedes white;

In uchones brest was bounden boun

The blysful perle, with gret delit.

1105  With gret delit thay glod in fere

On golden gates that glent as glasse;

Hundred thousandes I wot there were,

And all in sute her livres wasse;

Tor to telle the gladdest chere.

1110  The Lamb before con proudly passe,

With hornes seven of red gold clere;

As praysed perles His wedes wasse.

Toward the throne thay trone a tras;

Thagh thay were fele, no pres in plyt,

1115  Bot mylde as maydenes seme at Masse,

So drow thay forth with gret delit.

Delit that there His come encroched,

To much hit were of for to melle:

These alder men, when He aproched,

1120  Grovelyng to His fete thay felle;

Legiounes of angeles togeder voched

There cast ensens of swete smelle.

Then glory and gle was new abroched:

All songe to love that gay juelle;

1125  The steven myght strike thurgh the erthe to helle

That the Vertues of heven of joy endite;

To love the Lamb His meyny in melle

Iwysse I laght a gret delit.

Delit the Lamb for to devise,

1130  With much mervayl, in mynde went;

Best was He, blythest, and most to pryse,

That ever I herde of speche spent:

So worthly white were wedes His,

His lokes symple, Himself so gent.

1135  Bot a wounde ful wyde and wete con wyse

Anende His hert; thurgh hyde to-rent

Of His white side His blod out sprent.

‘Alas,’ thoght I, ‘who did that spyt?

Any brest for bale oghte have forbrent,

1140  Ere he thereto had had delit.’

The Lamb delit non lyst to wene:

Thagh He were hurt and wounde had,

In His semblaunt was never sene,

So were His glentes glorious glad.

1145  I loked among His meyny schene,

How thay with lif were laste and lade.

Then saw I there my little quene,

That I wende had standen by me in slade.

Lord, much of mirthe was that ho made

1150  Among her feres that was so white.

That sight me gart to thenk to wade,

For luf-longing, in gret delit.

XX

Delit me drof in iye and ere;

My manes mynde to maddyng malt:

1155  When I saw my frely, I wolde be there,

Biyonde the water thagh ho were walt;

I thoght that no thing myght me dere,

To fech me bur and take me halte,

And to start in the strem schuld non me stere

1160  To swymme the remnaunt, thagh I there swalte.

Bot of that mynt I was bitalt;

When I schuld start in the strem astray,

Out of that cast I was bycalt:

Hit was not at my princes pay.

1165  Hit payed Him not that I so flonc

Over mervelous meres, so mad arayed;

Of race thagh I were rasch and ronk,

Yet rapely therein I was restayed:

For right as I sparred unto the bonk,

1170  That brath out of my dreme me brayd.

Then wakened I in that erber wlonk:

My hede upon that huyle was layd

Thereas my perle to grounde strayd.

I raxled and fel in gret affray;

1175  And sykyng to myself I sayd,

‘Now all be to that princes pay.’

Me payed ful ille to be outfleme

So sodenly of that fayr regioun,

Fro all tho sightes so quik and queme;

1180  A longing hevy me strok in swone,

And rewfully then I con to reme:

‘O, perle,’ quoth I, ‘of rich renoun,

So was hit me dere that thou con deme

In this veray avysyoun!

1185  If hit be veray and soth sermoun

That thou so stykes in garlande gay,

So wel is me in this doel-doungoun

That thou art to that princes pay.’

To that princes pay had I aye bent,

1190  And yerned no more then was me given,

And holden me there in true entent,

As the perle me prayed that was so thryven,

As helde, drawen to Godes present,

To mo of His mysterys I had ben driven.

1195  Bot aye wolde man of hap more hent

Then myght by right upon hem clyven:

Therefore my joy was sone to-riven,

And I cast of kythes that lastes aye.

Lord, mad hit are that agayns thee stryven

1200  Or proferen thee oght agayns thy pay.

To pay the prince or sette saght,

Hit is ful ethe to the good Krystyin:

For I have founde Him, both day and naght,

A God, a lord, a frende ful fyne.

1205  Over this huyle this lote I laght,

For pyty of my perle enclyin;

And syn to God I hit bytaght,

In Crystes dere blessyng and myne,

That in the forme of bred and wyne

1210  The prest us schewes uch a day.

He gyve us to be His homly hyne,

And precious perles unto His pay. Amen. Amen.

CLEANNESS

Foreword

Both Cleanness and Patience are commonly referred to as ‘homiletic’ poems, because their structure is that of a sermon: a biblical text provides the announced ‘theme’, which is then illustrated by a narrative exemplum or (if more than one story is told) exempla. Chaucer’s Pardoner’s Tale is probably the best-known literary version of this homiletic procedure: the Pardoner’s ‘theme is alwey oon’ [theme is always the same] – to wit, Radix malorum est cupiditas [the love of money is the root of all evil], from 1 Timothy 6:10 (Canterbury Tales VI.333–4) – and he regularly reinforces it by ‘ensamples many oon’ [many exempla: 435]; his ‘tale’ is in fact one such typical sermon-with-exemplum, told to illustrate his homiletic tactics for screwing monetary offerings out of his congregation. In the case of Cleanness and Patience, the scriptural theme is from the Beatitudes (Matthew 5): ‘Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God’, cited at C 27–8, and ‘Blessed are they who suffer [patiuntur]’, cited at Pa 27–8. In both cases, the New Testament text is then illustrated in converse by Old Testament stories which furnish exempla of the unblessed fate met by the unclean or unpatient: the story of Jonah acts as the single exemplum in Patience; and, in Cleanness, the Flood, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the overthrow of Belshazzar function as three linked exempla declared at the conclusion to have ‘shown in a threefold manner’ (‘upon thrynne wyses … schewed’: 1805) the wrath visited upon the ‘unclean’.[1]

The negative implication of the Beatitude quoted in Cleanness is at once pointed out (the unclean will be excluded from God’s presence) and demonstrated by a rehearsal (33–176) of the New Testament parable of the wedding guest banished from the festivities because he is unsuitably dressed in soiled clothing (135–6) – the allegorical exemplum used by Christ Himself (Matthew 22:1–14) to stress the moral and spiritual fitness required for admittance to the heavenly feast of the hereafter. ‘Uncleanness’ (30, 168) bears, up to this point, a general metaphorical sense explicitly explained as ‘any kind of wrongdoing’ (169–92).

The three Old Testament exempla, however, demonstrate God’s aversion to ‘uncleanness’ in a narrower metaphorical sense of the term: the first two show the wholesale obliteration consequent upon ‘fylthe of the flesch’ (202, 547) – that is, sexual perversion; and the third the vengeance visited upon Belshazzar for his ‘defilement’ (1149–52, 1798) of the sacred vessels (by using them to get drunk) – that is, ‘pollution’ in the specific sense of desecration. The argument is not that these specific types of dirtiness are more damnable than other kinds of sinful ‘uncleanness’: as is clearly pointed out (177–92, 549–56), any dirty ‘specks’ or ‘spots’ of any sin will serve to exclude the bearer of them from the beatific vision. But other (and potentially graver) sins are punished by God with the calm deliberation characteristic of His deity: Lucifer and Adam were punished severely, but without perturbation of divine ‘mesure’ and ‘methe’ (215, 247). But in the case of ‘filth’ in its narrower (sexual) sense, those noble virtues (‘fre thewes’) are ‘forgotten’ (203) and God reacts ‘hastily’ and ‘hotly’ (200, 598–9), taking more terrible and immediate temporal action to remove the dirt from the face of His earth. Similarly, Belshazzar’s earthly punishment was greater (1149–56) than that of his father, whose chastisement for blasphemous pride is less violently total and final (1661–1708). Thus, while the ultimate spiritual penalty for all ‘uncleanness = sin’ is the same – that is, loss of the beatific vision – ‘uncleanness’ in these narrower figurative senses catches God on the raw, short-circuiting His usual temperate calm, in the same way as human beings react with instinctive revulsion (rather than rational consideration) to remove from their vicinity what is felt as ‘dirty’ (32, 597–600).

It will be apparent that, in the conduct of his argument, the poet is exploiting the polysemy of words associated with ‘cleanness’ and ‘dirt’.[2] The literal sense of such terms – appearing in the ‘fyled’ [defiled, dirtied] clothing of the wedding guest (136) and the ‘clene’ cloth spread by Abraham when he is host to God (634) – underpins larger and narrower extended applications of them: uncleanness as the wrong-doing still indicated by such expressions as ‘dirty work’; and uncleanness in the specific reference it can still have to the ‘dirt’ and ‘filth’ of pornography. The terminology can thus be used in the poem as a rhetorical concertina, closing down to the specific and stretching out to the general, so that (in the discursive links that provide the interpretative moral) the exempla can be pointed to as serving a double (and even contradictory) function: distinguishing sexual or sacrilegious filth as attracting a peculiar revulsion not elicited by other offences (as at 197–204, 577–80, 1143–56), yet simultaneously suggesting that such angry disgust essentializes the effect on a pure and clene God of all uncleanness in its larger sense of ‘sin’ (as at 545–52, 1805–8).

In the third exemplum, the word clene often figures in the aesthetic sense in which it was applied to the skills and products of arts and crafts to suggest elegance, precision and nice intricacy. The holy vessels are thus ‘corven ful clene’ and ‘clene wroght’ (1382, 1455; cf. 1287–8), the high art with which they are associated, in their bejewelled intricacy of design, serving to equate Belshazzar’s sacrilegiously ‘unclean’ defilement of them with vandalism, his want of awe for their sacred purity coming across as an aesthetic obtuseness to the art that had prompted his Gentile father, Nebuchadnezzar, to respect them and the God they served (1309–18). The conflation of spiritual with aesthetic sensibility colours the entire characterization of Belshazzar, who is presented (as he is not in the Vulgate) as loutish, gross and coarse. This characterization of the ‘unclean’ in fact runs throughout the poem, in which fitness or unfitness for courtly society acts, from the Parable of the Wedding Guest on, as a measure of ‘cleanness’ or ‘filth’. ‘Cleanness’, that is, is defined in courtly and aristocratic terms which are partly the result of connotations of clene which have no analogue in Modern English. The above-mentioned art and magnificence to which clene could refer are part of a larger semantic area of the word and its cognates, which had well-attested senses of ‘decent, becoming, fine, elegant, appropriately splendid or rich’[3] – that is, fit for cultivated contexts and company. The word could thus refer to social as well as to aesthetic good form, to decorum and elegance, as when the adverb ‘clanly’ is applied to the manner in which Daniel greets King Belshazzar (1621).

Clene was, in short, a protean word, and the poet has taken full advantage of its range of meanings to create lexical links between hygiene, moral probity and fidelity, spiritual sanctity, sexual mores, and social and aesthetic refinement. He has also used it to progress the argument, for progression in the argument there certainly is. The third part plays a bold and imaginative variation on the pattern and the logic established in the first two stories. As the ‘fylthe of the flesch’ (202) had been represented as, paradoxically, both representatively and especially dirty – typifying the staining or ‘spot’ of all sin (165–92, 549–56), but contrasted with the falls of Lucifer and Adam (197–252), who were punished with less rabidly violent revulsion – so the defilement of the vessels is given both a general applicability and a peculiar gravity as revealed in a punishment that was greater than that meted out to other offences. The general applicability comes in a preliminary allegorization of the soul reconciled to God as a vessel sanctified to His usage:[4] when cleansed through shrift, the soul becomes consecrated to God, so that relapse is equivalent to blasphemous defilement of church vessels (1129–52). In this way, the especial sense of shocking indecency aroused by sacrilege can be presented as a measure of the effect on God of all sin – though the especially awful nature of the particular kind of defilement at issue is again pointed to as something proved by the greater punishment it historically attracted, as revealed in the contrast between the fates of Belshazzar, who defiled the vessels, and of his father Nebuchadnezzar, who had seized them as booty when he sacked Jerusalem (1149–56).

This contrast is a more focused and pervasive one than were its counterparts earlier in the poem (the falls of Lucifer and Adam as contrasted with the subsequent cataclysmic punishments visited on sexual perversion). For it is here developed into a large and powerful character contrast between what the alliterative metre epitomizes as the ‘noble’ Nebuchadnezzar (1218, 1226, 1338, 1430) and the ‘bolde’ Belshazzar (1333, 1357, 1450, 1537, 1558, 1709, 1746), a contrast which has little basis in the Vulgate, or in medieval reception of the Vulgate, in which the two despots figure as fairly comparable foes of the early Church, as that was represented by the Jewish nation which they conquered and enslaved. These recurrent epithets come interestingly to typify the relationship between a source and a creative talent and the growth of a ‘new’ story out of an old: superficially unremarkable as very comparable epithets for the two typical conqueror kings of the Vulgate, they inevitably come to reflect the poet’s own contrast between the imperious patrician and the shameless lager lout. Nebuchadnezzar, as the foil to Belshazzar, becomes in effect the hero of the third part, and turns out to be a more interesting, if more flawed, hero than were the foils to the sinners of the first two stories (Noah and Abraham, whose counterpart in the third section is, strictly, Daniel, who, however, plays a somewhat mechanical role and is undeveloped as a character endowed with the positive qualities lacked by Belshazzar, in which function he is replaced by Nebuchadnezzar). Nebuchadnezzar is portrayed (1217–24, 1304–32) as a violent, resolute, proud and aspiring man, whom the poet invests both with grandeur and with an appreciation of grandeur, of quality and greatness, other than his own. Though cruel and merciless in his treatment of the conquered Jewish princes, he is impressed by the high art of the temple vessels, which he has reverently and carefully put away, his aesthetic sensibility becoming a measure of his spiritual susceptibility to Christian truth, the intimation of the true God, of whom he has ‘a hope [inkling] in his herte’ (1653). Daniel and this ‘hope’ just manage to keep in check, to ‘meken’ [humble] from time to time, his proud ‘mynde’ and ‘maysterful’ behaviour, his dominating spirit and kingly ambitions and energies (1325–8, 1653–6). His death is recorded in an elegiac spirit (1329–32), but the character sketch has prepared the way for the later flashback (1642–1708) in which his blasphemous comparison of himself and his creation (the city of Babylon) with God and His creation is punished with a seven-year period of madness in which he roams the wasteland like an animal, but which opens his eyes to the greatness of God, and from which he does, therefore, eventually emerge to be restored to his royal ‘state’ (1708), the greatness that is also a measure of his spiritual status and dignity.

The poem thus establishes Nebuchadnezzar as a man with both a redemptive and yet a dangerous sense of greatness, a maysterful spirit, precariously restrained by a sense of a greater greatness, a sense epitomized by his appreciation of the rich art of the vessels. The poet plainly shares that appreciation, devoting many verses, not only to the workmanship of the vessels (1441–88), but also to the wondrous city of Babylon (1377–92). When Nebuchadnezzar makes that fatal boast (1661–8), therefore, one can feel that barely restrained maysterful pride breaking free of its controlling awe of the God suggested to him by such vessels (see 1325–8, 1653–6) – and one can also sympathize with his pride. An allusion to the boast of Lucifer is plainly intended, for there are several verbal and other parallels between the two passages (205–13, 1657–71), and Nebuchadnezzar’s boast plays a part in the poem identical with that played by Lucifer’s, in that it draws on itself a punishment that is contrasted with that incurred by a subsequent act of fylthe. But it is quite clear that the poet finds in his boast a measure of the pride and greatness that is his redemption as well as his dangerous flaw: to have built Babylon, as the poem itself makes clear (1377–92), is no empty boast, and is one reason why Nebuchadnezzar represents a redeemable sinner, whereas his son is represented, by a selective concentration on some biblical details, as in every sense simply a Philistine with no sense of greatness or of art that can be worked on to bring him to spiritual awareness, and who understands only one language: that of the churl’s club (rather, be it noted, than the chivalric sword) that he himself is pictured as taking to his idols when they refuse to give him what he asks (1340–48: unparalleled in the Vulgate). In short, the contrast between the two men, inventive and expressive, carries and structures the whole meaning and effect of this third part of the poem. For the lengthy flashback (1642–1708) serves to reintroduce the now dead Nebuchadnezzar, reinforcing the earlier contrast (1321–56) in regnal sequence, between the noble father and the bold and brutish son, with a contrast between the purgative punishment for pride in creative art undergone by Nebuchadnezzar and the perdition about to be visited on his son’s gross insensibility to the same.

It is worth recalling that the official theology of the poet’s day in fact represented the sins of the spirit (pride, envy, avarice, wrath) as indicative of a spiritual disorder of a deeper and graver kind than was the weakness testified to by the sins of the flesh (gluttony, lust, sloth). And, in the scale of gravity, Lucifer’s sin of pride weighed the heaviest. In this poem, by contrast, Lucifer’s sin of believing he could compare and compete with God (211–12), and Nebuchadnezzar’s recommission of this fatal Luciferic error (1662), are represented as somehow less sickening than a squalid sensuality which is seen as a defilement of a beautiful ‘art’ of sex portrayed and compassed by God (697–700) and than the defilement of the vessels similarly portrayed and compassed by the incomparable science [art] of Solomon (1454–5, 1465). The theology here is perhaps not especially sound, and is at the least eccentric. But to point to its questionable view of the relative gravity of different sins would be to oversimplify an argument that, if sometimes wayward, is actually a lot more intricate and involves the interaction of several different senses of clene within a complex poem, where the contrast between clannes and fylthe is also an alternation between bejewelled splendour and cataclysmic violence, between scenes of refined, courtly decorum and the yelled obscenities of the Sodomites or the drunken, barbaric splendour of a Babylonian feast.

The diverse material is patterned into a whole, not only by a complex web of parallels and contrasts, but by the tripartite structure which the poet clearly intended to act as an important organizing principle. A threefold division was not uncommon in sermons,[5] and Ecclesiastes 4:12 was sometimes cited in support of it: ‘a threefold cord is not quickly broken’. And, though the first exemplum in the poem is actually a retelling (51–176) of the New Testament parable of the guest expelled from the wedding feast because he is not properly dressed for the occasion, that story is omitted from the visual and verbal representation of the poem’s structure in the manuscript, in which a threefold division is clearly inscribed.[6] For the manuscript signals three major sections (one for each of the Old Testament stories), these sections being marked by extra-large capitals at lines 1, 557 and 1157. (Smaller capitals are used to indicate new developments within these major sections, as in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, whose larger four-fitt structure is likewise indicated by larger and more elaborate capitals.) Moreover, the poet himself clearly subordinates the New Testament parable to a controlling triple structure when he claims at the end to have demonstrated God’s hatred of uncleanness ‘upon thrynne wyses’ (1805). He equally clearly intends a parallel to be seen between this and the three-word message ‘MANE, TECHAL, PHARES’ that forms the writing on the wall seen by Belshazzar. For the words are interpreted as constituting three different ways of warning Belshazzar of his end, a message ‘merked in thrynne’ (1727) that announces his downfall ‘upon thre wyse’ (1728). The word thrynne indicates a tripartite unity (see note to 1727) and the poet plainly conceives of his own poem as a similar triple warning delivered to the unclean ‘upon thrynne wyses’ – just as in Patience (13, 28, 37–40) he points to a lexical parallel between the first and the last Beatitude which is also a feature of the poem itself (in which the first and last lines are near-identical). And, although Cleanness is not circular in the strict sense that its opening line is repeated almost verbatim at the end (as happens in Pearl and Sir Gawain, as well as in Patience), the closing lines convey a strong sense of a reprise that leads into a circling back to the opening. The summary of the moral of the stories, that uncleanness ‘Entyses Him [God] to be tene’ and that ‘clannes is His comfort and quoyntyse He loves’ (1808–9), reiterates key words and collocations: God’s ‘tene’ at uncleanness (cf. 283, 687); the collocation with ‘Entyses’ (cf. 1137); the word quoynt-, strongly associated with the elegance and seemliness appropriate to God’s court and presence (cf. 54, 160, 1287, 1382, 1459); and the collocation with clene (cf. 1287). The closing prayer, ‘That we gon gay in our gere’ and ‘may serve in His sight’, then circles further back to the introductory parable and its emphasis on decent clothing – now merged with the ‘gay gere’ of the holy vessels (1444, 1505, 1568; cf. 16) – and thence to a recapitulation of the opening reference to the priests who serve in God’s presence (5–10).

Recommended Further Reading: Spearing 1987; Schmidt 1988; Lecklider 1997; Keiser 1997.

Cleanness

I

CLANNES whoso kyndely   couthe commende,

And rekken up all the resouns   that ho by right askes,

Fayre formes myght he fynde   in forthering his speche,

4  And in the contrary kark   and combraunce huge.

For wonder wroth is the Wye   that wroght alle thinges

With the freke that in fylthe   folwes Him after,

As renkes of relygioun   that reden and syngen

8  And aprochen to His presense   and prestes are called.

Thay teen unto His temple   and temen to Himselven,

Reken with reverence   thay richen His auter:

Thay hondel there His owne body   and usen hit bothe.

12  If thay in clannes be clos,   thay cleche gret mede;

Bot if thay counterfete craft   and courtaysye wonte,

As be honest outwith   and inwith all fylthes,

Then are thay synful hemself,   and sulpen altogeder

16  Bothe God and His gere,   and Him to greme cachen.

He is so clene in His court,   the Kyng that all weldes,

And honest in His householde,   and hawerly served,

With angeles enourled   in all that is clene

20  Bothe withinne and withouten,   in wedes ful bryghte:

Nif He nere scoymus and skyg,   and non scathe loved,

Hit were a mervayl to much,   hit myghte not falle.

Cryst kyd hit Himself   in a carp ones,

24  Thereas He hevened aght happes   and hyght hem her medes.

Me mynes on one among other,   as Mathew recordes,

That thus of clannes uncloses   a ful clere speche:

‘The hathel clene of his hert   hapenes ful fayre,

28  For he schal loke on our Lord   with a love-chere,’ –

As so says, to that sight   seche schal he never

That any unclannes has on   auwhere aboute.

For He that flemes uch fylthe   fer fro His herte

32  May not bide that bur   that hit His body neghe.

Forthy hye not to heven   in hateres to-torne,

Ne in the harlotes hode   and handes unwaschen.

For what urthely hathel   that high honour holdes

36  Wolde like if a ladde com   lutherly attyred,

When he were set solempnely   in a sete riche

Above dukes on dese   with dayntyes served?

Then the harlot with haste   helded to the table,

40  With rent cokres at the kne   and his clutte trasches,

And his tabarde to-torne   and his totes oute,

Other any one of alle these,   he schuld be holden utter,

With mony blame ful big,   a buffet paraunter,

44  Hurled to the halle dor   and harde thereoute schowved, –

And be forboden that burgh,   to bow thider never

On payne of enprysonment   and puttyng in stokkes.

And thus schal he be schent   for his schrowde feble,

48  Thagh never in tale ne in touch   he trespasse more.

And if unwelcum he were   to a worthlych prince,

Yet him is the High-Kyng   harder in heven, –

As Mathew meles in his Masse   of that man riche

52  That made the muckel mangerie   to marye his ayre dere,

And sende his sonde then to say   that thay samen schulde,

And in comly quoyntyse   to come to his feste:

‘For my bulles and my bores   are bayted and slayne,

56  And my fedde fowles   fatted with slaghte.

‘My polyle that is penne-fed   and partrykes bothe,

With scheldes of wylde swyn,   swanes and crones,

All is rotheled and rosted   right to the sete.

60  Comes cof to my court   ere hit colde worthe.’

When thay knewen his cal   that thider come schulde,

All excused hem by the skylle   he scape by myghte.

One had boght him a burgh,   he sayd by his trauthe –

64  ‘Now turne I thider as tite   the toun to beholde.’

Another nayed also   and nurned this cause:

‘I have yerned and yat   yokkes of oxen,

And for my byes hem boght:   to bow have I mester,

68  To see hem pulle in the plow   aproche me behoves.’

‘And I have wedded a wyf,’   so wer him the thridde,

‘Excuse me at the court,   I may not come there.’

Thus thay drow hem adrey   with daunger uchone,

72  That non passed to the place,   thagh he prayed were.

Then the ledische lord   liked ful ille

And had dedayn of that dede;   ful dryly he carpes,

He says: ‘Now for her owne sorwe   thay forsaken habbes.

76  More to wyte is her wrong   then any wille gentyl.

‘Then gos forth, my gomes,   to the grete stretes,

And forsettes on uch a side   the city aboute

The wayferande frekes   on fote and on horse,

80  Bothe burnes and burdes,   the better and the worse.

‘Lathes hem luflyly   to leng at my feste

And brynges hem blythely to burgh,   as barouns they were,

So that my palayce platful   be pyght all aboute.

84  These other wreches, iwysse,   worthy not were.’

Then thay kayred and com   that the cost waked,

Broghten bacheleres hem with   that thay by bonkes metten,

Swyeres that swyftly   sued on blonkes,

88  And also fele upon fote,   of fre and of bonde.

When thay com to the court,   keppte were thay fayre,

Stightled with the steward,   stad in the halle,

Ful manerly with marschal   made for to sitte,

92  As he was dere of degre   dressed his sete.

Then segges to the soverayn   sayden thereafter:

‘Lo, lord, with your leve,   at your lege heste

And at thy banne we have broght,   as thou beden habbes,

96  Mony renischche renkes,   and yet is roum more.’

Sayd the lord to tho ledes:   ‘Laytes yet ferre,

Ferkes out in the felde,   and feches mo gestes.

Waytes gorstes and greves,   if any gomes lygges;

100  What kyn folk so there fare,   feches hem hider.

‘Be thay fyrce, be thay feble,   forlotes none,

Be thay hole, be thay halt,   be thay on-yed,

And thagh thay ben both blynde   and balterande cruppeles,

104  That my house may holly   by halkes be fylled.

‘For redily these ilk renkes   that me renayed habbe,

And denounced me noght   now at this tyme,

Schal never sitte in my sale   my soper to fele,

108  Ne suppe on sop of my sewe,   thagh thay swelt schulde.’

Then the sergauntes at that sawe   swengen thereoute,

And diden the dede that was demed,   as he devised hade,

And with peple of all plytes   the palayce thay fylle;

112  Hit weren not all on wyves sunes,   wonnen with on fader.

Whether thay were worthy or worse,   wel were thay stowed,

Aye the best before   and bryghtest attyred,

The derrest at the highe dese,   that dubbed were fayrest,

116  And sithen on lenthe biloogh   ledes inowe;

And aye as segges serely   semed by her wedes,

So with a marschal at her mete   mensked thay were.

Clene men in compayny   forknowen were lyte,

120  And yet the symplest in that sale   was served to the fulle, –

Both with menske and with mete   and mynstralsye noble

And all the laykes that a lord   aght in londe schewe.

And thay begonne to be glad   that good drinke haden,

124  And uch man with his mach   made him at ese.

NOW inmyddes the mete   the mayster him bithoghte

That he wolde see the semble   that samned was there,

And rehayte rekenly   the riche and the pore,

128  And cherisch hem all with his chere   and chaufen her joye.

Then he bowes fro his bour   into the brode halle

And to the best on the bench,   and bede hem be mery,

Solased hem with semblaunt   and sylede ferre,

132  Tron fro table to table,   and talked aye mirthe.

Bot as he ferked over the flor   he fonde with his iye

A thral thryght in the throng,   unthryvandely clothed:

He was not for a halyday   honestly arayed,

136  Ne no festival frok,   bot fyled with werkes.

The gome was ungarnyst   with good men to dele,

And gremed therewith the grete lord,   and greve him he thoghte.

‘Say me, frende,’ quoth the freke   with a felle chere,

140  ‘How wan thou into this won   in wedes so foule?

‘The abyt that thou has upon   no halyday hit menskes.

Thou, burn, for no brydale   art busked in wedes.

How was thou hardy this house   for thyn unhap to neghe

144  In on so ratted a robe,   and rent at the sides?

‘Thou art a gome ungoderly   in that goun feble;

Thou praysed me and my place   ful pore and ful gnede

That was so prest to aproche   my presense hereinne.

148  Hopes thou I be a harlot   thy erigaut to prayse?’

That other burn was abayst   of his brothe wordes,

And hurkeles doun with his hed,   the erthe he beholdes.

He was so scomfit of his skylle,   lest he scathe hente,

152  That he ne wyst on word   what he warp schulde.

Then the lord wonder loude   laled and cryed,

And talkes to his tormenttoures:   ‘Takes him,’ he biddes,

‘Byndes bihinde at his bak   bothe two his handes,

156  And felle fettres to his fete   festnes bylive.

‘Stik him stifly in stokkes   and stekes him thereafter

Depe in my doungoun   there doel ever dwelles,

Greving and gretyng   and gryspytyng harde

160  Of tethe tenfully togeder,   to teche him be quoynte.’

Thus comparisunes Cryst   the kyndom of heven

To this frelyche fest   that fele are to called.

For all are lathed luflyly,   the luther and the better,

164  That ever were fulwed in font,   that feste to have.

Bot war thee wel, if thou wilt,   thy wedes ben clene

And honest for the halyday,   lest thou harme lache,

For aproch thou to that Prince   of parage noble,

168  He hates helle no more   then hem that are souly.

Wich are then thy wedes   thou wrappes thee inne,

That schal schewe hem so schene,   schrowde of the beste?

Hit are thy werkes, wyterly,   that thou wroght haves,

172  And lyned with the lykyng   that lay in thyn herte

That tho be frely and fresch   founde in thy lyve,

And fetyse of a fayr forme,   to fote and to hande,

And sithen all thyn other lymmes   lapped ful clene:

176  Then may thou see thy Saviour   and His sete riche.

For fele fautes may a freke   forfete his blisse,

That he the Soverayn ne see:   then for slauthe one,

As for bobaunce and bost   and bolnande pryde

180  Throly in the develes throte   man thrynges bylive.

For covetyse and colwarde   and crokede dedes,

For monsworne and mensclaght   and to much drinke,

For thefte and for threpyng   unthonk may man have;

184  For robborye and riboudrye   and resouns untrue,

And dysheriete and depryve   dowrie of wydoes,

For marryng of maryages   and mayntnaunce of schrewes,

For tresoun and trecherye   and tyrauntrye bothe,

188  And for false famacions   and faynede lawes:

Man may mysse the mirthe   that much is to prayse

For such unthewes as these,   and thole much payne,

And in the Creatores court   come never more,

192  Ne never see Him with sight,   for such sour tournes.

BOT I have herkned and herde   of mony high clerkes,

And als in resouns of right   red hit myselven,

That that ilk proper Prince   that Paradise weldes

196  Is displesed at uch a poynt   that plyes to scathe, –

Bot never yet in no boke   breved I herde

That ever He wrak so wytherly   on werk that He made,

Ne venged for no vilte   of vice ne synne,

200  Ne so hastily was hot   for hatel of His wille,

Ne never so sodenly soght   unsoundely to venge,

As for fylthe of the flesch   that foles haf used.

For, as I fynde, there He forgat   all His fre thewes,

204  And wex wod to the wrake   for wrath at His herte.

For the firste felonye   the false fende wroghte,

While he was high in the heven,   hoven upon lofte,

Of all these athel angeles   attled the fayrest,

208  And he unkyndely as a carle   kyd a rewarde.

He saw noght bot himself,   how semely he were,

Bot his Soverayn he forsoke   and sayde these wordes:

‘I schal telde up my trone   in the tramountayne,

212  And be like to that Lord   that the lyft made.’

With this word that he warp   the wrake on him lyghte.

Dryhtyn with His dere dome   him drof to the abyme –

In the mesure of His mod,   His methe never the lesse;

216  Bot there He tynt the tythe-dole   of His tour riche.

Thagh the feloun was so fyrce   for his fayre wedes

And his glorious glem   that glente so bryghte,

As sone as Dryhtynes dome   drof to himselven,

220  Thikke thousandes thro   threwen thereoute,

Fellen fro the fyrmament   fendes ful blake,

Sweved at the first swap   as the snaw thikke,

Hurled into helle-hole   as the hyve swarmes.

224  Fylter fendene folk   forty dayes lenthe

Ere that styngande storme   stynte ne myghte;

Bot as smylt mele under smal sive   smokes forthikke,

So fro heven to helle   that hatel schor laste,

228  On uche side of the erde   aywhere ilyche.

This hit was a breme brest   and a big wrake,

And yet wrathed not the Wye,   ne the wrech saghtled,

Ne never wolde for wylnesful   his worthy God knowe,

232  Ne pray Him for no pyty,   so proud was his wille.

Forthy thagh the rape were ronk,   the routhe was little:

Thagh he be cast into care,   he kepes no better.

Bot that other wrake that wex   on wyes hit lyghte,

236  Thurgh the faut of a freke   that fayled in trauthe:

Adam inobedyent,   ordaynt to blisse,

There pryvyly in Paradise   his place was devised,

To lyve there in lykyng   the lenthe of a terme

240  And then enherite that home   that angeles forgarte.

Bot thurgh the eggyng of Eve   he ete of an apple

That enpoysened all peples   that parted fro hem bothe,

For a defence that was dight   of Dryhtyn selven

244  And a payne thereon put   and apertly holden.

The defence was the fruyt   that the freke touched,

And the dome is the deth   that drepes us alle.

All in mesure and in methe   was made the vengaunce,

248  And eft amended with a mayden   that make hade never.

BOT in the thrid was forthrast   all that thryve schulde:

There was malyce mercyles   and maugre much schewed.

That was for fylthe upon folde   that the folk used

252  That then woned in the worlde   withoute any maysters.

Hit were the fayrest of forme   and of face alse,

The most and the meriest   that maked were ever,

The stifest, the stalworthest,   that stod ever on fete,

256  And lengest lif in hem lent   of ledes all other.

For hit was the forme foster   that the folde bredde,

The athel auncesteres sunes   that Adam was called,

To whom God hade geven   all that gayn were,

260  All the blisse bout blame   that body myght have,

And those lykkest to the lede   that lyved next after.

Forthy so semely to see   sithen were none;

There was no law to hem layd   bot loke to kynde

264  And kepe to hit, and all hit course   clanly fulfylle.

And then founden thay fylthe   in fleschlyche dedes,

And controeved agayns kynde   contrary werkes,

And used hem unthryftyly   uchone on other,

268  And als wymmen with other wylsfully,   upon a wronge wyse.

So ferly fouled her flesch   that the fende loked

How the deghter of the douth   were derely fayre,

And fallen in felawschyp with hem   on folkene wyse,

272  And engendered on hem jeauntes   wyth her japes ille.

Those were men methles   and myghty on erthe,

That for her lothelyche laykes   alosed thay were.

He was famed for fre   that fyght loved beste,

276  And aye the biggest in bale   the beste was holden.

And then eveles on erthe   ernestly grewen,

And multyplyed monyfolde   inmonges mankynde;

For that the myghty on molde   so marre these other,

280  That the Wye that all wroght   ful wrothly begines.

When He knew uch countre   corrupte in hitselven,

And uch freke forloyned   fro the right wayes,

Felle temptande tene   touched his herte;

284  As wye wo him withinne   warp to Himselven:

‘Me forthynkes ful much   that ever I man made.

Bot I schal delyver and do away   that doten on this molde,

And fleme out of the folde   all that flesch weres;

288  Fro the burn to the best,   fro bryddes to fisches,

‘All schal doun and be dede   and driven out of erthe

That ever I set saule in,   and sore hit me rues

That ever I made hem myself.   Bot, if I may, hereafter

292  I schal wayte to be ware   her wrenches to kepe.’

Then in worlde was a wye   wonyande on lyve,

Ful redy and ful ryghtwys,   and rewled him fayre;

In the drede of Dryhtyn   his dayes he uses,

296  And aye glydande with his God:   his grace was the more.

Him was the name Noe,   as is inogh knowen.

He had thre thryven sunes,   and thay thre wyves:

Sem sothly that one,   that other hyght Cam,

300  And the joly Japheth   was gendered the thridde.

Now God in nye   to Noe con speke

Wylde wrakfulle wordes,   in His wille greved:

‘The ende of all kynnes flesch   that on erthe meves

304  Is fallen forthwyth my face,   and forther hit I thenke.

‘With her unworthelyche werk   me wlates withinne;

The gore thereof me has greved   and the glette nyed.

I schal strenkle my distresse   and strye all togeder

308  Bothe ledes and londe   and all that lif habbes.

‘Bot make to thee a mancioun,   and that is my wille,

A cofer closed of tres,   clanlyche planed;

Work wones therein   for wylde and for tame,

312  And then cleme hit with clay   comly withinne,

‘And all the endentur driven   daube withoute.

And thus of lenthe and of large   that lome thou make:

Thre hundred of cubites   thou holde to the lenthe,

316  Of fyfty fayr overthwert   forme the brede,

‘And loke even that thyn ark   have of hyght thretty;

And a wyndow wyde openande   wroght upon lofte,

In the compas of a cubit   kyndely sware,

320  A wel ditande dor   done on the side.

‘Haf halles thereinne   and halkes ful mony,

Bothe bolkes and boures   and wel bounden penes.

For I schal waken up a water   to wasch all the worlde,

324  And quelle all that is quik   with quavande flodes;

‘All that glydes and gos   and gost of lif habbes,

I schal waste with my wrath   that wones upon erthe.

Bot my forward with thee   I festen on this wyse,

328  For thou in resoun has rengned   and ryghtwys ben ever:

‘Thou schal enter this ark   with thyn athel barnes,

And thy weddede wyf   with thee thou take,

The makes of thy mery sunes;   this meyny of aghte

332  I schal save of manes saules,   and swelte those other.

‘Of uch best that beres lif   busk thee a couple;

Of uch clene comly kynde   enclose seven makes,

Of uch horwed in ark   holde bot a payre,

336  For to save me the sede   of all sere kyndes.

‘And aye thou meng with the males   the mete ho-bestes,

Uch payre by payre,   to plese ayther other.

With all the fode that may be founde   frette thy cofer

340  For sustnaunce to yowself   and also those other.’

Ful graythly gos this good man   and dos Godes hestes

In drye drede and in daunger,   that durst do non other.

When hit was fettled and forged   and to the fulle graythed,

344  Then con Dryhtyn him dele   dryly these wordes:

‘NOW, Noe,’ quoth our Lord,   ‘art thou all redy?

Hast thou closed thy kyst   with clay all aboute?’

‘Ye, Lord, with thy leve,’   sayd the lede thenne,

348  ‘All is wroght at thy word,   as thou me wyt lantes.’

‘Enter in then,’ quoth He,   ‘and haf thy wyf with thee,

Thy thre sunes, withouten threpe,   and her thre wyves.

Bestes, as I beden have,   busk thereinne alse,

352  And when ye are stowed stifly,   stekes yow thereinne.

‘Fro seven dayes ben seyed,   I sende out bylive

Such a routande ryg   that rayne schal swythe,

That schal wasch all the worlde   of werkes of fylthe.

356  Schal no flesch upon folde   be founden on lyve, –

‘Outtaken you aght,   in this ark stowed,

And sede that I wyl save   of these sere bestes.’

Now Noe never styntes   that nye he begines

360  Ere all were stowed and stoken   as the steven wolde.

Then sone com the seventhe day,   when samned were alle,

And all woned in the whichche,   the wylde and the tame.

Then bolned the abyme   and bonkes con ryfe,

364  Waltes out uch welle-hed   in ful wode stremes,

Was no brym that abod   unbrosten bylive.

The muckel lavande logh   to the lyft rered;

Mony clustered cloude   clef all in cloutes:

368  To-rent uch a rayn-ryfte   and rusched to the erthe,

Fon never in forty dayes – and then the flod rises,

Overwaltes uch a wode   and the wyde feldes.

For when the water of the welkyn   with the worlde mette,

372  All that deth myght drye   drowned thereinne.

There was mone for to make   when meschef was knowen,

That noght dowed bot the deth   in the depe stremes.

Water wylger aye wex,   wones that stryede,

376  Hurled into uch house,   hent that there dwelled.

First feng to the flyght   all that fle myghte;

Uche burde with her barn   the byggyng thay leves

And bowed to the high bonk,   there brentest hit weren,

380  And heterly to the high hilles   thay haled on faste.

Bot all was nedles her note,   for never couthe stynte

The roghe raynande ryg,   the raykande wawes,

Ere uch bothom was brurdful   to the bonkes egges

384  And uch a dale so depe,   that demmed at the brynkes.

The moste mountaynes on mor   then was no more drye,

And thereon flokked the folk   for ferde of the wrake.

Sithen the wylde of the wode   on the water flette:

388  Summe swymmed thereon,   that save hemself trowed,

Summe styghe to a sted   and stared to the heven,

Ruly with a loud rurd   rored for drede;

Hares, herttes also,   to the highe runnen;

392  Bukkes, bausenes and bulles   to the bonkes hyed.

And all cryed for care   to the Kyng of heven,

Recoverer of the Creator   thay cryed uchone;

That amounted the mase;   His mercy was passed,

396  And all His pyty departed   fro peple that He hated.

By that the flod to her fete   flowed and waxed,

Then uch a segge saw wel   that synk him behoved.

Frendes fellen in fere   and fathmed togeder

400  To drye her delful destine   and dien all samen.

Luf lokes to luf   and his leve takes,

For to ende all at ones,   and for ever twynne.

By forty dayes were faren   on folde no flesch styryed

404  That the flod nade all freten   with fyghtande wawes.

For hit clambe uch a clyff   cubites fiftene

Over the hygheste hille   that hurkled on erthe.

Then mourkne in the mudde   moste ful nedes

408  All that spyrakle in sprang – no sprawlyng awayled:

Save the hathel under hach   and his here strange,

Noe, that oft nevened   the name of our Lorde,

Him aghtsum in that ark – as athel God liked –

412  There all ledes in lome   lengede drye.

The ark hoven was on highe   with hurlande gotes,

Cast to kythes uncouthe,   the cloudes ful nere.

Hit waltered on the wylde flod,   went as hit lyste,

416  Drof upon the depe dam;   in daunger hit semed:

Withoute mast other myke   or mery bawelyne,

Cable other capstan   to clyppe to her ankres,

Hurrok other hand-helme   hasped on rother,

420  Other any sweande sayl   to sech after haven,

Bot flote forth with the flyt   of the felle wyndes:

Whederwarde so the water waft,   hit rebounde;

Oft hit rolled on rounde   and rered on ende, –

424  Nif our Lord had ben the lodesmon,   hem had lumpen harde.

Of the lenthe of Noe lif   to lay a lel date:

The sex-hundreth of his age   and none odde yeres,

Of secounde monyth   the sevententhe day rightes

428  To-walten all these welle-hedes,   and the water flowed, –

And thryes fyfty the flod   of folwande dayes.

Uch hille was there hid   with ythes ful graye.

All was wasted that there woned   the worlde withinne,

432  That ever flote other flewe   other on fote yede,

That roghly was the remnaunt   that the rak drives,

That all gendres so joyst   were joyned withinne.

Bot when the Lord of the lyft   liked Himselven

436  For to mynne on His man,   His methe that abides,

Then He wakened a wynd   on wateres to blowe.

Then lasned the lake   that large was ere;

Then He stek up the stanges,   stoped the welles,

440  Bede blynne of the rayn:   hit batede as faste.

Then lasned the logh,   loukande togeder,

After harde dayes were out   an hundred and fyfty,

As that lyftande lome   luged aboute

444  Where the wynd and the weder   warpen hit wolde.

Hit saghtled on a soft day,   synkande to grounde:

On the rasse of a rok   hit rest at the laste,

On the mount of Mararach,   of Armene hilles,

448  That otherwayes on Ebru   hit hatte the Thanes.

Bot thagh the kyst in the cragges   were closed to bide,

Yet fyned not the flod   ne fel to the bothemes;

Bot the highest of the egges   unhuled were a little,

452  That the burn bynne borde   behelde the bare erthe.

Then waft he open his wyndow   and wysed thereoute

A message fro that meyny   hem moldes to seche:

That was the raven so ronk,   that rebel was ever:

456  He was colored as the cole,   corbel untrue.

And he fonges to the flyght   and fannes on the wyndes,

Hales high upon hyght   to herken tithynges.

He croukes for comfort   when carayne he fyndes

460  Cast upon a clyff,   there costes lay drye.

He had the smelle of the smach   and smoltes thider sone,

Falles on the foule flesch   and fylles his wombe,

And sone yederly foryete   yisterday steven,

464  How the cheftayn him charged   that the chyst yemed.

The raven raykes him forth   that reches ful little

How all fodes there fare,   elles he fynde mete.

Bot the burn bynne borde   that bod to his come

468  Banned him ful bitterly,   with bestes all samen.

He seches another sondesmon   and settes on the douve,

Brynges that bryght upon borde,   blessed and sayde:

‘Wende, worthilyche wyght,   us wones to seche;

472  Dryf over this dym water:   if thou drye fyndes,

‘Bryng bodworde to bot,   blisse to us alle.

Thagh that fowle be false,   fre be thou ever.’

Ho whyrled out on the weder   on wynges ful scharpe,

476  Dryly all along day,   that durst never lyghte.

And when ho fyndes no folde   her fote on to piche,

Ho umbe-kestes the cost   and the kyst seches.

Ho hittes on the eventide   and on the ark sittes.

480  Noe nymmes her anon   and naytly her stowes.

Noe on another day   nymmes eft the douve,

And biddes her bow over the borne   eft bonkes to seche.

And ho skyrmes under skue   and skowtes aboute,

484  Til hit was negh at the night,   and Noe then seches.

ON ark on an eventide   hoves the douve;

On stamyn ho stod   and stille him abides.

What! Ho broght in her beke   a braunch of olyve,

488  Graciously umbe-growen   all with grene leves.

That was the syngne of savyte   that sende hem our Lorde

And the saghtelyng of Himself   with tho sely bestes.

Then was there joy in that gyn,   where jumpred ere dryed,

492  And much comfort in that cofer   that was clay-daubed.

Meryly on a fayr morn,   monyth the firste

That falles formast in the yere,   and the first daye,

Ledes loghen in that lome   and loked thereoute

496  How that wateres were waned   and the worlde dryed.

Uchon loved our Lord,   bot lenged aye stille

Til that thay had tithyng fro the Tulk   that tyned hem thereinne.

Then Godes glam to hem glod   that gladed hem alle,

500  Bede hem draw to the dor,   delyver hem He wolde.

Then went thay to the wyket:   hit walt open sone.

Both the burn and his barnes   bowed theroute;

Her wyves walkes hem with   and the wylde after,

504  Throly thrublande in throng,   throwen ful thikke.

Noe of uch honest kynde   nem out an odde,

And hevened up an auter   and halwed hit fayre,

And set a sacrefyce thereon   of uch a sere kynde

508  That was comly and clene – God kepes non other.

When bremly brenned those bestes   and the breth rised,

The savour of his sacrefyce   soght to Him even

That all spedes and spylles;   He spekes with that ilke

512  In comly comfort ful clos   and cortayse wordes:

‘Now Noe, no more   nyl I never wary

All the muckel mayne molde   for no manes synnes.

For I see wel that hit is soth   that all segges wyttes

516  To unthryfte are all throwen   with thoght of her hertes,

‘And aye has ben and wil be yet:   fro her barnage,

All is the mynde of the man   to malyce enclyned.

Forthy schal I never schende   so schortly at ones

520  As disstrye all for manes dedes,   dayes of this erthe.

‘Bot waxes now and wendes forth   and worthes to mony,

Multyplyes on this molde,   and menske yow bityde.

Sesounes schal yow never sese   of sede ne of hervest,

524  Ne hete ne no hard forst,   umbre ne droghte,

‘Ne the swetnesse of somer,   ne the sadde wynter,

Ne the night ne the day,   ne the newe yeres,

Bot ever renne restles;   rengnes ye thereinne.’

528  Therewith He blesses uch a best,   and bitaght hem this erthe.

Then was a skaylyng and skylnade   when scaped all the wylde:

Uch fowle to the flyght   that fytheres myght serve,

Uch fissche to the flod   that fynne couthe nayte,

532  Uch best to the bent   that bites on erbes,

Wylde wormes to her won   wrythes in the erthe,

The fox and the folmarde   to the frith wyndes,

Herttes to the high hethe,   hares to gorstes,

536  And lyounes and lebardes   to the lake-ryftes,

Hernes and hauekes   to the highe roches,

The hole-foted fowle   to the flod hyes,

And uch best at a brayd   there him best likes.

540  The foure frekes of the folde   fonges the empire.

Lo, such a wrakeful wo   for wlatsume dedes

Parformed the highe Fader   on folk that He made;

That He chysly had cherisched   He chastysed ful harde

544  In devoydynge the vilany   that venquyst His thewes.

Forthy war thee now, wye,   that worschip desyres

In His comlyche court,   that kyng is of blisse,

In the fylthe of the flesch   that thou be founden never

548  Til any water in the worlde   to wasche thee fayle.

For is no segge under sunne   so seme of his craftes,

If he be sulped in synne   that sittes unclene, –

On spec of a spot   may spede to mysse

552  Of the sight of the Soverayn   that sittes so highe.

For that schewe me schal   in tho shyre houses,

As the beryl burnist   behoves be clene,

That is sounde on uch a side   and no seme habbes,

556  Withoute mascle other mote,   as margery perle.

II

SITHEN the Soverayn in sete   so sore forthoghte

That ever He man upon molde   merked to lyve,

For he in fylthe was fallen,   felly He venged,

560  When forferde all the flesch   that He formed hade.

Him rued that he hem uprerde   and raght hem liflode, –

And eft that He hem undyd,   hard hit Him thoghte:

For when the swemande sorwe   soght to His herte,

564  He knit a covenaunt cortaysly   with mankynde there,

In the mesure of His mod   and methe of His wille,

That He schuld never for no syt   smyte all at ones

As to quelle all quikes   for qued that myght falle,

568  While of the lenthe of the londe   lastes the terme.

That ilk skylle for no scathe   ascaped Him never.

Whether wonderly he wrak   on wykked men after.

Ful felly for that ilk faut   forferde a kyth riche,

572  In the anger of His ire,   that arwede mony.

And all was for that ilk evel,   that unhappen glette,

The venym and the vilany   and the vycios fylthe

That bysulpes manes saule   in unsounde herte,

576  That he his Saviour ne see   with sight of his iyen.

Thus all illes He hates   as helle that stynkes,

Bot non nyes Him, on night   ne never upon dayes,

As harlottrye unhonest,   hethyng of selven.

580  That schames for no schrewedschyp,   schent mot he worthe!

Bot savour, man, in thyself,   thagh thou a sotte lyve,

Thagh thou bere thyself babel,   bithenk thee sumtyme

Whether He that stykked uch a stare   in uche stepe iye,

584  If Himself be born blynde,   hit is a brod wonder.

And He that fetly in face   fettled all eres,

If He has losed the lysten,   hit lyftes mervayle.

Trowe thou never that tale,   untrue thou hit fyndes.

588  There is no dede so derne   that dittes His iyen.

There is no wye in his werk   so ware ne so stille

That hit ne throwes to Him thro   ere he hit thoght have.

For He is the gropande God,   the grounde of all dedes,

592  Rypande of uch a renk   the reynyes and herte.

And there He fyndes all fayr   a freke withinne,

That hert honest and hole,   that hathel He honoures,

Sendes him a sad sight,   to see His owne face,

596  And hard honyses these other   and of His erde flemes.

Bot of the dome of the douth   for dedes of schame,

He is so scoymus of that scathe   He scarres bylive.

He may not drye to draw allyt   bot drepes in haste;

600  And that was schewed schortly   by a scathe ones.

OLD Abraham in erde   ones he sittes

Even before his house dor,   under an oke grene.

Bryght blykked the bem   of the brod heven;

604  In the high hete thereof   Abraham bides.

He was schunt to the schadow   under shyre leves.

Then was he ware on the way   of wlonk wyes thrynne;

If thay were farande and fre   and fayr to beholde

608  Hit is ful ethe to leve   by the last ende.

For the lede that there lay   the leves anunder,

When he had of hem sight,   he hyes bylive,

And as to God the goodman   gos hem agaynes

612  And haylsed hem in onhede,   and sayd: ‘Hende Lorde,

‘If ever thy man upon mold   merit disserved,

Leng a little with thy lede,   I lowly beseche.

Passe never fro thy pore,   if I hit pray durste,

616  Ere thou has biden with thy burn,   and under boghe rested.

‘And I schal wynne yow wight   of water a little,

And fast aboute schal I fare   your fete were waschen.

Restes here on this rote   and I schal reche after

620  And bryng a morsel of bred   to banne your herte.’

‘Fare forth,’ quoth the frekes,   ‘and fech as thou segges.

By bole of this brode tre   we bide thee here.’

Then orpedly into his house   he hyed to Sare,

624  Comaunded her to be cof   and quik at this ones.

‘Thre mettes of mele   mengand ma kakes;

Under askes ful hot   happe hem bylive.

While I fette sumwhat fat,   thou the fire bete

628  Prestly at this ilke poynt   sum polment to make.’

He cached to his cow-house   and a calf brynges

That was tender and not togh,   bede tyrve of the hyde,

And sayd to his servaunt   that he hit sethe faste;

632  And he derfly at his dome   dight hit bylive.

The burn to be bare-heved   buskes him thenne,

Cleches to a clene cloth   and castes on the grene,

Threwe thryftyly thereon   tho thre therve kakes,

636  And brynges butter withalle   and by the bred settes.

Mete messes of mylke   he merkkes bitwene,

Sithen potage and polment   in plater honeste.

As sewer in a good assyse   he served hem fayre,

640  With sad semblaunt and swete,   of such as he hade.

And God as a glad gest   made good chere,

That was fayn of his frende   and his fest praysed.

Abraham, all hodles,   with armes up folden,

644  Mynystred mete before tho men   that myghtes all weldes.

Then thay sayden as thay sete   samen all thrynne,

When the mete was remued   and thay of mensk speken:

‘I schal eft here away,   Abram,’ thay sayden,

648  ‘Yet ere thy lyves lyght   lethe upon erthe.

‘And then schal Sare consayve   and a son bere,

That schal be Abrahames ayre,   and after him wynne

With wele and with worschip   the worthely peple

652  That schal holde in heritage   that I have men yarked.’

Then the burde bihinde the dor   for busmare laghed,

And sayd sothly to herself   Sare the madde:

‘May thou trow for tykle   that thou teme moghtes! –

656  And I so high out of age,   and also my lorde!’

For sothly, as says the Writ,   hit were of sad elde,

Both the wye and his wyf;   such werk was hem fayled.

Fro many a brod day before   ho barayn aye bileved,

660  That selve Sare withoute sede,   into that same tyme.

Then sayd our Syre there He sete:   ‘Se, so Sare laghes,

Not trowande the tale   that I thee to schewed.

Hopes ho oght may be hard   my handes to worke?

664  And yet I avow verayly   the vaunt that I made.

‘I schal yeply ayain   and yelde that I hyghte,

And sothly send to Sare   a son and an ayre.’

Then swenged forth Sare   and swer by her trauthe

668  That for lote that thay laused   ho laghede never.

‘Now, inogh, hit is not so,’   then nurned the Dryhtyn,

‘For thou laghed alow,   bot let we hit one.’

With that thay ros up radly   as thay rayke schulde,

672  And set toward Sodomas   her sight all at ones.

For that city therebiside   was set in a vale,

No myles fro Mambre   mo then twayne,

Whereso woned this ilk wye   that wendes with our Lorde,

676  For to tent Him with tale   and teche Him the gate.

Then glydes forth God;   the goodman Him folwes:

Abraham heldes hem with,   hem to conveye

In toward the city of Sodomas,   that synned had thenne

680  In the faute of this fylthe.   The Fader hem thretes,

And sayd thus to the segge   that sued Him after:

‘How myght I hyde my hert   fro Abraham the true,

That I ne discovered to his corse   my counsel so dere,

684  Sithen he is chosen to be chef   childeryn fader,

‘That so folk schal falle fro   to flete all the worlde,

And uch blod in that burn   blessed schal worthe?

Me bos telle to that tulk   the tene of my wille,

688  And all myn attlyng to Abraham   unhaspe bylive.

‘THE gret soun of Sodomas   synkes to my herte,

And the gylt of Gomorra   gares me to wrathe.

I schal lyght into that lede   and loke myselven

692  If thay have done as the dyn   drives on lofte.

‘Thay haf lerned a lyst   that likes me ille,

That thay haf founden in her flesch   of fautes the worste:

Uch male mas his mach   a man as himselven,

696  And fylter folyly in fere   on femmales wyse.

‘I compast hem a kynde craft   and kenned hit hem derne,

And amed hit in my ordenaunce   oddely dere,

And dight drury thereinne,   dole altherswettest;

700  And the play of paramores   I portrayed myselven, –

‘And made thereto a maner   meriest of other:

When two true togeder   had tyed hemselven,

Bitwene a male and his make   such mirthe schuld come,

704  Wel negh pure Paradise   myght preve no better,

‘Elles thay myght honestly   ayther other welde:

At a stille stollen steven   unstered with sighte,

Luf-lowe hem bitwene   lasched so hote

708  That all the meschefes on mold   myght hit not sleke

‘Now have thay skyfted my skylle   and scorned nature,

And hentes hem in hethyng   an usage unclene.

Hem to smyte for that smod   smartly I thenke,

712  That wyes schal be by hem ware,   world withoute ende.’

Then arwed Abraham   and all his mod chaunged

For hope of the harde hate   that hyght has our Lorde.

All sykande he sayde:   ‘Sir, with your leve,

716  Schal synful and sakles   suffer all on payne?

‘Whether ever hit like my Lorde   to lyfte such domes,

That the wykked and the worthy   schal on wrake suffer,

And weye upon the worre half   that wrathed thee never?

720  That was never thy won,   that wroghtes us alle.

‘Now fyfty fyne frendes   were founde in yonde toune

(In the city of Sodomas,   and also Gomorra),

That never lakked thy law   bot loved aye trauthe,

724  And reghtful were and resounable   and redy thee to serve:

‘Schal thay falle in the faute   that other frekes wroghte,

And joyne to her iuggement   her juis to have?

That nas never thy note – unnevened hit worthe –

728  That art so gaynly a God   and of gost mylde.’

‘Nay, for fyfty,’ quoth the Fader,   ‘and thy fayre speche,

And thay be founde in that folk   of her fylthe clene,

I schal forgyve all the gylt   thurgh my grace one,

732  And let hem smolt all unsmyten   smothely at ones.’

‘A, blessed be thou,’ quoth the burn,   ‘so boner and thewed,

And all holdes in thy hand,   the heven and the erthe!

Bot for I have tan up this talk,   tas to non ille

736  If I mele a little more,   that mul am and askes.

‘What if fyve faylen   of fyfty the noumbre,

And the remnaunt be reken,   how restes thy wille?’

‘And fyve wont of fyfty,’ quoth God,   ‘I schal foryete alle,

740  And withholde my hand   fro hortyng on lede.’

‘And what if forty be fre   and fauty these other,

Schalt thou schortly all schende   and schape non other?’

‘Nay, thagh forty forfete not,   yet fryst I a while,

744  And voyde away my vengaunce,   thagh me vyl thinke.’

Then Abraham obeched Him   and highly Him thonkes:

‘Now, sayned be thou, saviour,   so symple in thy wrathe!

I am bot erthe ful evel   and usles so blake

748  For to mele with such a mayster   as myghtes has alle.

‘Bot I have begonne with my God   and He hit gayn thenkes;

If I forloyne as a fol,   thy fraunchis may serve.

What if thretty thryvande   be thrad in yon tounes,

752  What schal I leve of my Lord:   if He hem lethe wolde?’

Then the godlyche God   gave him answare:

‘Yet for thretty in throng   I schal my thro steke,

And spare spakly of spyt   in space of my thewes,

756  And my rankor refrayne   for thy reken wordes.’

‘What for twenty,’ quoth the tulk,   ‘untwynes thou hem thenne?’

‘Nay, yif thou hit yernes,   yet yark I hem grace:

If that twenty be true,   I tene hem no more,

760  Bot relece all that regioun   of her ronk werkes.’

‘Now, athel Lord,’ quoth Abraham,   ‘ones a speche,

And I schal schape no more   tho schalkes to helpe.

If ten trysty in toun   be tan in thy werkes,

764  Wylt thou mese thy mod   and mendyng abide?’

‘I grant,’ quoth the grete God,   ‘Grant merci,’ that other.

And then arest the renk   and raghte no ferre;

And God glydes His gate   by those grene wayes,

768  And he conveyen Him con   with cast of his iye.

And as he loked along   thereas our Lord passed,

Yet he cryed Him after   with careful steven:

‘Meke mayster, on thy man   to mynne if thee liked,

772  Loth lenges in yon lede,   that is my lef brother:

‘He sittes there in Sodomas,   thy servant so pore,

Among tho mansede men   that haf thee much greved.

If thou tynes that toun,   tempre thyn ire

776  As thy mercy may malt   thy meke to spare.’

Then he wendes his way   wepande for care,

Toward the mere of Mambre,   mournande for sorwe,

And there in longing all night   he lenges in wones,

780  While the Soverayn to Sodomas   sende to spye.

HIS sonde into Sodomas   was sende in that tyme,

In that ilk eventide,   by angeles twayne,

Mevande mekely togeder   as mery men yonge,

784  As Loth in a loge dor   lened him alone,

In a porche of that place,   pyght to the yates,

That was ryal and rich,   so was the renkes selven.

As he stared into the strete,   there stoute men played,

788  He saw there swey in asent   swete men twayne.

Bolde burnes were thay bothe,   with berdlesse chynnes,

Ryal rollande fax   to rawe silk like,

Of ble as the brere-flour,   whereso the bare schewed;

792  Ful clene was the countenaunce   of her cler iyen;

Wlonk white was her wede,   and wel it hem semed;

Of all fetures ful fyne   and fautlesse bothe:

Was non aucly in ayther   for angeles hit were,

796  And that the yep underyede   that in the yate sittes.

He ros up ful radly   and ran hem to mete,

And lowe he loutes hem to,   Loth, to the grounde,

And sithen soberly he says:   ‘Syres, I yow beseche

800  That ye wolde lyght at my loge   and lenge thereinne.

‘Comes to your knaves kote,   I crave, at this ones.

I schal fette yow a fatte   your fete for to wasche.

I norne yow bot for on night   negh me to lenge,

804  And in the mery morning   ye may your way take!’

And thay nay that thay nolde   neghe no houses,

Bot stilly there in the strete   as thay stad were

Thay wolde lenge the long night,   and logge thereoute:

808  Hit was house inogh to hem   the heven upon lofte.

Loth lathed so longe   with luflyche wordes,

That thay him granted to go   and gruched no lenger.

The bold to his byggyng   brynges hem bylive,

812  That was ryally arayed,   for he was rich ever.

The wyes were welcom   as the wyf couthe;

His two dere doghteres   devoutly hem haylsed,

That were maydenes ful meke,   maryed not yette,

816  And thay were semely and swete   and swythe wel arayed.

Loth then ful lyghtly   lokes him aboute,

And his men amonestes   mete for to dighte:

‘Bot thenkes on hit be threfte,   what thing so ye make,

820  For with no sour ne no salt   serves hem never.’

Bot yet I wene that the wyf   hit wroth to dispite,

And sayd softly to herself:   ‘These unsavere hyne

Loves no salt in her sauce;   yet hit no skylle were

824  That other burn be boute,   thagh bothe be nice.’

Then ho saveres with salt   her sewes uchone,

Agayns the bone of the burn   that hit forboden hade.

And als ho skelt hem in scorne   that wel her skylle knewen.

828  Why was ho, wreche, so wod?   Ho wrathed our Lorde.

Then seten thay at the soper,   were served bylive,

The gestes gay and ful glad,   of glam debonere,

Welawynnely wlonk,   til thay waschen hade,

832  The trestes tylt to the wowe   and the table bothe.

Fro the segges had souped   and seten bot a while,

Ere ever thay busked to bedde   the burgh was all uppe,

All that weppen myght welde,   the wakker and the stronger,

836  To umbe-lye Lothes house,   the ledes to take.

In gret flokkes of folk   thay fallen to his yates.

As a scowt-wache scarred   so the ascry rised.

With kene klubbes of that clos   thay clater on the wowes,

840  And with a schrylle scharp schout   thay schewe these wordes:

‘If thou lovies thy lif,   Loth, in these wones,

Yete us out those yong men   that yore-while here entred,

That we may lere hem of luf,   as our lyst biddes,

844  As is the assyse of Sodomas   to segges that passen.’

What! Thay sputen and speken   of so spitous fylthe –

What! Thay yeyed and yolped   of yestande sorwe –

That the wynd and the weder   and the worlde stynkes

848  Of the brych that upbraides   those brothelyche wordes.

The goodman glyfte with that glam   and gloped for noyse.

So scharp schame to him schot   he schrank at the herte,

For he knew the costoum   that kythed those wreches.

852  He doted never for no doel   so depe in his mynde.

‘Allas,’ sayd him then Loth,   and lyghtly he rises,

And bowes forth fro the bench   into the brode yates.

What! he wonded for no wothe   of wykkede knaves

856  That he ne passed the port   the peril to abide.

He went forth at the wyket   and waft hit him after,

That a clyket hit cleght   clos him bihinde.

Then he meled to tho men   mesurable wordes,

860  For harlotes with his hendelayk   he hoped to chaste:

‘O, my frendes so fre,   your fare is to strange!

Dos away your derf dyn   and deres never my gestes.

Avoy! hit is your vilany:   ye vylen yourselven:

864  And ye are jolyf gentylmen,   your japes are ille.

‘Bot I schal kenne yow by kynde   a craft that is better.

I have a tresor in my telde   of two my fayre deghter,

That are maydenes unmard   for all men yette:

868  In Sodomas, thagh I hit say,   non semloker burdes.

‘Hit are ronk, hit are ripe,   and redy to manne;

To samen with tho semely   the solace is better.

I schal biteche yow tho two   that tayt are and quoynte,

872  And laykes with hem as yow lyst,   and letes my gestes one.’

Then the rybaudes so ronk   rerd such a noyse

That awly hurled in his eres   her harlotes speche:

‘Wost thou not wel that thou wones   here a wye strange,

876  An outcomlyng, a carle?   We kylle of thyn heved!

‘Who joyned thee be justise,   our japes to blame,

That com a boy to this burgh,   thagh thou be burn riche?’

Thus thay thrubled and throng   and threwen umbe his eres,

880  And distresed him wonder strayt   with strenthe in the prece, –

Bot that the yong men so yep   yornen thereoute,

Wapped open the wyket   and wonnen him tille,

And by the handes him hent   and heryed him withinne,

884  And steken the yates stone-hard   with stalworthe barres.

Thay blw a buffet in blande   that banned the peple,

That thay blustered as blynde   as Bayard was ever.

Thay lest of Lothes logging   any lysoun to fynde,

888  Bot nyteled there all the night   for noght at the laste.

Then uch tulk tyght him   that had of tayt fayled,

And uchon rotheled to the rest   that he reche myghte.

Bot thay were wakened all wrong   that there in won lenged,

892  Of on the uglokest unhap   ever on erde suffred.

RUDDON of the day-rawe   ros upon ughten,

When merk of the mydnight   myght no more laste.

Ful erly those angeles   this hathel thay ruthen,

896  And glopnedly on Godes halve   gart him upryse.

Fast the freke ferkes up,   ful ferde at his herte.

Thay comaunded him cof   to cach that he hade,

‘With thy wyf and thy wyes   and thy wlonk deghter,

900  For we lathe thee, sir Loth,   that thou thy lif save.

‘Kayre tite of this kyth,   ere combred thou worthe,

With all thy here upon haste,   til thou a hille fynde;

Foundes fast on your fete,   before your face lokes,

904  Bot bes never so bold   to blusch yow bihinde.

‘And loke ye stemme no step,   bot streches on faste:

Til ye reche to a reset   restes ye never.

For we schal tyne this toun   and traythly disstrye,

908  With all these wyes so wykke   wightly devoyde,

‘And all the londe with these ledes   we losen at ones:

Sodomas schal ful sodenly   synk into grounde,

And the grounde of Gomorra   gorde into helle,

912  And uch a cost of this kyth   clater upon hepes.’

Then lalede Loth:   ‘Lord, what is the beste?

If hit me felle upon fote   that I fle myghte,

How schuld I hyde me fro Him   that has His hate kynded,

916  In the brath of His breth   that brennes all thinges,

‘To crepe fro my Creator   and knowe not wheder,

Ne whether His fooschip me folwes   before other bihinde?’

The freke sayd: ‘No fooschip   our Fader has thee schewed,

920  Bot highly hevened thy hele   fro hem that are combred.

‘Now wale thee a wonnyng   that thee warisch myghte,

And He schal save hit for thy sake   that has us sende hider.

For thou art oddely thyn one   out of this fylthe,

924  And als Abraham thyn em   hit at Himself asked.’

‘Lord, loved He worthe,’   quoth Loth, ‘upon erthe!

There is a city here-biside,   that Segor hit hatte;

Here-utter on a rounde hille   hit hoves hit one:

928  I wolde, if His wille were,   to that won scape.’

‘Then fare forth,’ quoth that fre,   ‘and fyne thou never,

With those ilk that thou wylt,   that threnge thee after,

And aye goande on your gate   withoute agayn-tote,

932  For all this londe schal be lorne   long ere the sunne rise.’

The wye wakened his wyf   and his wlonk deghter,

And other two mery men   tho maydenes schuld wedde,

And thay token hit as tayt   and tented hit little;

936  Thagh fast lathed hem Loth,   thay leyen ful stille.

The angeles hasted these other   and awly hem thratten,

And enforsed all foure   forth at the yates:

Tho were Loth and his lef,   his luflyche deghter;

940  There soght no mo to savement   of cities athel fyve.

These angeles had hem by hande   out at the yates,

Prechande hem the peril   and bede hem passe faste,

‘Lest ye be taken in the tech   of tyrauntes here;

944  Loke ye bowe now by bote:   bowes fast hence!’

And thay kayren hem con   and kenely flowen.

Erly, ere any heven-glem,   thay to a hille come.

The grete God in His greme   begines on lofte

948  To waken wederes so wylde:   the wyndes He calles,

And thay wrothly upwafte   and wrastled togeder,

Fro foure half of the folde   flytande loude.

Cloudes clustered bitwene,   casten up torres,

952  That the thik thunder-thrast   thirled hem ofte.

The rayn rueled adoun,   ridlande thikke,

Of felle flaunkes of fire   and flakes of soufre,

All in smolderande smoke,   smachande ful ille,

956  Sweye aboute Sodomas   and hit sides alle,

Gorde to Gomorra,   that the grounde laused,

Abdama and Syboym – these cities all foure,

All birolled with the rayn,   rosted and brenned –

960  And ferly flayed that folk   that in those fees lenged.

For when that the Helle herde   the houndes of heven,

He was ferlyly fayn,   unfolded bylive:

The grete barres of the abyme   he braste up at ones,

964  That all the regioun to-rof   in riftes ful grete,

And cloven all in little cloutes   the clyffes aywhere,

As lause leves of the boke   that lepes in twynne.

The breth of the brynston   by that hit blende were,

968  All tho cities and her sides   sunkken to helle.

Redles were tho grete routes   of renkes withinne

When thay were ware of the wrake   that no wye eschaped.

Such a yomerly yarm   of yellyng there rised,

972  Thereof clatered the cloudes,   that Cryst myght have routhe.

The segge herde that soun   to Segor that yede,

And the wenches him with   that by the way folwed.

Ferly ferde was her flesch,   that flowen aye ilyche,

976  Trynande aye a high trot,   that turne never dorsten.

Loth and tho luly-white,   his lefly two deghter,

Aye folwed her face   before her bothe iyen;

Bot the baleful burde   that never bode keped

980  Blusched bihinde her bak   that bale for to herken.

Hit was lusty Lothes wyf   that over her lyfte schulder

Ones ho blusched to the burgh;   bot bode ho no lenger

That ho nas stad a stif stone,   a stalworth image,

984  Also salt as any see – and so ho yet standes.

Thay slypped by and saw her not   that were her samen-feres

Til thay in Segor were set,   and sayned our Lorde;

With lyght loves uplyfte   thay loved Him swythe

988  That so His servauntes wolde see   and save of such wothe.

All was dampned and done   and drowned by thenne.

The ledes of that little toun   were lopen out for drede

Into that malscrande mere,   marred bylive,

992  That noght saved was bot Segor,   that sat on a lawe,

The thre ledes therinne,   Loth and his deghter, –

For his make was myst,   that on the mount lenged,

In a stonen statue   that salt savour habbes,

996  For two fautes that the fol   was founde in mistrauthe:

One, ho served at the soper   salt before Dryhtyn,

And sithen ho blusched her bihinde,   thagh her forboden were.

For one ho standes a stone,   and salt for that other,

1000  And all lyst on her lik   that are on launde bestes.

Abraham ful erly   was up on the morne,

That all night much nye   had nomen in his herte,

All in longing for Loth   leyen in a wache;

1004  There he laft had our Lord   he is on lofte wonnen.

He sende toward Sodomas   the sight of his iyen,

That ever had ben an erde   of erthe the swettest,

As aparaunt to Paradise   that planted the Dryhtyn;

1008  Now is hit plunged in a pit   like of pich fylled.

Such a rothun of a reche   ros fro the blake,

Askes up in the ayre   and usles there flowen,

As a fornes ful of flot   that upon fire boyles,

1012  When bryght brennande brondes   are bette there-anunder.

This was a vengaunce violent   that voyded these places,

That foundered has so fayr a folk   and the folde sunkken.

There fyve cities were set   now is a see called,

1016  That aye is drovy and dym   and ded in hit kynde,

Blo, blubrande and blak,   unblythe to neghe,

As a stynkande stanc   that stryede synne,

That ever of smelle and of smach   smart is to fele.

1020  Forthy the derk Dede See   hit is demed evermore, –

For hit dedes of deth   duren there yette,

For hit is brod and bothomles,   and bitter as the galle,

And noght may leng in that lake   that any lif beres,

1024  And all the costes of kynde   hit combres uchone:

For lay thereon a lump of led   and hit on loft fletes,

And folde thereon a lyght fyther   and hit to founs synkes;

And there water may walter   to wete any erthe

1028  Schal never grene thereon grow,   gresse ne wode nauther;

If any schalk to be schent   were schowved thereinne,

Thagh he bode in that bothom   brothely a monyth,

He most aye lyve in that logh,   in losyng evermore,

1032  And never drye no deth   to dayes of ende.

And as hit is corsed of kynde   and hit costes alse,

The clay that clenges thereby   are corsyes stronge,

As alum and alkaran   that angre are bothe,

1036  Soufre sour and saundyver,   and other such mony.

And there waltes of that water   in wax-lokes grete

The spumande aspaltoun   that spyseres sellen.

And such is all the soyle   by that see halves,

1040  That felle fretes the flesch   and festeres bones.

And there are tres by that terne   of traytoures kynde,

And thay borgounes and beres   blomes ful fayre,

And the fayreste fruyt   that may on folde growe,

1044  As orenge and other fruyt   and apple-garnade,

Also red and so ripe   and richely hued

As any dome myght devise   of dayntyes oute;

Bot when hit is brused or broken   or biten in twynne,

1048  No worldes good hit withinne   bot wyndowande askes.

All these are teches and tokenes   to trow upon yette,

And wittnesse of that wykked werk   and the wrake after

That our Fader forferde   for fylthe of those ledes.

1052  Then uch wye may wel wit   that He the wlonk loves.

And if He loves clene layk   that is our Lord riche,

And to be couthe in His court   thou coveytes thenne,

To see that semely in sete   and His swete face,

1056  Clerer counsel con I non   bot that thou clene worthe.

For Clopyngnel in the compas   of his clene Rose,

There he expounes a speche   to him that spede wolde

Of a lady to be loved:   ‘Loke to her sone,

1060  Of wich beryng that ho be   and wich ho best loves:

And be right such in uch a burgh,   of body and of dedes,

And folw the fete of that fere   that thou fre holdes;

And if thou workes on this wyse,   thagh ho wykke were,

1064  Her schal like that layk   that lyknes her tille.’

If thou wil dele drury   with the Dryhtyn thenne,

And lelly lovy thy Lord   and His lef worthe,

Then confourme thee to Cryst,   and thee clene make,

1068  That ever is polysed as playn   as the perle selven.

For loke, fro first that He lyght   withinne the lel mayden,

By how comly a cast   He was clos there,

When venquyst was no vergynyte   ne vyolence maked,

1072  Bot much clener was her corse,   God kynned thereinne;

And eft when He born was   in Bethelen the riche,

In wich puryte thay departed,   thagh thay pore were:

Was never so blysful a bour   as was a bos thenne,

1076  Ne no schroude house so schene   as a schepon there, –

Ne non so glad under God   as ho that grone schulde.

For there was seknesse all sounde   that sarrest is holden,

And there was rose reflayr   where rot has ben ever, –

1080  And there was solace and song   where sorw has aye cryed:

For angeles with instrumentes   of organes and pipes,

And ryal ryngande rotes   and the reken fythel,

And all hende that honestly   myght an hert glade

1084  Aboute my Lady was lent,   when ho deliver were.

Then was her blythe barn   burnist so clene

That both the ox and the asse   Him hered at ones:

Thay knewe Him by His clannes   for Kyng of nature,

1088  For non so clene of such a clos   com never ere thenne.

And if clanly He then com,   ful cortays thereafter,

That all that longed to luther   ful lodly He hated:

By nobleye of His nurture,   He nolde never touche

1092  Oght that was ungoderly   or ordure was inne.

Yet comen lodly to that lede, – as lazares mony,

Summe lepre, summe lome,   and lomerande blynde,

Poysened and parlatyk,   and pined in fires,

1096  Drye folk, and ydropike,   and dede at the laste.

Alle called on that cortayse   and claymed His grace;

He heled hem with hende speche   of that thay ask after:

For whatso He touched also tite   turned to hele,

1100  Wel clener then any craft   couthe devise.

So hende was His hondelyng   uch ordure hit schonied,

And the gropyng so good   of God and man bothe

That, for fetyse of His fyngres,   fonded He never

1104  Nauther to cout ne to kerve   with knyf ne with egge:

Forthy brek He the bred   blades withouten,

For hit ferde freloker in fete   in His fayre hande,

Displayed more pryvyly   when He hit part schulde,

1108  Then all the toles of Tolouse   myght tyght hit to kerve.

Thus is He curious and clene   that thou His court askes:

How schuld thou come to His kyth   bot if thou clene were?

Now are we sore and synful   and souly uchone:

1112  How schuld we see then, may we say,   that Syre upon throne?

Yis, that Mayster is mercyable,   thagh thou be man fenny

And all to-marred in myre   while thou on molde lyves:

Thou may schine thurgh schryfte,   thagh thou has schame served,

1116  And pure thee with penaunce   til thou a perle worthe.

Perle praysed is pris   there perre is schewed,

Thagh hit not derrest be demed   to dele for penies;

What may the cause be called   bot for her clene hues,

1120  That wynnes worschip   above all white stones?

For ho schines so schyre   that is of schap rounde,

Withoute faut other fylthe,   if ho fyne were,

And wax ho ever in the worlde   in weryng so olde,

1124  Yet the perle payres not,   while ho in pece lastes.

And if hit cheve the chaunce   uncheryst ho worthe,

That ho blyndes of ble   in bour there ho lygges,

No bot wasch her with worschip,   in wyne as ho askes,

1128  Ho by kynde schal becom   clerer then ere.

So if folk be defowled   by unfre chaunce,

That he be sulped in saule,   seche to schryfte,

And he may polyce him at the prest,   by penaunce taken,

1132  Wel bryghter then the beryl   or braydene perles.

Bot war thee wel, if thou be waschen   with water of schryfte,

And polysed as playn   as parchemen schaven,

Sulp no more then in synne   thy saule thereafter;

1136  For then thou Dryhtyn displeses   with dedes ful sore, –

And entyses Him to tene   more traythly then ever,

And wel hatter to hate   then had thou not waschen:

For when a saule is saghtled   and sakred to Dryhtyn,

1140  He holly holdes hit His   and have hit He wolde.

Then eft lastes hit likkes,   He loses hit ille,

As hit were rafte with unryght   and robbed with thewes.

War thee then for the wrake:   His wrath is achaufed

1144  For that that ones was His   schuld eft be unclene.

Thagh hit be bot a bassyn,   a bolle or a scole,

A dysche other a dubler   that Dryhtyn ones served,

To defowle hit ever upon folde   fast He forbedes:

1148  So is He scoymus of scathe   that skylful is ever.

And that was bared in Babyloyn   in Baltazar tyme,

How hard unhap there him hent,   and hastily sone,

For he the vesselles avyled   that vayled in the temple

1152  In servyce of the Soverayn   sumtyme before.

If ye wolde tyght me a tom,   telle hit I wolde,

How charged more was his chaunce   that hem cherisch nolde

Then his fader forloyne   that feched hem with strenthe

1156  And robbed the relygioun   of relykes alle.

III

DANIEL in his dialokes   devised sumtyme,

As yet is proved expresse   in his profecies,

How the gentryse of Juise   and Jerusalem the riche

1160  Was disstryed with distresse   and drawen to the erthe.

For that folk in her fayth   was founden untrue,

That had hyght the highe God   to hold of Him ever,

And He hem halwed for His   and help at her nede

1164  In muckel meschefes many   and mervayl to here.

And thay forloyne her fayth   and folwed other goddes:

And that wakened His wrath,   and wrast hit so highe

That He fylsened the faythful   in the false lawe

1168  To forfare the false   in the fayth true.

Hit was sene in that sythe   that Zedechyas rengned

In Judee, that justised   the Juyne kynges;

He sat on Salomones solie   on solemne wyse,

1172  Bot of leaute he was late   to his Lorde hende.

He used abominaciones   of idolatrye,

And let lyght by the law   that he was lege tille;

Forthy our Fader upon folde   a foman him wakened:

1176  Nabugo de nozar   nyed him swithe.

He pursued into Palastyn   with proude men mony,

And there he wasted with werre   the wones of thorpes;

He heryed up all Israel   and hent of the beste,

1180  And the gentylest of Judee   in Jerusalem biseged,

Umbe-walt all the walles   with wyes ful stronge,

At uch a dor a doghty duk,   and dit hem withinne;

For the burgh was so bigge   baytayled alofte,

1184  And stuffed withinne with stout men   to stalle hem thereoute.

Then was the sege set   the city aboute;

Skete skarmoch skelt,   much scathe was lached,

At uch brygge a berfray,   on basteles wyse,

1188  That seven sythe uch a day   asayled the yates.

True tulkes in towres   teveled withinne,

In big brutage of borde   bulde on the walles.

Thay fyght and thay fende of   and fylter togeder,

1192  Til two yere overtorned,   yet toke thay hit never.

At the last upon long   tho ledes withinne

Fast fayled hem the fode,   enfamined mony:

The hote hunger withinne   hurt hem wel sarre

1196  Then any dint of that douth   that dwelled thereoute.

Then were tho routes redles   in tho riche wones:

Fro that mete was myst,   megre thay waxed,

And thay stoken so strayt   that thay ne stray myghte

1200  A fote fro that forselet   to forray no godes.

Then the kyng of the kyth   a counsel him takes

With the best of his burnes   a blench for to make:

Thay stel out on a stille night   ere any steven rised,

1204  And hard hurles thurgh the oste   ere enmies hit wyste.

Bot ere thay atwappe ne myght   the wache withoute,

Highe skelt was the ascry   the skues anunder:

Loud alarom upon launde   lulted was thenne,

1208  Riche, ruthed of her rest,   ran to her wedes:

Hard hattes thay hent   and on horse lepes,

Cler claryoun crak   cryed on lofte;

By that was all on a hepe   hurlande swithe,

1212  Folwande that other flot, – and founde hem bylive:

Overtok hem as tite,   tult hem of sadeles,

Til uch prince had his pere   put to the grounde;

And there was the kyng caght   with Caldee princes,

1216  And all his gentyle forjusted   on Jerico playnes.

And presented were as presoners   to the prince richest:

Nabugo de nozar   noble in his chayer, –

And he the faynest freke   that he his fo hade,

1220  And speke spitously hem to   and spylt hem thereafter.

The kynges sunes in his sight   he slow everuchone,

And holkked out his owne iyen   heterly bothe,

And bede the burn to be broght   to Babyloyn the riche,

1224  And there in doungoun be done   to drye there his wyrdes.

Now se, so the Soverayn   set has His wrake!

Nas hit not for Nabugo,   ne his noble nauther,

That other depryved was of pryde   with paynes ful stronge,

1228  Bot for his beryng so badde   agayns his blythe Lorde.

For, had the Fader ben his frende,   that him before keped,

Ne never trespast to Him   in tech of mysseleve,

To colde were all Caldye   and kythes of Ynde,

1232  Yet take Torkye hem with, – her tene had ben little.

Yet nolde never Nabugo   this ilke note leve

Ere he had tyrved this toun   and torne hit to grounde:

He joyned unto Jerusalem   a gentyl duk thenne –

1236  His name was Nabuzardan – to noye the Jues.

He was mayster of his men   and myghty himselven,

The chef of his chevalry   his chekkes to make.

He brek the barers as bylive,   and the burgh after,

1240  And entres in ful ernestly   in ire of his herte.

What, the maystery was mene! – the men were awaye:

The best bowed with the burn   that the burgh yemed;

And tho that biden were so biten   with the bale-hunger

1244  That on wyf had ben worth   the weliest foure.

Nabuzardan noght forthy   nolde not spare,

Bot bede all to the bronde   under bare egge.

Thay slowen of swettest   semlyche burdes,

1248  Bathed barnes in blod   and her brayn spylled.

Prestes and prelates   thay presed to dethe,

Wyves and wenches   her wombes to-korven,

That her boweles out borst   aboute the diches,

1252  And all was carfully kylled   that thay cach myghte.

And all that swypped unswolwed   of the sworde kene,

Thay were cagged and caght   on capeles all bare,

Festned fettres to her fete   under fole wombes,

1256  And brothely broght to Babyloyn,   there bale to suffer, –

To sitte in servage and syt,   that sumtyme were gentyle:

Now are chaunged to chorles   and charged with werkes,

Both to kayre at the kart   and the kuy mylke,

1260  That sumtyme sat in her sale,   syres and burdes.

And yet Nabuzardan   nyl never stynte,

Ere he to the temple tee   with his tulkes alle, –

Betes on the barers,   brestes up the yates,

1264  Slowen all at a slyp   that served thereinne.

Pulden prestes by the polle   and plat of her hedes,

Dighten dekenes to deth,   dungen doun clerkes,

And all the maydenes of the mynster   maghtyly hem kyllen,

1268  With the swayf of the sworde   that swolwed hem alle.

Then ran thay to the relykes   as robbores wylde,

And pyled all the apparement   that pented to the kyrke:

The pure pyleres of brasse,   portrayed in golde,

1272  And the chef chaundeler,   charged with the lyghte, –

That bere the lamp upon loft   that lemed evermore

Before the sancta sanctorum,   there selcouth was ofte;

Thay caght away that candelstik,   and the crowne alse

1276  That the auter had upon   of athel gold riche, –

The gredirne, and the goblotes   garnyst of sylver,

The bases of the bryght postes,   and bassynes so schyre,

Dere disches of gold   and dubleres fayre,

1280  The vyoles and the vesselment   of vertuous stones:

Now has Nabuzardan nomen   all these noble thinges

And pyled that precious place   and pakked those godes, –

The gold of the gazafylace   to swythe gret noumbre,

1284  With all the ornementes of that house,   he hamppred togeder:

All he spoyled spitously   in a sped while

That Salomon so mony a sad yere   soghte to make, –

With all the quoyntyse that he couthe   clene to worke

1288  Devised he the vesselment,   the vestures clene:

With sleght of his syences   his Soverayn to love

The house and the anournamentes   he hyghtled togeder.

Now has Nabuzardan   nomen hit all samen,

1292  And sithen bete doun the burgh   and brend hit in askes.

Then with legiounes of ledes   over londes he rides,

Heryes of Israel   the hyrnes aboute;

With chargede chariotes,   the cheftayn he fyndes,

1296  Bikennes the catel to the kyng   that he caght hade, –

Presented him the presoneres   in pray that thay token:

Mony a worthely wye,   while her world lasted,

Mony a semely syre son   and swythe rich maydenes,

1300  The proudest of the province   and prophetes childer,

As Ananie and Azarie,   and alse Mighael,

And dere Daniel also,   that was devine noble,

With mony a mody moder childe   mo then inoghe.

1304  And Nabugo de nozar   makes much joye:

Now he the kyng has conquest   and the kyth wonne,

And dreped all the doghtyest   and derrest in armes,

And the lederes of her law   layd to the grounde,

1308  And the pris of the profecie   presoners maked.

Bot the joy of the juelrye   so gentyl and riche,

When hit was schewed him so schene, – scharp was his wonder:

Of such vessel avayed   that vayled so huge

1312  Never yet nas Nabugo   de Nozar ere thenne.

He sesed hem with solemnete, – the Soverayn he praysed

That was athel over all,   Israel Dryhtyn:

Such god, suche gomes,   suche gay vesselles

1316  Com never out of kyth   to Caldee remes.

He trussed hem in his tresorye,   in a tried place,

Rekenly with reverence, – as he right hade;

And there he wroght as the wyse,   as ye may wit hereafter,

1320  For had he let of hem lyght,   him myght have lumpen worse.

That riche in gret ryalty   rengned his lyve:

As conquerour of uch a cost,   he kayser was hatte,

Emperour of all the erthe,   and also the saudan,

1324  And as the god of the grounde   was graven his name –

And all thurgh dome of Daniel,   fro he devised hade

That all godes com of God,   and gave hit him in samples,

That he ful clanly beknew   his carp by the laste,

1328  And oft hit mekned his mynde,   his maysterful werkes.

Bot all drawes to die   with doel upon ende:

Be a hathel never so high,   he heldes to grounde;

And so Nabugo de nozar,   as he nedes moste,

1332  For all his empire so high,   in erthe is he graven.

Bot then the bolde Baltazar,   that was his barn aldest,

He was stalled in his sted,   and stabled the regne,

In the burgh of Babyloyn – the biggest, he trowed,

1336  That nauther in heven ne on erthe   hade no pere.

For he began in all the glory   that him the gome lafte,

Nabugo de nozar   that was his noble fader.

So kene a kyng in Caldye   com never ere thenne;

1340  Bot honoured he not Him   that in heven wones, –

Bot false fantummes of fendes,   formed with handes,

With tole out of hard tre,   and telded on lofte;

And of stokkes and stones   he stoute goddes calles,

1344  When thay are gilde all with gold   and gered with sylver.

And there he kneles and calles   and clepes after helpe;

And thay reden him right,   rewarde he hem hetes, –

And if thay gruchen him his grace   to gremen his herte,

1348  He cleches to a gret klubbe   and knokkes hem to peces.

Thus in pryde and olipraunce   his empire he holdes,

In lust and in lecherye   and lothelyche werkes, –

And had a wyf for to welde,   a worthilyche quene,

1352  And mony a lemman never the later,   that ladies were called.

In the clernes of his concubines   and curious wedes,

In notyng of newe metes   and of nice gettes,

All was the mynde of that man   on misschapen thinges,

1356  Til the Lord of the lyft   lyst hit abate.

THEN this bolde Baltazar   bithenkes him ones

To vouche an avayment   of his vayne glory; –

Hit is not inogh to the nice   all noghty thing use,

1360  Bot if all the world wit   his wykkede dedes.

Baltazar thurgh Babyloyn   his banne gart crye,

And thurgh the countre of Caldye   his callyng con sprynge,

That all the gret upon grounde   schuld geder hem samen

1364  And assemble at a set day   at the saudans feste.

Such a mangerie to make   the man was avised

That uch a kythyne kyng   schulde come thider,

Uch duk with his douth   and other dere lordes

1368  Schulde come to his court   to kythe him for lege, –

And to reche him reverence   and his revel herken,

To loke on his lemmanes   and ladies hem calle.

To rose him in his ryalty   riche men soghte,

1372  And mony a baroun ful bold,   to Babyloyn the noble.

There bowed toward Babyloyn   burnes so mony,

Kynges, kayseres ful kene,   to the court wonnen,

Mony ledische lordes   that ladies broghten,

1376  That to neven the noumbre   to much nye were.

For the burgh was so brod   and so big alse,

Stalled in the fayrest sted   the sterres anunder,

Proudly on a plat playn,   plek altherfayrest,

1380  Umbe-sweyed on uch a side   with seven grete wateres, –

With a wonder wroght wal,   wruxled ful highe,

With quoynt carneles above,   corven ful clene,

Troched towres bitwene,   twenty spere lenthe,

1384  And thikker throwen umbethour   with overthwert palle.

The place that plyed   the poursent withinne

Was long and ful large   and ever ilyche sware,

And uch a side upon soyle   helde seven myle;

1388  And the saudans sete   set in the myddes.

That was a palayce of pryde,   passande all other,

Both of werk and of wonder   and wal all aboute, –

Highe houses withinne,   the halle to hit mede,

1392  So brod bulde in a bay   that blonkes myght renne.

When the terme of the tyde   was touched of the feste,

Dere drowen thereto   and upon dese metten;

And Baltazar upon bench   was busked to sete:

1396  Stepe stared stones   of his stoute throne.

Then was all the halle flor   hiled with knightes,

And barouns at the side-bordes   bounet aywhere;

For non was dressed upon dese   bot the dere selven

1400  And his clere concubines   in clothes ful bryghte.

When all segges were there set,   then servyce begines:

Sturne trumpes strake   steven in halle,

Aywhere by the wowes   wrasten out crakkes,

1404  And brode baneres thereby,   blysnande of golde, –

Burnes berande the bredes   upon brode skeles,

That were of sylveren sight,   and sewes therewith

(Lyfte logges thereover,   and on loft corven,

1408  Pared out of paper,   and poynted of golde),

Brothe baboynes above,   bestes anunder,

Fowles in foler   flakerande bitwene;

And all in asure and ynde   enaumayld riche;

1412  And all on blonkene bak   bere hit on hande, –

And aye the nakryne noyse,   notes of pipes,

Tymbres and tabornes   tulket amonges,

Symbals and sonetes   sware the noyse,

1416  And bougounes busch   batered so thikke.

So was served fele sythe   the sale all aboute,

With solace at the sere course   before the self lorde,

There the lede and all his love   lenged at the table;

1420  So fast thay weyed to him wyne   hit warmed his herte,

And breythed up into his brayn   and blemyst his mynde,

And all waykned his wyt,   and wel negh he foles;

For he waytes on wyde, – his wenches he beholdes,

1424  And his bolde baronage   aboute by the wowes.

Then a dotage ful depe   drof to his herte,

And a caytif counsayle   he caght by himselven:

Maynly his marschal   the mayster upon calles,

1428  And comaundes him cofly   coferes to lause,

And fech forth the vessel   that his fader broghte,

Nabugo de nozar,   noble in his strenthe,

Conquerd with his knightes   and of kyrk rafte,

1432  In Judee, in Jerusalem,   in gentyle wyse.

‘Bryng hem now to my borde,   of beverage hem fylles, –

Let these ladies of hem lape;   I lovy hem in herte:

That schal I cortaysly kythe,   and thay schyn know sone

1436  There is no bounte in burn   like Baltazar thewes.’

Then touched to the tresour   this tale was sone,

And he with keyes uncloses   kystes ful mony;

Mony burthen ful bryght   was broght into halle

1440  And covered mony a cupborde   with clothes ful white.

The jueles out of Jerusalem,   with gemmes ful bryghte,

By the side of the sale   were semely arayed.

The athel auter of brasse   was hade into place,

1444  The gay coroune of gold   gered alofte.

That had ben blessed before   with bischopes handes,

And with bestene blod   busily anoynted

In the solemne sacrefyce   that good savour hade,

1448  Before the Lord of the lyft,   in lovyng Himselven,

Now is set for to serve   Satanas the blake,

Before the bolde Baltazar,   with bost and with pryde.

Hoven upon this auter   was athel vesselle,

1452  That with so curious a craft   corven was wyly:

Salomon set him seven yere   and a sythe more,

With all the syence that him sende   the soverayn Lorde,

For to compas and cast   to have hem clene wroght.

1456  For there were bassynes ful bryght   of brende gold clere,

Enaumayld with asure,   and eweres of sute;

Covered cuppes ful clene   as casteles arayed,

Enbaned under batelment   with banteles quoynte,

1460  And fyled out of figures   of ferlyly schappes, –

The coprounes of the covacles   that on the cuppe reres

Were fetysely formed out   in fylyoles longe,

Pinacles pyght there apert   that profert bitwene;

1464  And all bolled above   with braunches and leves, –

Pyes and papejayes   portrayed withinne,

As thay proudly had piked   of pomegarnades;

For all the blomes of the boghes   were blyknande perles,

1468  And all the fruyt in tho formes   of flaumbande gemmes:

And safyres and sardiners   and semely topace,

Alabaundarynes and emerads   and amatyst stones,

Calsydoynes and crysolytes   and clere rubies,

1472  Peritotes and pynkardines,   aye perles bitwene.

So trayled and trifled   a-traverce were alle,

By uch bekyr and bolle   the brurdes all umbe,

The goblotes of gold   graven aboute

1476  And fyoles fretted with flowres   and flyes of golde.

Upon that auter was all   aliche dressed;

The candelstik by acost   was kayred thider sone,

Upon the pyleres apyked   that praysed hit mony,

1480  Upon hit bases of brasse   that bere up the werkes:

The boghes bryght thereabove,   brayden of golde,

Braunches bredande thereon,   and bryddes there sete,

Of mony kyndes,   of fele kyn hues,

1484  As thay with wynge upon wynd   had waged her fytheres;

Inmong the leves of the launces   lampes were graythed,

And other luflyche lyght,   that lemed ful fayre, –

As mony morteres of wax,   merked withoute

1488  With mony a borlych best   all of brende golde.

Hit was not wont in that won   to waste no serges,

Bot in temple of the trauthe   truly to stande

Before the sancta sanctorum,   there sothefaste Dryhtyn

1492  Expouned His speche spiritually   to special prophetes.

Leve thou wel that the Lord   that the lyft yemes

Displesed much at that play   in that plyt strange,

That his jueles so gent   with javeles were fouled,

1496  That precious in His presense   were proved sumwhyle:

Soberly in His sacrefyce   summe were anoynted,

Thurgh the somones of Himself   that sittes so highe.

Now a boster on bench   bibbes thereoffe

1500  Til he be dronken as the devel,   and dotes there he sittes.

So the Worker of this world   wlates therewith,

That in the poynt of her play   He porvayes a mynde;

Bot ere harme hem He wolde   in haste of His ire,

1504  He wayned hem a warnyng   that wonder hem thoghte.

Now is all this gere geten   glotounes to serve,

Stad in a rich stalle   and stared ful bryghte.

Baltazar in a brayd,   ‘Bede us thereoffe!

1508  Weye wyne in this won!   Wassayl!’ he cryes.

Swyfte swaynes ful swythe   swepen theretille,

Kyppe cuppes in hand,   kynges to serve;

In bryght bolles ful bayn   birlen these other,

1512  And uch man for his mayster   maches alone.

There was rynging aryght   of riche metalles,

When renkes in that riche rok   rennen hit to cache,

Clatering of covacles   that casten tho burdes,

1516  As sonet out of sauteray   songen as mery.

Then the dotel on dese   drank that he myghte;

And then are dressed   dukes and princes,

Concubines and knightes – bicause of that mirthe,

1520  As uchone had him in helde,   he haled of the cuppe.

So long likked these lordes   these lykores swete,

And gloryed on her false goddes   and her grace calles –

That were of stokkes and stones,   stille evermore:

1524  Never steven hem astel,   so stoken is her tonge.

All the good golden goddes   the gaules yet nevenen –

Belfagor and Belyal   and Belssabub alse –

Hered hem as highly   as heven were thayres:

1528  Bot Him that all godes gives,   that God thay foryeten.

For there a ferly befel   that fele folk sawen;

First knew it the kyng,   and all the court after.

In the palayce pryncipal,   upon the playn wowe,

1532  In contrary of the candelstik,   that clerest hit schined,

There apered a paume,   with poyntel in fyngres,

That was grysly and gret,   and grymly he wrytes –

None other forme bot a fyste,   faylande the wryste –

1536  Pared on the parget,   portrayed lettres.

When that bolde Baltazar   blusched to that neve,

Such a dasande drede   dusched to his herte

That all falewed his face   and fayled the chere;

1540  The strong stroke of the stounde   strayned his joyntes:

His knes caches to close   and cluchches his hommes.

And he with plattyng his paumes   displayes his lerns

And romyes as a rad ryth   that rores for drede,

Aye beholdand the hand   til hit had all graven,

1545  And rasped on the rogh wowe   runische sawes.

When hit the scrypture had scraped   with a scrof penne,

As a coltour in clay   kerves tho forwes,

Then hit vanist verayly   and voyded of sighte;

1549  Bot the lettres bileved   ful large upon plaster.

Sone so the kyng for his care   carpyng myght wynne,

He bede his burnes bow to   that were boke-lered

To wayte the writ that hit wolde,   and wyter him to saye –

1553  ‘For all hit frayes my flesch,   the fyngres so grymme.’

Scoleres skelten thereat,   the skylle for to fynde;

Bot there was never one so wyse   couth on word rede, –

Ne what ledische lore  ne langage nauther,

1557  What tythyng ne tale,   tokened tho draghtes.

Then the bolde Baltazar   brayde ner wode,

And bede the city to sech   segges thurghoute

That were wyse of wychecraft,   and warlowes other

1561  That con dele with demerlayk   and devine lettres.

‘Calle hem all to my court,   tho Caldee clerkes;

Unfolde hem all this ferly   that is bifallen here,

And calle with a high cry:   he that the kyng wysses,

1565  In expounyng of speche   that spredes in these lettres, –

‘And make the mater to malt   my mynde withinne,

That I may wyterly wit   what that writ menes –

He schal be gered ful gay   in gounes of purpre,

1569  And a coler of cler gold   clos umbe his throte;

‘He schal be prymate and prince   of pure clergye,

And of my thryvenest lordes   the thrid he schal hatte,

And of my reme the richest   to ride with myselven,

1573  Out-taken bare two,   and tee he the thridde.’

This cry was up cast,   and there comen mony

Clerkes out of Caldye   that kennest were knowen,

As the sage sathrapas   that sorsory couthe;

1577  Wyches and walkyries   wonnen to that sale,

Devinores of demerlaykes   that dremes couthe rede,

Sorsers of exorsismus,   and fele such clerkes;

And all that loked on that letter   as lewed thay were

1581  As thay had loked in the lether   of my lyft bote.

Then cryes the kyng   and kerves his wedes.

What, he corsed his clerkes   and called hem chorles;

To henge the harlotes   he hyed ful ofte;

1585  So was the wye wytles   he wede ful nere.

Ho herde him chyde to the chamber   that was the chef quene;

When ho was wytered by wyes   what was the cause,

1588  Such a chaungande chaunce   in the chef halle,

The lady, to lause that losse   that the lord hade,

Glydes doun by the grece   and gos to the kynge;

Ho kneles on the colde erthe   and carpes to himselven

1592  Wordes of worschip   with a wyse speche:

‘Kene kyng,’ quoth the quene,   ‘kayser of erthe,

Ever laste thy lif   into lenthe of dayes.

Why has thou rended thy robe   for redles hereinne,

1596  Thagh those ledes ben lewed   lettres to rede? –

‘And has a hathel in thy holde,   as I have herde ofte,

That has the gostes of God,   that gyes all sothes;

His saule is ful of syence   sawes to schewe,

1600  To open uch a hid thing   of aunteres uncouthe.

‘That is he that ful oft   has hevened thy fader

Of mony anger ful hot   with his holy speche:

When Nabugo de nozar   was nyed in stoundes,

1604  He devised his dremes   to the dere trauthe;

‘He kevered him with his counsayle   of caytiffe wyrdes;

All that he spured him in space   he expouned clene,

Thurgh the sped of the spyryt   that sprad him withinne

1608  Of the godelest goddes   that gaynes aywhere.

‘For his depe divinite   and his dere sawes,

Thy bolde fader “Baltazar”   bede be his name,

That now is demed “Daniel   of derne connynges”,

1612  That caght was in the captyvide   in countre of Jues:

‘Nabuzardan him nome,   and now is he here,

A prophete of that province   and pris of the worlde.

Sende into the city   to sech him bylive

1616  And wynne him thee with worschip   to wayne thee bote.

‘And thagh the mater be merk   that merked is yonder,

He schal declar hit also cler   as hit on clay standes.’

That good counsayle at the quene   was cached as swythe;

1620  The burn before Baltazar   was broght in a while.

When he com before the kyng   and clanly had haylsed,

Baltazar umbe-brayde him,   and, ‘Beau sir,’ he sayde,

‘Hit is tolde me by tulkes   that thou true were

1624  Prophete of that province   that prayed my fader,

‘And that thou has in thy hert   holy connynges,

Of sapyence thy saule ful   sothes to schewe;

Godes gost is thee geven   that gyes all thinges,

1628  And thou unhyles uch hid   that heven-kyng myntes.

‘And here is a ferly befallen,   and I fayn wolde

Wit the wyt of the writ   that on the wowe clyves;

For all Caldee clerkes   han cowardely fayled.

1632  If thou with quoyntyse conquere hit,   I quyte thee thy mede.

‘For if thou redes hit by right   and hit to resoun brynges, –

First tell me the tyxt   of the tede lettres

And sithen the mater of the mod   mene me thereafter –

1636  And I schal holde thee the hest   that I thee hyght have:

‘Apyke thee in purpre cloth,   palle altherfynest,

And the bye of bryght gold   aboute thy nekke,

And the thrid thryvenest   that thrynges me after, –

1640  Thou schalt be baroun upon bench,   bede I thee no lesse.’

Derfly then Daniel   deles these wordes:

‘Riche kyng of this regne,   rede thee our Lorde!

Hit is surely soth   the Soverayn of heven

1644  Fylsened ever thy fader   and upon folde cherisched,

‘Gart him grattest to be   of governores alle,

And all the worlde in his wille,   welde as him likes:

Whoso he wolde wel do,   wel him bitidde,

1648  And whos deth so he desyre   he dreped as faste;

‘Whoso him liked to lyft,   on lofte was he sone,

And whoso him liked to lay   was lowed bylive.

So was noted the note   of Nabugo de nozar,

1652  Stifly stabled the regne   by the stronge Dryhtyn.

‘For of the Highest he had   a hope in his herte,

That uch power passed out   of that Prince even;

And while that was cleght   clos in his herte,

1656  There was no man upon molde   of myght as himselven.

‘Til hit bitidde on a tyme   touched him pryde,

For his lordeschyp so large   and his lif riche:

He had so huge an insyght   to his owne dedes

1660  That the power of the high Prince   he purely foryetes.

‘Then blynnes he not of blasfemy   to blame the Dryhtyn:

His myght mete to Godes   he made with his wordes:

“I am god of the grounde   to gye as me likes,

1664  As He that high is in heven,   His angeles that weldes;

‘ “If He has formed the folde   and folk thereupone,

I have bigged Babyloyn,   burgh altherrichest,

Stabled therein uch a stone   in strenthe of myn armes:

1668  Myght never myght bot myn   make such another.”

‘Was not this ilke word   wonnen of his mouthe

Ere then the Soverayn sawe   souned in his eres:

“Now Nabugo de nozar   inogh has spoken:

1672  Now is all thy pryncipalte   passed at ones,

‘ “And thou remued fro manes sunes   on mor most abide,

And in wasturne walk   and with the wylde dwelle,

As best bite on the bent   of braken and erbes,

1676  With wrothe wolves to wone   and with wylde asses.”

‘In-mydde the poynt of his pryde   departed he there:

Fro the solie of his solemnete   his solace he leves,

And carfully is out cast   to countre unknawen,

1680  Fer into a fyr frith   there frekes never comen.

‘His hert helded unhole:   he hoped non other

Bot a best that he be,   a bol or an oxe;

He fares forth on all foure,   fogge was his mete,

1684  And ete hay as a horse   when erbes were fallen.

‘Thus he countes him a kow   that was a kyng riche

While seven sythes were overseyed   someres, I trowe.

By that mony thik thye   thryght umbe his lere,

1688  That all was dubbed and dight   in the dew of heven;

‘Fax fyltered and felt   flosed him umbe,

That sched fro his schulderes   to his schyre-wykes,

And twentyfolde twynande   hit to his tos raghte,

1692  There mony clyvy as clyde   hit cliched togeder;

‘His berd ibrad all his brest   to the bare erthe,

His browes bresed as breres   aboute his brode chekes;

Holwe were his iyen   and under campe hayres;

1696  And all was gray as the glede,   with ful grymme clawres,

‘That were croked and kene   as the kyte pauue;

Erne-hued he was   and all overbrayden, –

Til he wyste ful wel   who wroght alle myghtes

1700  And couth uch kyndom tokerve   and kever when Him liked.

‘Then He wayned him his wyt   that had wo suffred,

That he com to knawlach   and kenned himselven.

Then he loved that Lord,   and leved in trauthe

1704  Hit was non other then He   that had all in hande.

‘Then sone was he sende agayn,   his sete restored;

His barouns bowed him to,   blythe of his come.

Hawerly in his own hue   his heved was covered;

1708  And so yeply was yarked   and yolden his state.

‘Bot thou Baltazar, his barn   and his bold ayre,

Saw these syngnes with sight   and set hem at little,

Bot aye has hoven thy hert   agayns the highe Dryhtyn,

1712  With bobbaunce and with blasfemy   bost at Him caste, –

‘And now His vesselles avyled   in vanyte unclene,

That in His house Him to honour   were hevened of firste:

Before the barouns has hem broght   and birled thereinne

1716  Wale wyne to thy wenches   in waryed stoundes;

‘Before thy borde has thou broght   for beverage in thede

That blythely were first blessed   with bischopes handes,

Lovande thereon lese goddes   that lif haden never,

1720  Made of stokkes and stones   that never styry myghten.

‘And for that frothande fylthe   the Fader of heven

Has sende into this sale   these sightes uncouthe,

The fyste with the fyngres   that flayed thy herte,

1724  That rasped runischly the wowe   with the rogh penne.

‘These are the wordes here wryten,   withoute werk more,

By uch figure, as I fynde,   as our Fader likes:

MANE, TECHAL, PHARES,   merked in thrynne,

1728  That thretes thee of thyn unthryfte   upon thre wyse.

‘Now expoun thee this speche   spedly I thenke:

MANE menes as much   as maynfulle Gode

Has counted thy kyndom   by a clene noumbre

1732  And fulfylled it in fayth   to the ferre ende.

‘To teche thee of TECHAL,   that terme thus menes

Thy wale regne is walt   in weghtes to henge

And is founde ful fewe   of hit fayth dedes.

1736  And PHARES folwes for those fautes,   to frayste the trauthe.

‘In PHARES fynde I for sothe   these felle sawes:

Departed is thy pryncipalte,   depryved thou worthes,

Thy regne rafte is thee fro   and raght is the Perses,

1740  The Medes schal be maysters here,   and thou of menske schowved.’

The kyng comaunded anon   to clethe that wyse

In frokkes of fyne cloth,   as forward hit asked.

Then sone was Daniel dubbed   in ful dere purpre

1744  And a coler of cler gold   cast umbe his swyre.

Then was demed a decre   by the duk selven:

Bolde Baltazar bede   that him bowe schulde

The comynes all of Caldye   that to the kyng longed,

1748  As to the prince privyest   preved the thridde, –

Highest of all other,   save oneliche twayne,

To bow after Baltazar   in burgh and in felde.

This was cryed and knowen   in court also faste,

1752  And all the folk thereof fayn   that folwed him tille.

Bot howso Daniel was dight,   that day overyede:

Night neghed right now,   with nyes ful mony;

For dawed never another day   that ilke derk after

1756  Ere dalt was that ilke dome   that Daniel devised.

The solace of the solemnete   in that sale dured,

Of that farande fest,   til fayled the sunne.

Then blykned the ble   of the bryght skues:

1760  Mourkenes the mery weder,   and the mist drives,

Thorgh the lyst of the lyft,   by the low medoes.

Uch hathel to his home   hyes ful faste,

Seten at her soper,   songen thereafter:

1764  Then foundes uch a felawschyp   ferre at forth-naghtes.

Baltazar to his bed   with blisse was kayred:

Reche the rest as him lyst,   he ros never thereafter.

For his foes in the felde   in flokkes ful grete,

1768  That long had layted that lede,   his londes to strye,

Now are thay sodenly assembled   at the self tyme:

Of hem wyste no wye   that in that won dwelled.

Hit was the dere Daryus,   the duk of these Medes,

1772  The proud prince of Perce   and Porros of Ynde,

With mony a legioun ful large,   with ledes of armes,

That now has spied a space   to spoyle Caldees.

Thay throngen thider in the thester   on throwene hepes,

1776  Ascaped over the skyre wateres,   and scayled the walles:

Lyfte laddres ful long   and upon lofte wonnen,

Stelen stilly the toun   ere any steven rised.

Withinne an houre of the night,   an entre thay hade;

1780  Yet afrayed thay no freke;   ferre thay passen, –

And to the palayce pryncipal   thay aproched ful stille.

Then ran thay in on a res   on routes ful grete:

Blastes out of bryght brasse   brestes so highe;

1784  Ascry scarred on the skue,   that scomfyted mony.

Segges slepande were slayn   ere thay slyppe myghte;

Uch house heryed was   withinne a hand-while;

Baltazar in his bed   was beten to dethe,

1788  That both his blod and his brayn   blende on the clothes.

The kyng in his cortyn   was caght by the heles,

Feryed out by the fete   and foule dispysed,

That was so doghty that day,   and drank of the vesselle:

1792  Now is a dogge also dere   that in a dich lygges.

For the mayster of these Medes   on the morne rises,

Dere Daryus that day,   dight upon throne;

That city seses ful sounde,   and saghtelyng makes

1796  With all the barouns thereaboute,   that bowed him after.

And thus was that londe lost   for the lordes synne,

The fylthe of the freke   that defowled hade

The ornementes of Godes house,   that holy were maked;

1800  He was corsed for his unclannes   and cached thereinne,

Done doun of his dyngnete   for dedes unfayre,

And of this worldes worschip   wrast out for ever, –

And yet of lykynges on lofte   letted, I trowe:

1804  To loke on our lovely Lord   late bitydes.

Thus upon thrynne wyses   I have you thro schewed

That unclannes to-cleves   in corage dere

Of that wynnelyche Wye   that wones in heven,

1808  Entyses Him to be tene,   teldes up His wrake;

And clannes is His comfort   and quoyntyse He loves,

And those that seme are and swete   schyn see His owne face.

That we gon gay in our gere   that grace He us sende,

1812  That we may serve in His sight,   there solace never blynnes. Amen.

PATIENCE

Foreword

Patience is, like Cleanness, a poem whose structure – text followed by narrative exemplum [illustrative story] – is that of the homily or sermon. The text again comes from the Beatitudes, and the illustrative narrative from the Old Testament, though Patience confines itself to the single story of Jonah, and thus gains in focus and momentum, where the multiple stories of Cleanness make rather for shift and multiplicity of perspective. This time it is the last Beatitude that is taken as the base text: ‘Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness’ sake’ (Matthew 5:10). This is rendered in the poem as ‘Thay are happen … that con her hert stere’ (27), which at once shifts the emphasis from martyrdom to emotional self-restraint, especially with regard to that passionate protest which, as the poem is keenly aware, is the instinctive response to anything that counters one’s will. But in the Latin of the Vulgate (the version of the Bible known in the poet’s day), the verb translated above as ‘are persecuted’ is patiuntur, which reveals why the Beatitude suggested itself as relevant to the etymologically related patience, announced as the subject of the poem in its opening word (as cleanness is in Cleanness). The English equivalent of the verb pati was ‘to suffer’, and, though not used by the poet in his translation of patiuntur, that verb turns out to be of pivotal significance elsewhere in the prologue provided to the Bible story. Like pati, ‘suffer’ could in Middle English denote both the passive experience of hardship (‘undergo affliction’) and the active virtue of endurance and acceptance of it (‘exercise long-suffering, be patient’), and the logic of the Prologue depends partly on punning interplay between the two senses of the word. For on each of the two occasions on which it is used, it figures twice, once in the former sense, and once in the latter (see 5–6, 44–6): when one must ‘suffer = undergo pain’, it behoves one to ‘suffer = be patient’, for, if one does not, one merely suffers the more in the first sense. It is thus on prudential grounds, rather than on spiritual or moral ones, that the virtue is recommended, and the logic is wryly pragmatic: the poet points to the link created in the Bible between the last Beatitude and the first (‘Blessed are the poor’) by the fact that the same wording is used of the spiritual rewards the two categories of persons will enjoy (‘for theirs is the kingdom of heaven’), and claims to have experiential proof of the essential connection between the two – for he has himself been visited by poverty, and thus has no option but to ‘suffer’ (in both senses: 41–8).

The link into the story of Jonah is then provided by the hypothetical situation the poet describes in order to illustrate the wisdom of sufferance (patient acceptance) where suffering (disagreeable experience) is inevitable: if his lord were to command him to go to Rome, there would be no point in complaining, for he would be forced to go anyway and would simply gain for himself the additional burden of his lord’s displeasure (51–6). It is this specific and immediate point that the story of Jonah (who refused his Lord’s command to go to Nineveh and as a consequence found himself transported thither in a whale’s belly) is introduced as exemplifying (57–60), though it functions in a larger way also to exemplify the increased ‘suffering’ incurred by those who refuse to ‘suffer’ (5–6) and cannot ‘stere’ [control: 27] their passions.

But the narrower and more specific case dictates much of the emphasis in the poet’s redaction of the Bible story – in two ways, in particular, the first of which has editorial consequences for the interpretation of specific lines (see notes to 320, 323 and 520), while the second bears importantly on the question of the poet’s own knowledge of biblical history and geography. The futility of resisting a powerful master is, of course, especially unarguable where that master is omnipotent and omniscient, as the poet stresses in a lengthy and early aside added to the Bible story (113–36) – a point also made in a number of incidental details, such as the contrast between a God who ‘aye wakes’ (130) and a prophet who needs to sleep and is repeatedly caught napping in undignified postures (186, 466). Their relative positions as lord and man are never lost sight of by either party to the relationship, as is evident in their modes of address and references to each other and to themselves. God’s address to Jonah as ‘renk’ (431), and later as ‘renk’ (490), ‘wye’ (492) and ‘man’ (495), reminds him and us of his status; and Jonah, even in his anger addressing God as ‘syre’ (413) and ‘Lord’ (425), is ever conscious of their relative positions as master and man, if only to accuse God of abusing the relationship (482–3). His prayers in the whale are based precisely on his recognition of that relationship – ‘Now, Prince, of thy prophete … Thou art God … Haf now mercy of thy man … preve thee lyghtly a lord’ (282–8) – and on his acknowledgement of God as ‘Lord(e)’ (305, 326; cf. 347) and of himself as a humbled ‘man’ or ‘renk’ (‘To last mere of uch a mount, man, am I fallen’: 320; ‘Thou shalt releve me, renk’: 323).

The other detail of the hypothetical situation, the displacement to a foreign city that the lord commands, is also underlined by the poet, who reinforces the link with Jonah’s story (and God’s command that he should take His message to the wicked city of Nineveh) by a number of small geographical references added to the Bible story. Assumptions about Jonah’s location in the Old Testament world were based on a reference to a prediction about Israel made by ‘Jonah, the son of Amittai, the prophet, which was of Gath-hepher’ (2 Kings 14.25). From this it was assumed that Jonah was a subject of the northern kingdom of Israel, not of the southern kingdom of Judah, and Gath-hepher was identified (correctly, as modern archaeology appears to establish) as a village in the northern district of Galilee near to Diocaesarea, where, according to Jerome and others, the tomb of Jonah could be seen by travellers and pilgrims.[1] The poet’s first addition places the story in Jewish territory generally: ‘Did not Jonas in Judee such jape sumwhyle?’ (57), ‘in termes of Judee, / Jonas joyned was … Gentyle prophete’ (61–2). ‘Judee’ here refers, not to the southern kingdom of Judah (as opposed to the northern kingdom of Israel), but to Jewish territory as a whole – a loose sense of the term Judaea which was not uncommon and goes back to the Bible itself.[2] The contrast is with the ‘Gentyle[s]’ in general (62) and Nineveh in particular, which lay outside the ‘termes of Judee’ (Nineveh being situated in Assyrian territory, in what is now northern Iraq). The contrast thus creates an immediate equivalence between Jonah and the man hypothesized at 51–6 who is ordered to leave his own country for a distant city abroad (Rome). Subsequent geographical references, however, serve as more specific reminders of the homeland Jonah is displaced from. The Bible tells us that he attempted to flee God by taking ship at Japh, a port which lay on the border between the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. It was most commonly associated with Jerusalem, which was in Judah, since it served as the port for that inland city. The poet, however, is obviously very much aware of Jonah’s geographical co-ordinates, for he has him approach the port from Samaria, a district in the south of Israel, which is how an inhabitant of the northern kingdom would approach it. That it is Samaria he departs from is a detail that obviously comes from and is addressed to awareness of Holy Land geography – an awareness (arising from pilgrim literature and/or pilgrim experience) which was more common then than now. It certainly shows a poet conscious of Jonah as a man hailing from the northern kingdom of Israel – a fact of which Jonah himself is equally conscious. When asked by the sailors who he is, he replies: ‘I am an Ebru … of Israel borne’ (205). Most interestingly, he thinks of ideal mountain locations ‘in his kyth’ (462) to which he would like to transport his woodbine-bower, his mind turning to two mountain territories in the northern kingdom: Mount Hermon, in the north of Israel, and the mountainous ridge of Ephraim (which extended across the two kingdoms) to be seen in the south (‘Effraym or Ermonnes hilles’: 463). These additions to the Vulgate serve as reminders of Jonah’s geographical affiliations and so underline the dislocation the homesick prophet experiences as he dreams of that homeland while in an unknown city, a city to which the poet gives no locational specificity and which therefore comes across as completely off the mental map he creates for Jonah.

Such geographical specifics reflect how, for Jonah as for most people, identity and security are very much bound up with place – which explains why he instinctively resists his Lord’s command to leave his native land and go to Nineveh, just as it explains why the poet (in the Prologue) dreads the possibility of being sent to Rome by his lord. For, of course, that specific situation – which begins as a hypothesis that introduces the Jonah story (49–58) – stands for the larger subject of suffering and powerlessness with which it is itself explicitly linked (47–8), and for the sense of alienation entailed in such suffering. Whether it invades one’s home – as Dame Poverty is represented as doing, taking up residence in the poet’s house as an unwanted guest (41–4) – or forces one out of a comfort zone into unknown territory, it turns the environment from a home to what feels like a habitat hostile to one’s needs and habits.

These details of relationship and place in the story as the poet retells it are one aspect of a sympathetic and circumstantial adaptation which belongs within a rich tradition of medieval biblical paraphrase. Particularly relevant to Patience are the versification of the Book of Jonah in the English Metrical Paraphrase of the Old Testament (roughly contemporary with Patience) and the urbane twelfth-century Latin poem by Marbod of Rennes, De Naufragio Jonae Prophetae. Both poems provide parallels for some of the poet’s amplifications of the Bible; we cite some striking examples in our notes, as the matter is relevant to the level and amount of the poet’s reading and learning. To this tradition also belongs the interest in the literal rather than the allegorical sense of the Old Testament story. Patristic reading of the Old Testament as foreshadowing the New had detected Christ and the Crucifixion in the narrative outline of this as of other biblical incidents: Jonah’s emergence from the whale’s belly after three days typified Christ’s rising from the dead on the third day after His death and descent into Hell. But the whale in this poem is an animal innocent of the sophistication that would equate him with the devil and Hell in any serious way. Analogies with the infernal occur only in their everyday role as colloquial emphatics – that is, to give force to some aspect of the literal situation: the whale’s innards ‘stank as the devel’, producing for Jonah an abode ‘that savoured as helle’ (274–5). That these similes carry no allegorical significance is shown by the fact that the whale’s jaws can be seen with equal ease, not as an entrance to Hell, but as the entrance to a cathedral (a house of God), as Jonah is sucked in ‘As mote in at a mynster dor, so muckel were his chawles [jaws]’ (268). The cathedral was the hugest building, and the mote [speck of dust] the smallest particle known to medieval man; and the simile serves to dramatize relative scale at the literal level. Typological comparison between Jonah and Christ had begun as early as the New Testament itself,[3] but there is only one occasion in the poem on which an allusion to Christ can be detected with reference to Jonah – and here again the allusion is not allegorical in purpose or effect. Jonah, refusing to go to Nineveh as God commanded, reflects sullenly on his Master’s grand unconcern for His prophet’s safety:

‘Our Syre sittes,’ he says,   ‘on sege so highe

In His glowande glory,   and gloumbes ful little

Thagh I be nomen in Ninive   and naked dispoyled,

On rode ruly to-rent   with rybaudes mony.’ (93–6)

Jonah, living long before Christ, alludes unconsciously to the Crucifixion. This serves, of course, to give the lie quite decisively to his accusation that God just sits in insulated pomp and leaves the dirty work to His prophets; history will disprove that alright. But the main point is of a more broadly comic rather than a serious nature. The contrast between the grandly tragic and willing self-sacrifice of Him who truly was ‘On rode ruly to-rent’ and the self-dramatizing self-pity of the cross prophet comically puts things back into proportion and reveals Jonah for what he is – a man whose understandable but un-Christlike fears for his own safety have undergone a certain hysterical escalation: he is not Christ and is not really in danger of such a death as He suffered; it is significant that his instinctively immediate fear is of imprisonment and rough treatment (77–80), death being assumed only in his subsequent sniffs of complaint against God, whom he represents as obviously not caring whether he lives or dies (83–4, 93–6).

If allegorical readings influenced the poet’s handling of the story at all, they have thus re-emerged in such a way as merely to mark the telling distance between them and his own engagement with the literal aspects of the story. As is shown by the passage in Cleanness which spells out the moral significance of clothing in the Parable of the Wedding Guest (161–92), the poet could appreciate and use allegorical significance when it was to his purpose, but like most other medieval writers he is painstakingly explicit as to when and how he is doing so. So when Jonah’s clothing is commented on, the point seems again to lie in the comically literal pertinence of the remark:

Then he swepe to the sonde   in sluchchede clothes;

Hit may wel be that mester were   his mantyle to wasche!

(341–2)

Though an echo of the logic in Cleanness has been detected, the remark gains its effect from a remorselessly unprim literalism: after three days in a fish’s bowels, one is not looking or smelling one’s sweetest, and the subsequent brine will have given but a crude laundering to the clothes of a man now cutting a very unpatriarchal figure as he lurches to shore. The moment takes its place in a pattern of cameos designed to capture Jonah in undignified and most decidedly unheroic postures as a result of his rebellion against God, in which he conceived himself acting so ‘derfly’ [boldly: 110]: drivelling in a snoring sleep (186), reeling head-over-heels down a slimy whale gut (269–72), sluching ashore (341–2), baltering [stumbling] about in senile glee under his woodbine (459–60).

The larger and more colourful ways in which the poet embroiders and expands upon the story at the literal level will be evident to all readers. But it is worth noting that his rationalizing interest in the events is evident even in less noticeable details:

Sone have thay her sortes set   and serelyche deled,

And aye the lote upon last   lymped upon Jonas. (193–4)

This follows the Vulgate closely, except in the unobtrusive insertion of the words serelyche [variously, on separate occasions] and aye: the seamen, the poet has obviously reflected, would have needed to be sure of the auguries before throwing overboard someone whose god might well be angered rather than appeased if they get it wrong (cf. 225–8); and they therefore conduct the lot-casting more than once. There is another detail that provides a small but striking example of an attention to the literal level of the story that is nevertheless governed by a controlling moral direction:

… So blythe of his wodbynde   he balteres thereunder,

That of no diete that day   the devel half he roghte. (459–60)

The poet plainly noticed that the Vulgate omits to mention when and whether Jonah managed to find anything to eat in the couple of days he spent in the fields outside Nineveh; and he has used the omission to further his presentation of Jonah in this passage as being as recklessly excessive in his joy as he was earlier in his pain. The incident with the vine has thus been elaborated in such a way as to make of the story a diptych, a pair of matching pictures that add illustrative force to the closing admonition to be ‘pacient in payne and in joye’ (525). We would not today think that patience would be relevant to one’s reaction to good as well as to bad fortune. But in fact over-elation at the one and over-reaction to the other were seen at this period as two sides of the same faulty lack of temperance and fortitude (see note to 525), and the poet has shaped his material to illustrate this point and to draw from it precisely that moral.

A brief but beautifully crafted poem, Patience is, in a way, a more ‘perfect’ work even than Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in the specific sense that it is one of those rare pieces in which no detail is random or unrelated to a discernible pattern of emphases and an overall moral point. If it seems to make an obvious point, that is only because the poet makes it so well that it seems obvious, just as it seems simple only because the poem has so well integrated its material into single wholeness. The poem is never simply lively and concrete, for a felt moral purpose always informs the zest and imagination with which the poet shapes the biblical narrative into his own story – the story of how a rebellious prophet is set loose in a universe (of weather, animals and plants) obedient to its Creator and one that seems itself designed to demonstrate the wisdom of obedience and the trouble caused by the lack of it. And while this moral universe cruelly condemns Jonah’s protests to inevitable futility and indignity, it is mercifully presided over by a Creator more capable than Jonah of ‘suffering’ offence (520–23).

Recommended Further Reading: Spearing 1970: 74–95; Schleusener 1971; Stokes 1983–4; Putter 1996: 103–146; Anderson 2005: 126–57

Patience

PACIENCE is a poynt,   thagh hit displese ofte,

When hevy hertes ben hurt   with hethyng other elles,

Suffraunce may asuagen hem   and the swelme lethe,

4  For ho quelles uch a qued   and quenches malyce.

For whoso suffer couth syt,   sele wolde folwe;

And who for thro may not thole,   the thikker he sufferes.

Then is better to abide   the bur umbe-stoundes

8  Then aye throw forth my thro,   thagh me think ille.

I herde on a halyday   at a highe Masse

How Mathew meled that his Mayster   His meyny con teche:

Aght happes he hem hyght   and uchone a mede

12  Sunderlupes for hit desert   upon a sere wyse.

Thay are happen that haf   in herte poverte,

For hores is the hevenryche   to holde for ever.

Thay are happen also   that haunte mekenesse,

16  For thay schal welde this world   and all her wille have.

Thay are happen also   that for her harme wepes,

For thay schal comfort encroche   in kythes ful mony.

Thay are happen also   that hungeres after righte,

20  For thay schal frely be refete   ful of alle goode.

Thay are happen also   that haf in hert routhe,

For mercy in all maneres   her mede schal worthe.

Thay are happen also   that are of hert clene,

24  For thay her Saviour in sete   schal see with her iyen.

Thay are happen also   that holden her pese,

For thay the gracious Godes sunes   schal godly be called.

Thay are happen also   that con her hert stere,

28  For hores is the hevenryche – as I ere sayde.

These are the happes all aght   that us bihyght were,

If we these ladies wolde lovy   in lyknyng of thewes:

Dame Poverte, dame Pyty,   dame Penaunce the thridde,

32  Dame Mekenesse, dame Mercy,   and mery Clannesse, –

And then dame Pese and Pacience   put in thereafter.

He were happen that had one,   all were the better.

Bot syn I am put to a poynt   that poverte hatte,

36  I schal me porvay pacience   and play me with bothe.

For in the tyxt there these two   are in teme layde

Hit are fettled in on forme,   the forme and the laste,

And by quest of her quoyntyse   enquylen on mede;

40  And alse in myn upynyoun   hit are of on kynde.

For thereas Poverte her proferes   ho nyl be put utter,

Bot leng wheresoever her lyst,   like other greme.

And thereas poverte enpresses,   thagh man pine thinke,

44  Much, maugre his mun,   he mot nede suffer.

Thus Poverte and Pacience   are nedes playferes;

Sithen I am set with hem samen,   suffer me behoves.

Then is me lyghtloker hit like   and her lotes prayse

48  Then wyther with and be wroth   and the worse have.

If me be dight a destine   due to have,

What dowes me the dedayn   other dispit make?

Other if my lege lord lyst   on lyve me to bidde

52  Other to ride other to renne   to Rome in his ernde,

What graythed me the gruchyng   bot grame more seche?

Much if he me ne made,   maugre my chekes,

And then thret most I thole   and unthonk to mede,

56  The had bowed to his bode,   bongre my hyre.

Did not Jonas in Judee   such jape sumwhyle?

To set him to seurte,   unsounde he him feches.

Wil ye tary a little tyne   and tent me a while,

60  I schal wysse yow therewith,   as Holy Writ telles.

I

HIT bitidde sumtyme   in termes of Judee,

Jonas joyned was thereinne   Gentyle prophete;

Godes glam to him glod,   that him unglad made;

64  With a roghlych rurd   rouned in his ere:

‘Ris radly,’ He says,   ‘and rayke forth even.

Nym the way to Ninive   withouten other speche,

And in that city my sawes   soghe all aboute,

68  That in that place at the poynt   I put in thy herte.

‘For iwysse hit are so wykke   that in that won dwelles,

And her malyce is so much,   I may not abide,

Bot venge me on her vilany   and venym bylive.

72  Now sweye me thider swyftly   and say me this ernde!’

When that steven was stynt   that stouned his mynde,

All he wrathed in his wyt   and wytherly he thoghte:

‘If I bowe to His bode   and bryng hem this tale,

76  And I be nomen in Ninive,   my nyes begynes.

‘He telles me those traytoures   are typpede schrewes;

I tee with those tithynges,   thay ta me bylive,

Pynes me in a prysoun,   put me in stokkes,

80  Wrythe me in a warlok,   wrast out myn iyen.

‘This is a mervayl message   a man for to preche

Among enmies so mony   and mansede fendes, –

Bot if my gaynlyche God   such gref to me wolde,

84  For desert of sum sake,   that I slayn were.

‘At all periles,’ quoth the prophete,   ‘aproche I hit no nerre;

I wil me sum other way   that He ne wayte after.

I schal tee into Tarce   and tary there a while,

88  And lyghtly when I am lest   he letes me alone.’

Then he rises radly   and raykes bylive

Jonas toward port Japh,   aye janglande for tene

That he nolde thole for no thing   non of those pines,

92  Thagh the Fader that him formed   were fale of his hele.

‘Our Syre sittes,’ he says,   ‘on sege so highe

In His glowande glory,   and gloumbes ful little

Thagh I be nomen in Ninive   and naked dispoyled,

96  On rode ruly to-rent   with rybaudes mony.’

Thus he passes to that port   his passage to seche,

Fyndes he a fayr schip   to the fare redy,

Maches him with the maryneres,   makes her paye

100  For to towe him into Tarce   as tite as thay myghte.

Then he tron on tho tres,   and thay her tramme richen,

Cachen up the crossayl,   cables thay fasten,

Wight at the wyndas   weyen her ankres,

104  Spenned spak to the sprete   the spare bawelyne,

Gederen to the gyde-ropes,   the grete cloth falles;

Thay layden in on laddeborde   and the lofe wynnes:

The blythe breth at her bak   the bosum he fyndes, –

108  He swenges me this swete schip   swyft fro the haven.

Was never so joyful a Jue   as Jonas was thenne,

That the daunger of Dryhtyn   so derfly eschaped.

He wende wel that that Wye   that all the world planted

112  Had no myght in that mere   no man for to greve.

Lo, the wytlesse wreche!   For he wolde not suffer,

Now has he put him in plyght   of peril wel more.

Hit was a wenyng unwar   that welt in his mynde,

116  Thagh he were soght fro Samarye,   that God saw no ferre.

Yis, He blusched ful brode – that burde him be sure.

That oft kyd him the carp   that that kyng sayde,

Dyngne David on dese,   that demed this speche

120  In a psalme that he set   the Sauter withinne:

‘O foles in folk,   feles otherwhile

And understondes umbe-stounde,   thagh he be stape in foly:

Hope ye that He heres not   that eres all made?

124  Hit may not be that He is blynde   that bigged uch iye.’

Bot he dredes no dint   that dotes for elde,

For he was fer in the flod   foundande to Tarce.

Bot I trow ful tite   overtan that he were,

128  So that schamely to schort   he schot of his ame.

For the Welder of wyt   that wot alle thinges,

That aye wakes and waytes,   at wille has He sleghtes.

He called on that ilk craft   He carf with His handes.

132  Thay wakened wel the wrotheloker   for wrothly He cleped:

‘Ewrus and Aquiloun   that on est sittes,

Blowes bothe at my bode   upon blo wateres!’

Then was there no tom there bitwene   his tale and her dede,

136  So bayn were thay bothe two   his bone for to worke.

Anon out of the north-est   the noyse begines

When bothe brethes con blowe   upon blo wateres;

Rogh rakkes there ros   with rudnyng anunder;

140  The see soughed ful sore,   gret selly to here.

The wyndes on the wonne water   so wrastel togeder

That the wawes ful wode   waltered so highe,

And eft busched to the abyme,   that breede fisches

144  Durst nowhere for rogh   arest at the bothom.

When the breth and the brok   and the bot metten,

Hit was a joyles gyn   that Jonas was inne:

For hit reled on rounde   upon the rogh ythes.

148  The bur bere to hit baft,   that braste all her gere.

Then hurled on a hepe   the helme and the sterne.

First to-murte mony rop   and the mast after;

The sayl sweyed on the see;   then suppe behoved

152  The coge of the colde water,   and then the cry rises.

Yet corven thay the cordes   and cast all thereoute;

Mony ladde there forth lep   to lave and to caste;

Scopen out the scathel water   that fayn scape wolde;

156  For be manes lode never so luther,   the lif is aye swete.

There was busy overborde   bales to caste,

Her bagges and her fetherbeddes   and her bryght wedes,

Her kystes and her coferes,   her caraldes alle, –

160  And all to lyghten that lome,   if lethe wolde schape.

Bot ever was ilyche loud   the lote of the wyndes,

And ever wrother the water   and wodder the stremes.

Then tho wery forwroght   wyste no bote,

164  Bot uchone glewed on his god   that gayned him beste.

Summe to Vernagu there vouched   avowes solemne,

Summe to Diana devout   and derve Neptune,

To Mahoun and to Mergot,   the mone and the sunne,

168  And uch lede as he loved   and layd had his herte.

Then bispeke the spakest,   dispayred wel nere:

‘I leve here be sum losynger,   sum laweles wreche,

That has greved his god   and gos here among us.

172  Lo, all synkes in his synne   and for his sake marres!

‘I loue that we lay lotes   on ledes uchone,

And whoso lympes the losse,   lay him thereoute.

And when the gulty is gon,   what may gome trowe

176  Bot He that rules the rak   may rue on those other?’

This was set in asent,   and sembled thay were,

Heryed out of uch hyrne   to hente that falles.

A lodesmon lyghtly   lep under hachches

180  For to layte mo ledes   and hem to lote brynge.

Bot him fayled no freke   that he fynde myghte

Save Jonas the Jue,   that jowked in derne;

He was flowen for ferde   of the flod lotes

184  Into the bothom of the bot,   and on a brede lyggede,

Onhelde by the hurrok,   for the heven wrake,

Slypped upon a sloumbe slepe,   and sloberande he routes.

The freke him frunt with his fot   and bede him ferk uppe:

188  There Ragnel in his rakentes   him rere of his dremes!

By the haspe-stede unhende   he hentes him thenne,

And broght him up by the brest   and upon borde sette,

Arayned him ful runischly   what resoun he hade

192  In such slaghtes of sorw   to slepe so faste.

Sone haf thay her sortes set   and serelyche deled,

And aye the lote upon last   lymped on Jonas.

Then ascryed thay him skete   and asked ful loude:

196  ‘What the devel has thou done,   dotede wreche?

‘What seches thou on see,   synfulle schrewe,

With thy lastes so luther   to lose us uchone?

Has thou, gome, no governour   ne god on to calle,

200  That thou thus slydes on slepe   when thou slayn worthes?

‘Of what londe art thou lent?   What laytes thou here?

Whyder in worlde that thou wilt   and what is thyn ernde?

Lo, thy dome is thee dight   for thy dedes ille!

204  Do gif glory to thy God   ere thou glyde hence!’

‘I am an Ebru,’ quoth he,   ‘of Israel borne.

That Wye I worschip, iwysse,   that wroght alle thinges,

All the world with the welkyn,   the wynd and the sternes,

208  And all that wones there withinne,   at a word one.

‘All this meschef for me   is made at this tyme,

For I have greved my God   and gulty am founden.

Forthy beres me to the borde   and bathes me thereoute;

212  Ere gete ye no hap,   I hope forsothe.’

He ossed hem by unnynges,   that they undernomen

That he was flowen fro the face   of frelyche Dryhtyn.

Then such a ferde on hem fel   and flayed hem withinne

216  That thay ruyt hem to rowe   and letten the renk one.

Hatheles hyed in haste   with ores ful longe,

Syn her sayl was hem aslypped,   on sides to rowe,

Hef and hale upon hyght   to helpen hemselven;

220  Bot all was nedles her note:   that nolde not bityde.

In bluber of the blo flod   bursten her ores.

Then had thay noght in her hand   that hem help myghte;

Then nas no comfort to kever   ne counsel non other

224  Bot Jonas into his juis   jugge bylive.

First thay prayen to the Prince   that prophetes serven

That He gyve hem the grace   to greven Him never

That thay in baleless blod   there blenden her handes,

228  Thagh that hathel were His   that they here quelled.

Tite by top and by to   thay token him sithen,

Into that lothelyche logh   thay luchen him sone.

He was no tytter out tylt   that tempest ne sesed;

232  The see saghtled therewith   as sone as ho myghte.

Then thagh her takel were torne   that totered on ythes,

Stiffe stremes and streght   hem strayned a while,

That drof hem drylych adoun   the depe to serve,

236  Til a swetter ful swythe   hem sweyed to bonke.

There was lovyng on loft,   when thay the londe wonnen,

To our mercyable Mayster,   on Moyses wyse,

With sacrefyce up set   and solemne vowes,

240  And granted Him one to be God   and graythly non other.

Thagh thay be jolyf for joy,   Jonas yet dredes;

Thagh he nolde suffer no sore,   his sele is on aunter.

For whatso worthed of that wye,   fro he in water dipped,

244  Hit were a wonder to wene,   if Holy Writ nere.

II

NOW is Jonas the Jue   jugged to drowne;

Of that schendede schip   men schowved him sone.

A wylde walterande whal,   as wyrde then schaped,

248  That was beten fro the abyme,   by that bot flotte,

And was ware of that wye   that the water soghte,

And swyftly swenged him to swepe   and his swolgh opened;

The folk yet haldande his fete   the fissche him tite hentes;

252  Withouten touch of any tothe   he tult in his throte.

Then he swenges and swayves   to the see bothom

By mony rokkes ful rogh   and ridlande strondes,

With the man in his mawe   malskred in drede,

256  As little wonder hit was   if he wo dryed.

For nade the highe Heven-kyng   thurgh His hand-mighte

Warded this wrech man   in warlowes guttes,

What lede myght leve   by law of any kynde

260  That any lif myght be lent   so long him withinne?

Bot he was sokored by that Syre   that sittes so highe,

Thagh were wanles of wele   in wombe of that fissche,

And also driven thurgh the depe   and in derk walteres.

264  Lord, colde was his comfort   and his care huge!

For he knew uch a case   and kark that him lymped:

How fro the bot into the bluber   was with a best lached

And threwe in at hit throte   withouten thret more,

268  As mote in at a mynster dor,   so muckel were his chawles.

He glydes in by the giles   thurgh glaymande glette,

Relande in by a rop,   a rode that him thoghte,

Aye hele over hed   hurlande aboute,

272  Til he blunt in a blob   as brod as a halle.

And there he festnes the fete   and fathmes aboute,

And stod up in his stomak   that stank as the devel.

There in saym and in sorw   that savoured as helle,

276  There was bylded his bour   that wil no bale suffer.

And then he lurkkes and laytes   where was lee the beste

In uch a noke of his navel,   bot nowhere he fyndes

No rest ne recoverer,   bot ramel and myre

280  In wich gut soever he gos;   bot ever is God swete.

And there he lenged at the last   and to the Lede called:

‘Now, Prince, of thy prophete   pyty thou have!

Thagh I be fol and fykel   and false of my herte,

284  Devoyde now thy vengaunce,   thurgh vertue of routhe.

‘Thagh I be gulty of gile,   as galle of prophetes,

Thou art God and all godes   are graythly thyn owne.

Haf now mercy of thy man   and his mysdedes,

288  And preve thee lyghtly a lord   in londe and in water.’

With that he hit to a hyrne   and helde him thereinne,

There no defoule of no fylthe   was fest him aboute.

There he sat also sounde – save for merk one –

292  As in the bulk of the bot   there he before slepte.

So in a bowel of that best   he bides on lyve,

Thre dayes and the night,   aye thenkande on Dryhtyn,

His myght and His mercy,   His mesure thenne:

296  Now he knowes Him in care   that couthe not in sele.

And ever walteres this whal   by wyldrene depe,

Thurgh mony a regioun ful rogh,   thurgh ronk of his wille.

For that mote in his mawe   made him, I trowe,

300  Thagh hit little were him with,   to wamel at his herte.

And as sayled the segge   aye sikerly he herde

The bigge borne on his bak   and bete on his sides.

Then a prayer ful prest   the prophete there maked;

304  On this wyse, as I wene,   his wordes were mony:

III

‘LORD, to thee have I cleped   in cares ful stronge.

Out of the hole thou me herde   of hellene wombe;

I calde, and thou knew   myn uncler steven.

308  Thou diptes me of the depe see   into the dymme herte.

‘The grete flem of thy flod   folded me umbe;

All the gotes of thy guferes   and groundelesse poles

And thy stryvande stremes   of stryndes so mony

312  In on daschande dam   drives me over.

‘And yet I sayd as I sat   in the see bothom:

Careful am I, cast out   fro thy cler iyen

And desevered fro thy sight.   Yet surely I hope

316  Eft to trede on thy temple   and teme to thyselven.

‘I am wrapped in water   to my wo-stoundes.

The abyme byndes the body   that I bide inne,

The pure poplande hourle   playes on my heued,

320  To last mere of uch a mount,   man, am I fallen.

‘The barres of uch a bonk   ful bigly me holdes,

That I may lache no londe,   and thou my lif weldes.

Thou shalt releve me, renk,   while thy right slepes,

324  Thurgh myght of thy mercy   that muckel is to tryste.

‘For when the acces of anguych   was hid in my saule,

Then I remembred me right   of my rich Lorde,

Prayande Him for pyty   His prophete to here,

328  That into His holy house   myn orisoun myght enter.

‘I have meled with thy maystres   mony longe daye,

Bot now I wot wyterly   that those unwyse ledes

That affyen hem in vanyte   and in vayne thinges

332  For thing that mountes to noght   her mercy forsaken.

‘Bot I devoutly avow   that veray bes holden,

Soberly to do thee sacrefyce,   when I schal saf worthe,

And offer thee for my hele   a ful hole gifte,

336  And hold good that thou me hetes:   haf here my trauthe!’

Then our Fader to the fissche   ferslyche biddes

That he him sput spakly   upon spare drye.

The whal wendes at His wille   and a warthe fyndes,

340  And there he brakes up the burn,   as bede him our Lorde.

Then he swepe to the sonde   in sluchchede clothes;

Hit may wel be that mester were   his mantyle to wasche!

The bonk that he blusched to   and bode him biside

344  Were of the regiounes right   that he renayed hade.

Then a wynd of Godes word   eft the wye bruxles:

‘Nylt thou never to Ninive   by no kynnes wayes?’

‘Yis, Lord,’ quoth the lede,   ‘lene me thy grace

348  For to go at thy gre – me gaynes non other.’

‘Ris, aproche then to preche!   Lo the place here.

Lo, my lore is in thee loken.   Lause hit thereinne!’

Then the renk radly   ros as he myghte

352  And to Ninive that night   he neghed ful even.

Hit was a city ful syde   and selly of brede:

One to threnge therethurgh   was thre dayes dede;

That on journay ful joynt   Jonas him yede

356  Ere ever he warpped any word   to wye that he mette.

And then he cryed so cler   that kenne myght alle;

The true tenor of his teme   he tolde on this wyse:

‘Yet schal forty dayes fully   fare to an ende

360  And then schal Ninive be nomen   and to noght worthe.

‘Truly, this ilk toun   schal tylte to grounde:

Up-so-doun schal ye dumpe   depe to the abyme,

To be swolwed swyftly   with the swart erthe,

364  And all ledes that lyves hereinne   lose the swete.’

This speche sprang in that space   and sprad all aboute

To borges and to bacheleres   that in that burgh lenged.

Such a hidor hem hent   and a hatel drede

368  That all chaunged her chere   and chylled at the herte.

The segge sesed not yet   bot sayd ever ilyche:

‘The veray vengaunce of God   schal voyde this place!’

Then the peple pitously   playned ful stille,

372  And for the drede of Dryhtyn   dared in herte.

Heter hayres thay hent,   that asperly bited,

And those thay bounden to her bak   and to her bare sides,

Dropped dust on her hede   and dymly bisoghten

376  That that penaunce plesed Him   that playnes on her wronge.

And aye he cryes in that kyth   til the kyng herde;

And he radly up ros   and ran fro his chayer.

His riche robe he to-rof   of his rigge naked,

380  And of a hepe of askes   he hit in the myddes.

He askes heterly a hayre   and hasped him umbe,

Sewed a sekke thereabove,   and syked ful colde.

There he dased in that dust,   with droppande teres,

384  Wepande ful wonderly   all his wronge dedes.

Then sayd he to his sergauntes:   ‘Samnes you bylive!

Do drive out a decre,   demed of myselven,

That alle the bodyes that ben   withinne this burgh quike, –

388  Bothe burnes and bestes,   burdes and childer,

‘Uch a prince, uch a prest,   and prelates alle, –

Alle faste frely   for her false werkes;

Seses childer of her sok,   soghe hem so never,

392  Ne best bite on no brom   ne on no bent nauther,

‘Passe to no pasture,   ne pike non erbes,

Ne non oxe to no hay,   ne no horse to water.

All schal crye forclemmed   with all our clere strenthe;

396  The rurd schal rise to Him   that routhe schal have.

‘What wot other wit may   if the Wye likes,

That is hende in the hyght   of His gentryse?

I wot His myght is so much,   thagh He be myssepayed,

400  That in His mylde amesyng   He mercy may fynde.

‘And if we leven the layk   of our layth synnes,

And stille steppen in the stye   He stightles Himselven,

He wil wende of His wodschip   and His wrathe leve,

404  And forgyve us this gylt,   if we Him God leven.’

Then all leved on His law   and laften her synnes,

Parformed all the penaunce   that the prince radde,

And God thurgh His godnesse   forgef, as he sayde, –

408  Thagh He other bihyght,   withhelde His vengaunce.

IV

MUCH sorwe then satteled   upon segge Jonas;

He wex as wroth as the wynd   towardes our Lorde.

So has anger onhit him   in his herte, he calles

412  A prayer to the highe prince   for pine on this wyse:

‘I beseche thee, syre,   now thouself jugge,

Was not this ilk my word,   that worthen is nowthe,

That I cast in my countre,   when thou thy carp sendes

416  That I schuld tee to this toun   thy talent to preche?

‘Wel knew I thy courtaysye,   thy quoynte suffraunce,

Thy bounte of debonerte   and thy bene grace,

Thy longe abydyng with lur,   thy late vengaunce, –

420  And aye thy mercy is mete,   be mysse never so huge.

‘I wyst wel, when I had worded   whatsoever I couthe

To manace all these mody men   that in this mote dwelles,

With a prayer and a pine   thay myght her pese gete,

424  And therefore I wolde have flowen   fer into Tarce.

‘Now, Lord, lach out my lif:   hit lastes to longe;

Bede me bylive my bale-stour   and bryng me on ende!

For me were swetter to swelt   as swythe, as me thinkes,

428  Then lede lenger thy lore,   that thus me les makes.’

The soun of our Soverayn   then swey in his ere,

That upbraydes this burn   upon a breme wyse:

‘Herk, renk, is this right,   so ronkly to wrathe

432  For any dede that I have done   or demed thee yette?’

Jonas all joyles   and janglande up rises,

And holdes out on est half   of the highe place,

And farandely on a felde   he fetteles him to bide,

436  For to wayte on that won   what schuld worthe after.

There he busked him a bour,   the best that he myghte,

Of hay and of everferne   and erbes a fewe;

For hit was playn in that place   fro plyande greves

440  For to schylde fro the schene   or any schade caste.

He bowed under his little bothe,   his bak to the sunne,

And there he swowed and slept   sadly all nighte,

The while God of His grace   did grow of that soyle

444  The fayrest bynde him above   that ever burn wyste.

When the dawande day   Dryhtyn con sende,

Then wakened the wye   under wodbynde,

Loked aloft on the lef   that lyllede grene;

448  Such a lefsel of lof   never lede hade.

For hit was brod at the bothom,   boghted on lofte,

Happed upon ayther half,   a house as hit were,

A nos on the north side   and nowhere non elles,

452  Bot all schet in a schawe   that schaded ful cole.

The gome glyfte on the grene   gracious leves,

That ever wayved a wynd   so wythe and so cole.

The schyre sunne hit umbe-schon,   thagh no schaft myghte

456  The mountaunce of a little mote   upon that man schyne.

Then was the gome so glad   of his gay loge,

Lys loltrande thereinne,   lokande to toune,

So blythe of his wodbynde   he balteres thereunder,

460  That of no diete that day   the devel half he roghte.

And ever he laghed as he loked   the loge all aboute,

And wysched hit were in his kyth,   there he wone schulde,

On high upon Effraym   or Ermonnes hilles:

464  ‘Iwysse, a worthloker won   to welde I never keped.’

And when it neghed to night   nappe him behoved.

He slydes on a sloumbe slepe,   sloghe under leves,

While God wayned a worme   that wrot up the rote,

468  And wyddered was the wodbynde   by that the wye wakened.

And sithen He warnes the west   to waken ful softe,

And says unto Zeferus   that he syfle warme,

That there quikken no cloude   before the cler sunne,

472  And ho schal busch up ful brode   and brenne as a candel.

Then wakened the wye   of his wyl-dremes,

And blusched to his wodbynde,   that brothely was marred:

All welwed and wasted   tho worthilyche leves, –

476  The schyre sunne had hem schent   ere ever the schalk wyste.

And then hef up the hete   and heterly brenned,

The warm wynde of the west   wortes he swythes.

The man marred on the molde,   that myght him not hyde:

480  His wodbynde was away, – he weped for sorwe.

With hatel anger and hot   heterly he calles:

‘A, thou Maker of man,   what maystery thee thinkes

Thus thy freke to forfare   forbi all other?

484  With all meschef that thou may   never thou me spares.

‘I kevered me a comfort   that now is caght fro me:

My wodbynde so wlonk,   that wered my heved.

Bot now I see thou art set   my solace to reve;

488  Why ne dightes thou me to die?   I dure to longe.’

Yet our Lord to the lede   laused a speche:

‘Is this ryghtwys, thou renk,   all thy ronk noyse,

So wroth for a wodbynde   to waxe so sone?

492  Why art thou so waymot,   wye, for so little?’

‘Hit is not little,’ quoth the lede,   ‘bot lykker to righte.

I wolde I were of this world,   wrapped in moldes.’

‘Then bithenk thee, man:   if thee forthynk sore,

496  If I wolde helpe my hand-werk   haf thou no wonder!

‘Thou art waxen so wroth   for thy wodbynde,

And travayledes never to tent hit   the tyme of an houre,

Bot at a wap hit here wex,   away at an other;

500  And yet likes thee so luther,   thy lif woldes thou tyne.

‘Then wyte me not for the werk,   that I hit wolde helpe,

And rue on tho redles   that remen for synne.

First I made hem myself   of materes myn one,

504  And sithen I loked hem ful longe   and hem on lode hade.

‘And if I my travayl schuld tyne   of termes so longe,

And type doun yonder toun   when it turned were,

The sore of such a swete place   burde synk to my herte,

508  So mony malicious man   as mournes thereinne.

‘And of that soumme yet are summe   such sottes formadde

As little barnes on barme   that never bale wroghte,

And wymmen unwytte   that wale ne couthe

512  That on hand fro that other   for all this highe worlde.

[‘Bitwene the stele and the stayre   disserne noght conne,

What rule rennes in roun   bitwene the right hande

515  And his lyft, thagh his lif   schuld lost be therefore.]

‘And als there ben doumbe bestes   in the burgh mony

That may not synne in no syt   hemselven to greve.

Why schuld I wrath with hem,   syn wyes wil turne,

519  And come and know me for kyng   and my carp leve?

‘Were I as hasty as thou here,   were harme lumpen;

Couthe I not thole bot as thou,   there thryved ful fewe.

I may not be so malicious   and mylde be holden,

523  For malyce is noght to mayntyne   bout mercy withinne.

‘Be noght so gryndel, goodman,   bot go forth thy wayes:

Be preue and be pacient   in payne and in joye;

For he that is to rakel   to renden his clothes

527  Mot eft sitte with more unsounde   to sewe hem togeder.’

Forthy when poverte me enpresses   and paynes inoghe

Ful softly with suffraunce   saghttel me behoves.

Forthy penaunce and payne   to-preve hit in sighte

531  That pacience is a noble poynt,   thagh hit displese ofte.

Amen.

SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT

Foreword

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight has a serious claim to be the finest of the Arthurian romances produced among the emergent vernaculars of the European Middle Ages. By contrast with Chaucer and Langland, however, the poem achieved no significant circulation. There is a fifteenth-century ballad, The Greene Knight, that retells the story, which the writer apparently knew from some version of Sir Gawain, of which there are faint verbal echoes at some points.[1] And the poem may have been known to some within its own Cheshire area, since one of the poems (XXII) in the commonplace book of the Cheshire gentleman Humfrey Newton (1466–1536) draws heavily on the style of the alliterative verse of an earlier generation, verse for which Sir Gawain may well have been his model. Newton’s poem recalls Sir Gawain in its topics (love, the hunt, the succession of the seasons, a castle in a craggy landscape) and shares with the earlier work some unusual alliterative collocations.[2] But otherwise there are no medieval references to the poem or its (still unidentified) author. And, again unlike Chaucer and Langland, Sir Gawain remained unpublished and unread throughout most of the post-medieval period. The first notice taken of it occurred in a revision in 1824 to volume I of Thomas Warton’s History of English Poetry (1781) by the librarian Richard Price, who referred to the manuscript containing Sir Gawain[3] and quoted seventeen lines from the poem,[4] with some uncomplimentary remarks on its barbarously un-Chaucerian language. Not until 1839 did the first edition of the poem (by Sir Frederic Madden) appear, and not until 1864, with the edition by Richard Morris – which, along with the companion edition by him of the other three poems in the manuscript, formed the first and fourth volumes of the Early English Text Society series – did the poem really arrive at the court of public opinion, by which, however, it was greeted with instant, unanimous and increasing admiration, despite the uncouthness of its linguistic dress and the difficulties presented for a modern audience by its North-West Midland dialect and the special diction of the alliterative metre in which it is written.

An ingenious and colourful plot is among the most immediately obvious attractions of this epitome of a perfect chivalric romance. It is a double plot centred in a novel way on two game-exchanges, the one embedded in the other, connected to each other in a manner that is revealed only at the end. Adventures could be elaborately interlaced in Arthurian romance, but there is little precedent for the neatness and meaningfulness of the double test of this poem – whereby Gawain’s conduct in a relatively ordinary domestic setting determines his fate in a seemingly suspended adventure of a more dramatically exciting kind. The latter, the beheading game, has a clear source or analogue in a story told in the First Continuation (to Chrétien’s Perceval)[5] – where, however, the stranger challenger turns out to be the father of the hero (Carados), is not supernatural in size or colour, receives and delivers the blow with a sword, returns to the court for the exchange blow (nothing that happens in the interim being relevant), and where Carados commits no fault and incurs only unqualified praise.

The other game has no clear source. In the three hunts which run parallel with the three bedroom scenes, the poet may well have been, consciously or unconsciously, influenced by Ipomedon, an Anglo-Norman romance by Hue de Rotelande, which, as three extant anglicizations of it demonstrate, was well known in England. As well as a visit to the hero’s bedroom by a lady in love with him,[6] the romance features three successive days on which the hero pretends to go hunting, but on which he actually takes part in three tournaments (3545ff). The romance shares with Sir Gawain the device of using hunts on successive days to structure an entire section of narrative in a contrastive way with reference to some other activity – although the hunts in Ipomedon figure as a less manly and more effete counterpart to the battles, whereas in Sir Gawain they figure as the physically more (if morally and socially less) demanding counterpart to the indoor and verbal manoeuvres of the hero. The later poet has, that is, transformed as he borrowed. He has also made the hunts more vivid and varied: they reflect the three distinct categories into which game could be divided, each involving different hunting challenges and tactics. The deer belong to the category of red game, often hunted in great numbers; the boar to that of black game, which required courage, since the animal (bear or boar) was dangerous, and usually hunted singly; the fox to that of small game, where the quarry (commonly fox or hare) was typically a pest. These subdivisions figure in Hartmann von Aue’s Erec, where another model estate (belonging to another model lord who is another model of hospitality) has hunting grounds divided into three, one stocked with rôtwilt [red wild animals], the second with schwarzwilt and the third (as the narrator assumes the audience, recognizing the taxonomy, will have guessed) with kleiniu kunder, ‘foxes, hares and the like’ (7130–54). The Gawain poet seems to have imagined Bertilak’s grounds as similarly designed to offer, in different areas, hunting opportunities for every taste.

The noise and energy of the hunts provide, of course, a more dramatic contrast with the bedroom scenes than with the tournaments in Ipomedon. It is, however, sometimes wrongly implied that the contrast with the bedroom scenes is one between courtly sophistication and crude, inartificial violence. In fact, hunting was a rule-bound ritual which was seen as the epitome, not the reverse, of courtliness: Gottfried von Strassburg’s Tristan is a master ‘an höfscher jegerîe’ [in the courtly art of hunting] (Tristan 3313), Hue de Rotelande’s Protheselaus has a ‘Curteis’ enthusiasm for the sport (1778), and his Ipomedon is ‘corteis e affaité de bois’ [courtly and instructed in woodmanship] (649). The hunt was by this date an art, to which countless manuals were devoted (manuals which, as the notes will illustrate, provide many parallels for details in Sir Gawain), and the poem consistently foregrounds that fact – even at the outset, where the noisy ebullience of the hounds (1142) is at once subjected to the discipline and skill of the dog handlers, the ‘cacheres that couthe’ (1139) who ‘chastysed and charred’ the pack (1143). Gawain and his host, in short, exchange what each has ‘worthily wonnen’ (1386) by verbal/physical skills and their otherwise contrasting activities match each other in that respect.

With reference to Gawain’s refusal, in the bedroom scenes, of the lady’s advances, the poet is, as often, following, but with marked independence, incidents in chivalric romance: that is, the situation has parallels, but no close ones, since the emphasis on the double bind of truth (to his host) and courtesy (to the lady) in which Gawain finds himself (1773–5) is peculiar to this poem. The situation of a knight rejecting the sexual advances of a lady (the host’s wife in Yder 306–476, Guinevere in Marie de France’s Lanval 259–74, a damsel in the Lancelot IV, 127), is not uncommon, but in these cases there is no particular obligation felt by the knight towards kindness and courtesy to the lady. Ban, in the Vulgate Merlin, falls in love with the daughter of a host and is as alive as Gawain to the potential treachery to his host an affair would involve: ‘il pensoit que ce seroit traison por ce que on lor avoit fait grant honor laiens & que on les avoit herbergiet laiens si li est avis que nule grignor honte ne li poroit il faire’ [he thought it would be treachery because he had been greatly honoured and well lodged there, and so it seemed to him that he could not do a more shameful deed] (p. 404). But the lady is daughter not wife, and the conflict is between love (not courtesy) and truth. For the scenario in the exchange of winnings, other romances similarly furnish suggestions rather than sources, and there is certainly no extant text that offers any precedent for combining that plot motif with the beheading game.

Inventive elaboration within a tradition is as apparent in the metre as in the plot of the poem. The poem is written in the same alliterative metre (see pp. xxi–xxviii) as are Cleanness and Patience. But the number of departures from the aa/ax norm in Sir Gawain is significantly higher. There are many more lines alliterating aaaa, abab, abba and a number of ax/ax and xa/ax ones. Though scribal corruption cannot be ruled out, these patterns might also show the poet playing variations and sometimes happy simply to observe the rule that obtained in Old English verse: that alliteration is required only to cross the caesura, aa/ax being an optimal rather than a regularly required norm. The second stress commonly fell in alliterative verse at the caesura; but there are in Sir Gawain many verses – such as ‘The lord loutes thereto’ (933), ‘Rich red on that one’ (952), ‘Schon schyrer then snaw’ (956) – which may be scanned aa(x), with the word at caesura uncharacteristically unstressed, or (a)ax, where (a) indicates an alliterating but unstressed word. The latter would imply a willingness to experiment with the separation of stress and alliteration, which would also account for another pattern, involving a combination (usually adjective + noun), one of whose components provides the alliteration for the other a-verse stress, the other the alliterating sound for the third stress:

While New Yere was so yep   that hit was newe comen (60)

And also an other maner   meved him eke (90)

Bot never the lesse ne the later   thay nevened bot mirthe (541)

Now all these fyve sythes, for sothe,   were fettled on this knighte (656)

This both surprises and satisfies an ear expecting the traditional aa/ax pattern. There are also frequent instances of thickened alliteration, whereby an extra alliterating (but non-stressed) item is included in the opening dip – a cluster of such lines occurring, for example, in the description of Gawain’s host:

Brod, bryght was his berd,   and all bever hued;

Sturne, stif on the strythe,   on stalworthe schankes;

Felle face as the fire   and fre of his speche … (845–7)

These lines are thus given a distinctive and uniting rhythm that produces the effect of discrete features somehow adding up to the same thing (i.e. an authoritative presence), as the alliterating sound triply asserts itself, strengthening from unstressed into the two stressed words which firmly straddle the double dip of the a-verse, the lines giving a kind of metrical emphasis to the sturdy countenance and bearing of this ideal lord of a castle.

Most importantly, the alliterative lines are grouped into stanzas (of an irregular number of lines) by being punctuated at intervals by a five-line bob-and-wheel: a single-beat line of one or two words (the bob), followed by four three-stressed ones (the wheel), the five forming iambic lines rhyming ababa. The poet thus divides the alliterative long lines into more digestible units, as well as exploiting to good and varied effect the change in pace and rhythm that occurs with the bob-and-wheel. The bob-and-wheel occurs elsewhere, but only to round off rhyming stanzas of regular length and rhyme pattern. This poet has chosen – uniquely, as far as we know – to combine two different verse systems: an unpredictable number of alliterative long lines modulate into the bob-and-wheel, whose rhyming single-dip iambics produce a satisfying contrast with the alliterative lines structured rhythmically on the double dip required in each half line. The metre thus shares in the duality that pervades the plot, style and organization of the poem – and shows a poet master enough of the aa/ax norm to play his own innovative variations on its theme.

The same holds true for his treatment of romance. The seminal texts had appeared some hundred years previously in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries (to which period belong all the French and German works referred to above and below). These had established a genre in which the cast and the ethos were essentially courtly, and in Sir Gawain the vocabulary of courtesy and quality forms a rich and varied lexical set (gentyl, hende, cortays, mensk-, quoynt, daynte, noble, etc) that defines the society depicted at every level. Such words may refer to material luxury and elegance: festive music-making is ‘gentyl’ (1021), bedding is ‘noble’ (853), ‘dayntyes’ are served at feasts (483, 998, 1401), a mantle is ‘mensked’ [adorned] with fur (153). They most often refer to the behavioural and verbal graces, the ‘talking noble’ and ‘dainty words’, of a hero insistently characterized as hende [courteous], cortays and gentyl. And at a higher level still, they may denote divine graciousness: Mary is the ‘hende’ queen of heaven (647), God is the source of all ‘menskes’ [graces: 2410], and Gawain addresses prayers to a God and a saint who are both ‘gentyl’ and whose positive response to his need demonstrates their ‘courtaysye’ (774–5). This is a world integrated and informed, materially and ethically, by a courtly value system that is felt as having profound moral and spiritual significance.

The moral of the poem concerns truth [good faith, integrity], an inclusive concept and a key word in Middle English, and a term central to all three of the otherwise widely differing major narrative poems of the fourteenth century: romantic truth in Chaucer’s Troilus, moral-spiritual truth in Langland’s Piers Plowman, and moral-chivalric truth here in Sir Gawain. For its centrality to the chivalric ideal in particular, one may compare Chaucer’s Franklin’s Tale and the narratively crucial priority there given to truth by the knight Arveragus (‘Trouthe is the hyeste thing that man may kepe’: CT V.1479). But as no other romance provides such a detailed study of courtesy, so no other subjects truth to such close and imaginative analysis. For the poet provides for it, in the form of the pentangle by which he presents it as betokened, a complicated emblem which he treats as Gawain’s identifying heraldic device, and which he explicates at considerable length (619–65), emphasizing its knot-like intricacy, and presenting truth as a complex multiple of twenty-five elements. He certainly portrays his hero as at all times having to satisfy complex and competing moral desiderata: the emphasis falling, not simply on Gawain’s brave and honourable actions in themselves (rescuing Arthur from a dangerous game and playing it out, rejecting the advances of his host’s wife), but on the speech-acts in which, by rendering those acts inoffensive to others, he avoids offending in another direction (against courtesy). His first action (339–61) and his main action (his rejection of the lady over the course of Fitt III) are verbal rather than physical feats. The golden knot of the pentangle is thus the moral counterpart of the intricate embroidery upon Gawain’s helmet strap (608–14) or the gold thread interlacing the green horse’s mane (‘Aye a herle of the hayre, an other of golde’: 190). In fact, ethics and aesthetics come very close together in this poem,[7] the poet plainly admiring the moral artistry with which Gawain at all times satisfies both honour and courtesy, and appreciating intricately patterned finesse in behaviour and accessories alike, as equally the hallmarks of a society with some genuine claim to superiority.

As well as truth, another romance ethic reflected in the poem is that of the knight as distinguished by both prowess and courtesy. He is both a brave and fearless warrior in military contexts and the perfect gentleman in social ones. The poet’s winter setting makes for a strong contrast between the outdoor and indoor worlds and underlines the transition between Gawain’s gruelling journey, spent in battles and snowstorms, and the festively luxurious interior of the castle in which he spends Christmas – a transition that brings with it a shift in moral focus, as he steps from one area of his pentangularly composite perfections to another: from the armed knight among foes, ‘doghty and drye’ [doughty and persevering] (724), to the knight in civil dress (864–70) among friends – a host court eagerly expecting a display of the behavioural niceties (‘sleghtes of thewes’) and verbal skills in conversation and courtesy (‘talkynge noble’) of a knight famed as the very epitome of good breeding (‘that fyne fader of nurture’: 916–19). This general contrast between prowess and courtesy is part of that more pervasive duality of setting and emphasis that gives the poem its satisfyingly varied colour and pace. The alternation between the hunts and the bedroom scenes that dominates Fitt III continues the contrast between the knight outdoors and the knight indoors, as the ethical feats of Gawain (in balancing the claims of courtesy and truth) are paralleled by the more traditionally heroic image of knighthood presented by the host in an activity always regarded as good training for the battlefield, and in which his fight against the most dangerous of the animals involved, the boar, is certainly modelled on chivalric scenes of single combat.[8] The alternating scenes are as central to the style and sensibility of the poem as they are to its narrative. For the poet is peculiar in combining a positively Jamesian appreciation of the minutiae of indoor graces, in both behaviour and accessories, the rich material and moral texture of cultivated and refined tastes, with an equal intensity of response to the outside world of raw energies and harsh and stark scenery (cataclysms, snowstorms, jagged cliffs, the aggressive energies of man and nature in battles both military and meteorological).

This bifocal awareness is reflected in dual allegiances as regards literary and linguistic tradition. Sir Gawain is in many ways modelled on the chivalric romance as it had been developed in French,[9] and, as the notes will illustrate, the poem often closely shadows its French models in narrative incident, and in visual and verbal detail. But these romances provide no real counterparts to the expressive grimness of, for instance, the sleety weather (726–32) or the desolate topography of the Green Chapel, which is little more than a hole in the landscape (‘nobot an olde cave’: 2182). If the poet is, in these scenes, indebted to anything, it is to his Germanic rather than his Gallic inheritance, Old English verse (the snowstorms of the The Wanderer and the barrow of Beowulf) providing closer analogies than anything in French romance. Two colourful sets of loan words that contribute to the lexical richness and inventiveness that is such a marked feature of the poem create an analogous duality in the poem’s vocabulary. There is a large and noticeable element of often sophisticated French loan words. These can occur in any context, but they are most noticeable with reference to the sophistications of behaviour and accoutrements of the courtly world, characterizing all that is gentyl, cortays and quoynt in manners and bearing, or fashionable masterpieces of construction, from the bedding with ‘covertores ful curious’ (855) to the castle ‘Enbaned under the abataylment’ (790). The poet himself associates the gracious bonhomie of his courtly figures with French, referring to the ‘frenkysch fare and fele fayre lotes’ [French demeanour and pleasantly phrased words] (1116) with which they bid each other a mannerly good night. The most interesting lexical transition from Germanic to French comes, however, at a less predictable point: when Gawain commits his one fatal error. The lady says the girdle which she offers him, and which he has refused, has life-preserving powers – at which point Gawain, understandably but fatally, pauses for thought:

Then caste the knight,   and him com to herte

Hit were a juel for the joparde   that him jugged were …

(1855–6)

The exclusively Germanic vocabulary of line 1855 serves to throw into greater relief the obtrusively Gallic nature of the following line, in which all the alliterating beats fall on French loan words. Its sophisticated French vocabulary slows the line down, and ensures that it cannot pass easily by for the reader or listener, just as the possibility it expresses is something that cannot fail to glitter in Gawain’s mind with the richness of the juel that is evoked by both the metaphor and the lexical finery in which the idea comes dressed.

Since the poet’s dialect area of Cheshire had been part of the Danelaw, he had at his disposal a number of Scandinavian loan words not found in Chaucer’s London English, and of these he is equally ready to avail himself. These, too, are very varied in sense, but tend to be more noticeable, by contrast with the Gallic element, with reference to the starker and harsher, elemental or unregulated aspects of life. When Gawain rides down the steep rocky path to what he assumes to be his death at the Green Chapel, he looks at the flanking cliffs and ‘The skues of the scowtes skayned him thoghte’ [the clouds seemed to him to be grazed by the rocks] (2167). The metaphor well suggests the rawness of the sensibility upon which the landscape is registering itself at this point, and the effect of the line is considerably enhanced by the Scandinavian texture and sound of its alliterating words (the sk- sound being characteristic of Scandinavian loans). Thus, whereas the civilities and comforts of the bone hostel (776) encountered by Gawain are heralded by two markedly French loan words (Avinaunt and plesaunt: 806, 808), the most expressive adjectives characterizing the grim weather and terrain associated with the Chapel are Germanic in origin: both the sky that morning and the Chapel are ugly (2079, 2190), a Scandinavian word more sinister than it is today, and more unusual, being confined to northern dialects; and Gawain sums up the desolate site as wysty (2189), an adjective derived from Old English westig, still used in early Middle English, but recorded thereafter only in Sir Gawain and The Wars of Alexander (another alliterative poem).

The poet was, then, peculiarly well suited to do justice to his double-barrelled plot and to the alternation between prowess and courtesy that underlies, but is seldom explored in, much French romance, just as he shows a distinctive interest in the whole meaning and point of courtesy and truth. He also enters with spirit and commitment into the all the usual topoi of the genre (castles, hunts, beautiful ladies, feasts), to make of them exercises in descriptio that provide more detailed and memorable scenes and pictures than occur anywhere else. In many ways, the poem is thus simply the last word in romance: a work in which the possibilities of the genre are realized to the full.

But there is, even in the first of the poem’s four fitts, some sophisticated and artfully self-conscious play with generic conventions. Words indicating the marvellous, like those to do with courtesy, form a significant lexical set in the poem, and amid a cluster of such words in the second stanza (ferlyes, selly in sight, outtrage aventure of Arthures wonderes) the poet offers his audience, in the tale to come, what promises to have the special excitement of the wondrous. Once Camelot and Christmas festivities have been introduced, the poet focuses on Arthur, giving his own subtle twist to a custom of Arthur’s recorded elsewhere in romance: at high festivals, he would not eat until he had heard or seen some marvel. Sir Gawain’s king has a youthful Hotspur-like enthusiasm for chivalry, but in this connection is actually less naive than his more mature equivalent in other romances. He does not demand an actual marvel: he wants a report of one, a story both new and not obviously incredible:

… he wolde never ete

Upon such a dere day   ere him devised were

Of sum aventurus thing   an uncouthe tale,

Of sum mayn mervayl   that he myght trowe,

Of alderes, of armes,   of other aventures … (91–5)

Failing that, he is prepared to settle for a joust or challenge, as the nearest thing that real life has to offer in the way of chivalric excitement. In the event, of course, he gets what these lines suggest he really wants, but is not so unrealistic as to hope for: an actual challenge that is also a marvel. The expectation of a marvel which the poet has created in the minds of his audience is thus deflected into the world of the narrative itself, as the chief character on stage is discovered also expecting a marvel – and expecting it, as does the audience, to take the form of a tale or report. This both blurs the boundary between inner and outer audience and creates within the fictional world the same distinction between marvellous tale and non-marvellous reality as normally exists between the fiction and the real world of the audience. As a result, the audience is almost as surprised as the court when the marvellous does irrupt into the court’s ‘real’ world. When the incident is over, Arthur, in order to restore festive cheer, treats it jestingly as one of those pageants or dramatic spectacles (called ‘interludes’) often staged at Christmas, and as therefore quite ‘natural’ (kynde) to Christmas entertainments:

‘Wel becomes such craft   upon Cristmasse –

Laykyng of enterludes,   to laghe and to synge,

Among these kynde caroles   of knightes and ladies.’ (471–3)

This again classes the marvellous as something whose reality is that of the entertainment value it provides for the real world from which it is distinct, and enhances the impression of a boundary between the two that has shifted into the tale rather than between it and the audience’s own world. As the interrupted feast is resumed, the strange incident does seem indeed to be falling back into the realm of spectacular tale out of which it had emerged. The non-naive among the poet’s audience (who had heard too many Arthurian romances to respond to their marvels with wide-eyed innocence) would certainly have appreciated the knowing reflexivity of the words given to Arthur, through which the poet himself can surely be heard: ‘Is this not exactly the kind of action-packed improbability that we all want from a Christmas story?’ The common assumption that the poem was itself intended as Christmas entertainment is in fact partly due to the blurring of internal and external audience which the poet creates in this fitt. His point is, however, serious as well as witty. The marvels that belong to a tale make no demands on us; but, as the fitt closes on a happily resumed normality, the narrator warns Gawain (487–90) that he must now see a dangerous business through – he cannot simply put the book down, as it were.

A similar piece of sophisticated self-reference occurs with the hero and his reputation. Gawain’s pre-eminence in the seminal romances of Chrétien de Troyes was based precisely on that combination of prowess and courtesy which he more than any other epitomized. In Sir Gawain, the stranger knight is delighted to find that Gawain (of whom he has plainly heard) is to be his opponent (386–91). Bertilak’s household have also heard of Gawain (908–27), as has his wife (1226–9). And in fact Gawain regularly figures in Arthurian romance as a knight preceded by a pre-existing reputation for pre-eminence in both courage and, above all, in courtesy, and as a man all have heard of and want to meet.[10] By the date of this poem, the favourable report already attached to his name was not so much a fictional supposition as a literary fact, created by those very French romances which had by now established the pre-existing fame they posited. But the effect of the repeated emphasis in Sir Gawain on the expectations aroused by his very name is, once again, to blur the boundaries between the internal and the external audience. When Bertilak’s court voice their expectations of seeing some signal examples of courtesy from this famous father of good breeding (908–27), they are in effect voicing the expectations of the reader or listener,[11] who also assumes that some of that famous superfineness of honourable and considerate conduct will now be forthcoming.

The poem is, however, unusual in its lack of emphasis on the combats and love affairs of the hero. Gawain’s journey to the Green Chapel does require him to engage in combats, but these are passed over summarily (715–25), and, though the passage is sufficient to indicate that he had a knight’s necessary fighting skills to draw on when he needed them (cf. 2482), it is of course part of the point of the poem and its plot to suggest that a knight’s virtues will chiefly be tested in normal social intercourse, not in spectacular duels, and the plot does not otherwise require Gawain to defeat anyone on the field. And if, as regards prowess, courage and firmness of purpose are not in this poem proved primarily by a list of defeated opponents, courtesy and truth are even more carefully and emphatically distinguished from something the poet obviously felt they had got incorrectly muddled up with, inside and outside romance: verbal skills put to the purposes of flirtation and seduction, the fidelity that results from sexual and amorous passion – ‘love’, in fact, in all its guises. The lady indicates at once that she would have expected the true Gawain to have taken advantage of a tête-à-tête with her and ‘craved a cosse by his courtaysye’ (1300), for his famed mastery of social skills and fine sense of truth would surely lead to a display of ‘trueluf craftes’ (1527). Romances are part of her argument: a true knight could not be so unresponsive to her, for the great knight is typically a lover, and it is love that inspires and motivates all his feats in combat:

‘And of all chevalry to chose,   the chef thing alosed

Is the lel layk of luf,   the lettrure of armes;

For to telle of this tevelyng   of these true knightes,

Hit is the tytelet token   and tyxt of her werkes

How ledes for her lel luf   her lyves have auntered,

Endured for her drury   delfulle stoundes …’ (1512–17)

We have here yet another witty reference to the expectations of readers of the romance genre to which the poem belongs. A ‘title’ was at this date often a summarizing rubric introducing a section of text (and such a title could begin precisely ‘How … ’). The lady is claiming that love forms the epitomizing title and the ensuing ‘text’ or matter of all knightly werkes (a word which here conflates knightly ‘deeds’ with the literary ‘works’ in which they figure), the words lettrure, tytel- and tyxt here being both literal and metaphorical: love is the ABC and central theme of chivalry as it appears in the rubrics and texts of romance literature. Nor is her representation unjust: the classic tales of chivalry did have such a romantic bias, the knight’s military ardour feeding off, and interchangeable with, his romantic ardour, his lady being the inspiration for his prowess. Hers is an account of chivalry, however, which shifts the issue of truth (represented here by the adjectives true [faithful] and lel [loyal, true]) from the truth Gawain owes another man (the lady’s husband and his host) to that owed to a mistress, implying Gawain’s truth would not be sacrificed, but exercised, by a romantic liaison. Gawain, however, politely declines to enter into conversation on such romantic texts: he is not competent to ‘touche the temes of tyxt and tales of armes’ (1541) with someone who, he pointedly observes, is obviously a hundred times more expert in this field than he is. There is, of course, wit here, and even a kind of literary trompe l’œil, Gawain speaking in effect as a ‘modern’ and ‘real’ knight who does not read the kind of Arthurian romance of which he is often in fact, as here, the hero. But in associating such a romantic orientation of chivalry with the lady’s temptation, and in his hero’s courteous but firm disclaimer of any desire to model himself on such lover-heroes, the poet is, in effect, dissociating his own sense of chivalry from one aspect of romance which the present tale plainly represents as corrupt and potentially corrupting: its love-centred credo. Sexual passion may lead to truth in love, the poet seems to say, but it is no very strong guarantor of the truth more generally and fundamentally owed to one’s fellow men, which it is more likely to tempt a knight from than to enhance. For love can be in effect an alternative morality, and chivalric romance could encourage a kind of pride in sacrificing all other ties to heterosexual passion when (as in Sir Gawain) the two were in any way in conflict.

The poet, then, is clear that he wishes, as a romancer, to take truth and courtesy out of the bedroom, and that the traditional romance model would not much have served to strengthen Gawain in keeping truth where it most needed to be kept. But it is in its ending and its moral that the poem is perhaps least romance-like. Gawain is tried, and found to be less than perfect, so that the traditional success of the romance hero can here be only a qualified success, and such qualifications are not typical of the genre, which deals characteristically in absolutes and superlatives. The ending thus constantly alternates between upbeat and downbeat verdicts on Gawain, producing a more complex music than is usually heard at the end of a romance. The view of others – of Bertilak and of the Arthurian court – is positive, stressing what Gawain should be honoured for in the way he behaved: he kept his promise to journey to the Green Chapel to receive what he could only believe would be his death-blow, and was similarly true to his host in resisting (even when he assumed he had only three days left to live) the advances of a very beautiful woman who was throwing herself at him and whom he certainly found very attractive. Gawain’s own verdict on himself is harsher, and he concentrates on what he did wrong, rather than on the areas where his conduct could not be faulted. There is, of course, no real conflict between these views: Gawain, as the guilty one, is rightly mortified, and he would not be the man we have admired, with so keen a sense of honour, did he not take his one small failing very seriously. It would, however, be intolerably sanctimonious in anyone else to stress that failing to a man who shows himself only too conscious of it and who has been in every other way so scrupulously true. The two views are both right in those who propound them and do not amount to a contradiction: Gawain is an excellent man who deserves the honour Bertilak and the court give him for his conduct in the affair, but he is not perfect, for no mortal can be, and he is right to feel keenly conscious of that fact.

Thus the pendulum swings between honour and shame in such as a way as to force the reader to qualify each view with the other. The girdle, too, becomes a shifting token of shame and honour.[12] Bertilak gives it to Gawain as a token of the whole adventure or chaunce (‘and this a pure token Of the chaunce of the Grene Chapel at chevalrous knightes’: 2398–9). Gawain accepts it, however, in a penitential spirit, as a ‘syngne’ (2433) of his transgression, which will humble, not exalt, his pride in chivalric company, reminding him of the weakness of the flesh (2433–6). On his journey home, he wears it shield-wise ‘In tokenyng he was tan in tech of a faute’ (2488). The girdle as sign or token is here (in being associated with a shield) starting to take on a heraldic role that implies it has replaced the pentangle, the ‘syngne … of trauthe’ (625–6), as a ‘sign’ of who and what Gawain is.[13] Gawain himself uses heraldic terms in a most interesting way when explaining to the court the faults he committed: ‘This is the bende of this blame I bere in my nekke’ (2506). The girdle is worn slanting (‘abelef’: 2517) across Gawain’s chest, and a diagonal stripe in heraldry was termed a bende. The nick in the neck is now virtually healed (2484), and would not in any case be visible. But the girdle is its more public counterpart and acts to emblazon the weakness for which he received that nick. He must, he continues, wear it for the rest of his life. There is in fact no compulsion on him to do so, but it is a different kind of ‘must’ that the reason he gives points to: ‘For man may hyden his harme, bot unhap ne may hit, For there hit ones is tached twynne wil hit never’ (2511–12). The healed nick could be hidden, but though we all can and do keep our weaknesses out of sight, they are facts woven inextricably into our lives and cannot be undone, and the bende will ensure Gawain’s does not fall out of his own notice or that of others. The court, however, turns this badge of shame into a badge of honour when they resolve to adopt it as a kind of insignia of the Round Table: ‘And he honoured that hit had evermore after’ (2520).

These alternating emphases make for a complex finale that is neither wholeheartedly celebratory nor unqualifiedly penitential. The final tableau is positive – but chivalric adventure has lost something of its shine and excitement. For instance, the adventures passed over on the outward journey had been, we are told, so many and so many dramatic that it would be hard to tell a tenth of them (719); but when this topos recurs with respect to the homeward journey, it is flatter in tone: ‘And mony aventure in vale he venquished ofte That I ne tyght at this tyme in tale to remene’ (2482–3). A poet who sounds no longer excited by his material can also be heard at the close. As the poem comes full circle (the first line is repeated at 2525), the mood is rather different: the aunter or adventure is now no longer special (see p. 250), but is one among ‘many such’ that have occurred: ‘Mony aunteres here-biforne Haf fallen such ere this’ (2527–8). Gawain was neither the first nor the last to discover he could not unfailingly live up to his ideals, and the sad mundanity of its moral has obviously made the aunter seem perhaps not so uncommon after all.

‘HONY SOYT QUI MAL PENCE’ [shamed be anyone who thinks ill of it]: this, the motto of the Order of the Garter, is written out after the last line of the poem, and represents the final move in a closure that has involved many and complicated stages. If the addendum is scribal, the very fact that a scribe thought it relevant is sufficiently interesting. But it acts as a comment on the tale subtle and complex enough to be authorial. The poem had closed with what could be seen as a prototypical act of founding an order of knighthood: the Round Table has been turned into a formal ‘brotherhede’ (2516) with a heraldic insignia (‘A bende abelef … of a bryght grene’: 2517). That the scene should trigger an allusion to contemporary orders of knighthood is not surprising: The Greene Knight links the green bende with the insignia of the Knights of the Order of the Bath (502). And the most famous of such orders in the time and place to which Sir Gawain belongs was the Order of the Garter, the reference to it underlining the relevance of the tale to an age in which, as indicated by the Round Tables actually held by Edward III (the founder of the Order of the Garter), there was a serious interest in maintaining and reviving Arthurian chivalry, which was far from an outmoded ideal.[14] The motto itself returns any derision or contempt directed at the order on the evil-thinker himself, who only proves his own meanness and baseness. In the context of Sir Gawain, it constitutes a warning against responding to the tale with contempt for chivalric aspirations, regarding them as based upon a lie, for men cannot and do not live up to the chivalric ideal. Anyone who so interprets the tale, it is implied, brings more shame to himself than to the chivalric ethos, whose aims and ideals are worthy ones, though they can never be perfectly lived up to by human beings who are not, by definition, superhuman. Gawain was guilty of a small weakness, but to all others in the story his conduct proves him to be someone to honour and emulate. As to the chivalric ideal, the poem warns us not to think it can do all it sets out to do, but not on those grounds to despise it: that is what the end of the story and the motto in effect say about chivalry – which, in the alternate panegyric and derision the institution has attracted, is a peculiarly sane verdict, endorsing the romance ethos, but with a rather unromance-like soberness and caution.

Recommended Further Reading: Borroff 1962; Benson 1965; Burrow 1965; Spearing 1970: 171–236; Millett 1994; Putter 1996: 38–102; Pearsall 1997; Burrow 2001: 42–54; Mann 2009

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

FITT I

SITHEN the sege and the assaut   was sesed at Troye,

The burgh brittened and brent   to brondes and askes,

The tulk that the trammes   of tresoun there wroghte

Was tried for his trecherye,   the truest on erthe:

5  Hit was Ennias the athel   and his highe kynde

That sithen depresed provinces   and patrounes become

Wel negh of all the wele   in the west iles.

Fro riche Romulus to Rome   riches him swythe,

With gret bobaunce that burgh   he bigges upon firste

10  And nevenes hit his owne name,   as hit now hatte;

Ticius to Tuskan   and teldes begines,

Langaberde in Lumbardie   lyftes up homes;

And fer over the French flod   Felix Brutus

On mony bonkes ful brode   Bretayn he settes

15              With wynne,

Where werre and wrake and wonder

By sythes has wont thereinne,

And oft both blisse and blunder

Ful skete has skyfted synne.

20  And when this Bretayn was bigged   by this burn riche,

Bolde bredden thereinne   baret that lofden,

In mony turned tyme   tene that wroghten.

Mo ferlyes on this folde   haf fallen here ofte

Then in any other that I wot   syn that ilk tyme.

25  Bot of all that here bult,   of Bretaygne kynges,

Aye was Arthur the hendest,   as I have herde telle.

Forthy an aunter in erde   I attle to schewe,

That a selly in sight   summe men hit holden

And an outtrage aventure   of Arthures wonderes.

30  If ye wil lysten this laye   bot on little while,

I schal telle hit as tite,   as I in toun herde

With tonge,

As hit is stad and stoken

In stori stiffe and stronge,

35        With lele lettres loken

In londe so has ben longe.

This kyng lay at Camylot   upon Cristmasse,

With mony luflyche lord,   ledes of the beste,

Rekenly of the Rounde Table   all tho rich brether,

40  With rich revel aryght   and rechlesse mirthes.

There tournayed tulkes   by tymes ful mony,

Justed ful jolily   these gentyle knightes,

Sithen kayred to the court   caroles to make.

For there the fest was ilyche ful   fiftene dayes,

45  With all the mete and the mirthe   that men couth avise.

Such glam and gle   glorious to here,

Dere dyn upon day,   daunsyng on nightes:

All was hap upon high   in halles and chambres

With lordes and ladies,   as levest hem thoghte.

50  With all the wele of the world   thay woned there samen,

The most kyd knightes   under Crystes selven,

And the lovelokkest ladies   that ever lif haden,

And he the comlokest kyng   that the court holdes.

For all was this fayre folk   in her first age

55            On sille,

The hapnest under heven,

Kyng highest man of wille;

Hit were now gret nye to neven

So hardy a here on hille.

60  While New Yere was so yep   that hit was newe comen,

That day double on the dese   was the douth served.

Fro the kyng was comen   with knightes into the halle,

The chauntry of the chapel   cheved to an ende,

Loude cry was there cast   of clerkes and other,

65  ‘Nowel!’ nayted onewe,   nevened ful ofte;

And sithen riche forth runnen   to reche hanselle,

Yeyed yeres-yiftes on high,   yelde hem by hande,

Debated busily   aboute tho giftes;

Ladies laghed ful loude   thogh thay lost haden,

70  And he that wan was not wroth,   that may ye wel trowe.

All this mirthe thay maden   to the mete tyme.

When thay had waschen worthily   thay wenten to sete,

The beste burn aye above,   as hit best semed,

Quene Guenore ful gay   graythed in the myddes, –

75  Dressed on the dere dese,   dubbed all aboute,

Smal sendal bisides,   a selure her over,

Of tried tolouse, of tars,   tapites inoghe,

That were enbrawded and beten   with the best gemmes

That myght be proved of pris   with penies to bye

80            In day:

The comlokest to discrye

There glent with iyen gray;

A semloker that ever he sye

Soth myght no man say.

85  Bot Arthur wolde not ete   til alle were served,

He was so joly of his joyfnes   and sumwhat child-gered:

His lif liked him lyght,   he loved the lesse

Other to longe lye   or to longe sitte,

So busied him his yonge blod   and his brayn wylde.

90  And also an other maner   meved him eke,

That he thurgh nobelay had nomen:   he wolde never ete

Upon such a dere day   ere him devised were

Of sum aventurus thing   an uncouthe tale,

Of sum mayn mervayl   that he myght trowe,

95  Of alderes, of armes,   of other aventures, –

Other sum segge him bisoght   of sum siker knighte

To joyne with him in justyng,   in joparde to laye,

Lede, lif for lif,   leve uchone other,

As fortune wolde fylsen hem,   the fayrer to have.

100  This was the kynges countenaunce   where he in court were

At uch farande fest   among his fre meyny

In halle:

Therefore of face so fere

He stightles stif in stalle,

105        Ful yep in that New Yere;

Much mirthe he mas withalle.

Thus there standes in stalle   the stif kyng himselven,

Talkande before the highe table   of trifles ful hende,

There good Gawan was graythed   Guenore biside,

110  And Agravayn a la dure mayn   on that other side sittes,

Bothe the kynges sistersunes   and ful siker knightes.

Bischop Bawdewyn above   begines the table,

And Ywan, Uryn son,   ete with himselven.

These were dight on the dese   and derworthly served,

115  And sithen mony siker segge   at the side-bordes.

Then the first course com   with crakkyng of trumpes,

With mony baner ful bryght   that thereby henged;

Newe nakryne noyse   with the noble pipes,

Wylde werbles and wight,   wakened lote,

120  That mony hert ful high   hef at her touches;

Dayntyes driven therewith   of ful dere metes,

Foysoun of the fresch,   and on so fele disches

That pine to fynde the place   the peple before

For to sette the sylveren   that sere sewes holden

125            On clothe.

Uch lede as he loved himselve

There laght withouten lothe;

Aye two had disches twelve,

Good ber and bryght wyne bothe.

130  Now wil I of her servyce   say yow no more,

For uch wye may wel wit   no wont that there were.

An other noyse ful newe   neghed bylive,

That the lede myght have leve   liflode to cache;

For unethe was the noyse   not a while sesed

135  And the first course in the court   kyndely served,

There hales in at the halle dor   an awelich mayster,

On the most on the molde   on mesure highe, –

Fro the swyre to the swange   so sware and so thikke,

And his lyndes and his lymmes   so long and so grete,

140  Half etayn in erde   I hope that he were;

Bot man most I algate   mynne him to bene, –

And that the meriest in his muckel   that myght ever ride:

For of bak and of brest   all were his body sturne,

Bot his wombe and his wast   were worthily smale,

145  And all his fetures folwande,   in forme that he hade,

Ful clene.

Forwonder of his hue men hade,

Set in his semblaunt sene:

He ferde as freke were fade,

150        And overal enker grene.

And all graythed in grene   this gome and his wedes:

A strayt cote ful streght   that stek on his sides,

A mery mantyle above,   mensked withinne

With pelure pured apert,   the pane ful clene,

155  With blythe blaunner ful bryght,   and his hode bothe,

That was laght fro his lokkes   and layd on his schulderes;

Heme wel-haled hose   of hue that same grene,

That spenned on his sparlyr,   and clene spures under

Of bryght gold upon silk bordes   barred ful riche;

160  And scholes under schankes   there the schalk rides.

And all his vesture verayly   was clene verdure,

Both the barres of his belt   and other blythe stones,

That were richely rayled   in his aray clene

Aboute himself and his sadel   upon silk werkes, –

165  That were to tor for to telle   of trifles the halve

That were enbrawded above,   with bryddes and flyes,

With gay gaudi of grene,   the gold aye in-myddes.

The pendauntes of his payttrure,   the proude cropure,

His molaynes and all the metail   enaumayld was thenne,

170  The stiropes that he stod on   stayned of the same,

And his arsouns all after   and his athel skyrtes,

That ever glemered and glent   all of grene stones;

The fole that he ferkes on   fyne of that ilke

Sertayn:

175        A grene horse, gret and thik,

A stede ful stif to strayn;

In brayden brydel quik,

To the gome he was ful gayn.

Wel gay was this gome   gered in grene,

180  And the hayre of his hed   of his horse sute;

Fayr fannande fax   umbe-foldes his schulderes;

A much berd as a busk   over his brest henges,

That with his highliche hayre   that of his hed reches

Was evesed all umbe-torne   above his elbowes,

185  That half his armes thereunder   were halched in the wyse

Of a knightes capados   that closes his swyre;

The mane of that mayn horse   much to hit like,

Wel cresped and cemmed,   with knottes ful mony,

Folden in with fildore   aboute the fayre grene,

190  Aye a herle of the hayre,   an other of golde;

The tayl and his toppyng   twynnen of a sute,

And bounden both with a bande   of a bryght grene,

Dubbed with ful dere stones   as the dok lasted,

Sithen throwen with a thwong,   a thwarle knot alofte,

195  There mony belles ful bryght   of brende gold rungen.

Such a fole upon folde   ne freke that him rides

Was never sene in that sale   with sight ere that tyme

With iye.

He loked as layt so lyght,

200        So sayd all that him sye;

Hit semed as no man myght

Under his dintes drye.

Whether had he no helme   ne hauberghe nauther,

Ne no pysan ne no plate   that pented to armes,

205  Ne no schaft ne no schelde   to schowve ne to smyte.

Bot in his on hand   he had a holyn bobbe,

That is grettest in grene   when greves are bare,

And an axe in his other,   a huge and unmete,

A spitous sparthe to expoun   in spelle, whoso myghte:

210  The hed of an elnyerde   the large lenthe hade,

The grayn all of grene stele   and of gold hewen,

The bitte burnist bryght,   with a brod egge,

As wel schapen to schere   as scharpe rasores;

The stele of a stif staf   the sturne hit by gripped,

215  That was wounden with yrn   to the wandes ende

And all bigraven with grene   in gracious werkes,

A lace lapped aboute,   that louked at the hede

And so after the halme   halched ful ofte,

With tried tasseles thereto   tached inoghe

220  On botouns of the bryght grene   brayden ful riche.

This hathel heldes him in   and the halle entres,

Drivande to the high dese,   dut he no wothe.

Haylsed he never one,   bot high he overloked.

The first word that he warp,   ‘Where is,’ he sayde,

225  ‘The governour of this gyng?   Gladly I wolde

See that segge in sight   and with himself speke

Resoun.’

To knightes he cast his iye

And reled hem up and doun;

230        He stemmed and con studie

Who walt there most renoun.

There was lokyng on lenthe   the lede to beholde,

For uch man had mervayl   what hit mene myghte

That a hathel and a horse   myght such a hue lache

235  As grow grene as the gresse   and grener hit semed,

Then grene aumayl on gold   glowande bryghter.

All studied that there stod   and stalked him nerre

With all the wonder of the world   what he work schulde.

For fele sellyes had thay sene,   bot such never ere;

240  Forthy for fantoum and fayrye   the folk there hit demed.

Therefore to answare was arwe   mony athel freke,

And all stouned at his steven   and stone-stille seten

In a swoghe sylence   thurgh the sale riche;

As all were slypped on slepe   so slaked her lotes

245            In hye.

I deme hit not all for doute,

Bot sum for courtaysye;

Bot let him that all schuld loute

Cast unto that wye.

250  Then Arthur before the high dese   that aventure beholdes,

And rekenly him reverenced,   for rad was he never,

And sayd, ‘Wye, welcom   iwysse to this place.

The hed of this hostel   Arthur I hatte.

Lyght lovely adoun   and leng, I thee praye,

255  And whatso thy wille is   we schal wit after.’

‘Nay, as help me,’ quoth the hathel,   ‘He that on high sittes,

To wone any while in this won   hit was not myn ernde, –

Bot for the los of thee, lede,   is lyft up so highe,

And thy burgh and thy burnes   best are holden,

260  Stifest under stele-gere   on stedes to ride,

The wyghtest and the worthyest   of the worldes kynde,

Preue for to play with   in other pure laykes,

And here is kyd courtaysye,   as I have herde carpe;

And that has wayned me hider,   iwysse, at this tyme.

265  Ye may be siker by this braunch   that I bere here

That I passe as in pese   and no plyt seche.

For had I founded in fere   in fyghtynges wyse,

I have a hauberghe at home   and a helme bothe,

A schelde and a scharp spere   schinande bryghte,

270  And other weppenes to welde,   I wene wel, alse;

Bot for I wolde no werre,   my wedes are softer.

Bot if thou be so bold   as all burnes tellen,

Thou wil grant me godly   the game that I aske

By right.’

275        Arthur con answare

And sayd, ‘Sir cortays knight,

If thou crave batayl bare,

Here fayles thou not to fyght.’

‘Nay, frayste I no fyght,   in fayth I thee telle:

280  Hit are aboute on this bench   bot berdlesse childer;

If I were hasped in armes   on a high stede,

Here is no man me to mach,   for myghtes so wayke.

Forthy I crave in this court   a Cristemas game,

For hit is Yol and New Yere   and here are yep mony.

285  If any so hardy in this house   holdes himselven,

Be so bold in his blod,   brayn in his hede,

That dar stiflyche strike   a stroke for another,

I schal gif him of my gift   this giserne riche,

This axe, that is hevy inogh,   to hondel as him likes;

290  And I schal bide the first bur   as bare as I sitte.

If any freke be so felle   to fonde that I telle,

Lepe lyghtly me to   and lache this weppen –

I quit-clayme hit for ever,   kepe hit as his owne –

And I schal stande him a stroke   stif on this flete,

295  Elles thou wil dight me the dome   to dele him an other,

Barlay,

And yet gif him respite

A twelmonyth and a day.

Now hye, and let see tite

300        Dar any hereinne oght say.’

If he hem stouned upon first,   stiller were thenne

All the heredmen in halle,   the high and the lowe.

The renk on his rounce   him riched in his sadel,

And runischly his red iyen   he reled aboute,

305  Bende his bresed browes   blykkande grene,

Wayved his berd for to wayte   whoso wolde rise.

When non wolde kepe him with carp,   he coghed ful highe,

And rimed him ful richly   and ryght him to speke.

‘What, is this Arthures house,’   quoth the hathel thenne,

310  ‘That all the rous rennes of   thurgh ryalmes so mony?

Where is now your sorquydrye   and your conquestes,

Your gryndellayk and your greme   and your grete wordes?

Now is the revel and the renoun   of the Rounde Table

Overwalt with a word   of on wyes speche,

315  For all dares for drede   withoute dint schewed!’

With this he laghes so loude   that the lord greved:

The blod schotte for schame   into his schyre face

And lere;

He wex as wroth as wynd,

320        So did all that there were;

The kyng, as kene by kynde,

Then stod that stif man nere.

And sayd, ‘Hathel, by heven,   thyn askyng is nice,

And as thou foly has frayst,   fynde thee behoves, –

325  I know no gome that is gast   of thy grete wordes.

Gif me now thy giserne,   upon Godes halve,

And I schal baythen thy bone   that thou boden habbes.’

Lyghtly lepes he him to   and laght at his hande;

Then fersly that other freke   upon fote lyghtes.

330  Now has Arthur his axe   and the halme grippes,

And sturnely stures hit aboute,   that strike with hit thoghte.

The stif man him before   stod upon hyghte,

Herre then any in the house   by the hed and more;

With sturne chere there he stod   he stroked his berde,

335  And with a countenaunce drye   he drow doun his cote,

No more mate ne dismayd   for his mayn dintes

Then any burn upon bench   had broght him to drynke

Of wyne.

Gawan, that sat by the quene,

340        To the kyng he con enclyne:

‘I beseche now with sawes sene

This melly mot be myne.

‘Wolde ye, worthilyche lord,’   quoth Wawan to the kynge,

‘Bid me bow fro this bench   and stande by yow there,

345  That I withoute vilany   myght voyde this table,

And that my lege lady   liked not ille,

I wolde come to your counsel   before your court riche.

For me think hit not semely,   as hit is soth knowen,

There such an askyng is hevened   so high in your sale,

350  Thagh ye yourself be talenttyf,   to take hit to yourselven,

While mony so bold yow aboute   upon bench sitten,

That under heven, I hope,   none hawerer of wille,

Ne better bodyes on bent   there baret is rered.

I am the wakkest, I wot,   and of wyt feblest,

355  And lest lur of my lif,   who laytes the sothe.

Bot for as much as ye are myn em   I am only to prayse:

No bounte bot your blod   I in my body knowe.

And sithen this note is so nice   that not hit yow falles,

And I have frayned hit at yow first,   foldes hit to me.

360  And if I carp not comlyly,   let all this court riche

Bout blame.’

Riche togeder con roun,

And sithen thay redden all same

To ryd the kyng with crowne

365        And gif Gawayn the game.

Then comaunded the kyng   the knight for to rise,

And he ful radly up ros   and riched him fayre,

Kneled doun before the kyng   and caches that weppen,

And he luflyly hit him laft   and lyfte up his hande

370  And gave him Godes blessing   and gladly him biddes

That his hert and his hand   schuld hardy be bothe.

‘Kepe thee, cosyn,’ quoth the kyng,   ‘that thou on kyrf sette;

And if thou redes him right,   redily I trowe

That thou schal bide the bur   that he schal bede after.’

375  Gawan gos to the gome   with giserne in hande,

And he baldly him bides,   he bayst never the helder.

Then carpes to Sir Gawan   the knight in the grene:

‘Refourme we our forwardes   ere we ferre passe.

First I ethe thee, hathel,   how that thou hattes

380  That thou me telle truly   as I tryst may.’

‘In good fayth,’ quoth the good knight,   ‘Gawan I hatte

That bede thee this buffet,   whatso befalles after,

And at this tyme twelmonyth   take at thee an other,

With what weppen so thou wilt,   and with no wye elles

385            On lyve.’

That other answares agayn:

‘Sir Gawan, so mot I thryve

As I am ferly fayn

This dint that thou schal drive.’

390  ‘By Gog,’ quoth the grene knight,   ‘Sir Gawan, me likes

That I schal fonge at thy fyste   that I have frayst here;

And thou has redily rehersed   by resoun ful true

Clanly all the covenaunt   that I the kyng asked, –

Save that thou schal siker me,   segge, by thy trauthe,

395  That thou schal sech me thyself   whereso thou hopes

I may be founde upon folde,   and fech thee such wages

As thou deles me today   before this douth riche.’

‘Where schuld I wale thee?’ quoth Gawan.   ‘Where is thy place?

I wot never where thou wones,   by Him that me wroghte,

400  Ne I know not thee, knight,   thy court ne thy name.

Bot tech me truly thereto   and tell me how thou hattes,

And I schal ware all my wit   to wynne me thider, –

And that I swere thee for sothe   and by my siker trauthe.’

‘That is inogh in New Yere,   hit nedes no more,’

405  Quoth the gome in the grene   to Gawan the hende;

‘If I thee telle truly,   when I the tappe have

And thou me smothely has smyten,   smartly I thee teche

Of my house and my home   and myn owne name, –

Then may thou frayste my fare   and forwardes holde.

410  And if I spende no speche,   then spedes thou the better,

For thou may leng in thy londe   and layte no ferre.

Bot slokes!

Ta now thy grym tole to thee

And let se how thou cnokes.’

415        ‘Gladly, sir, for sothe,’

Quoth Gawan; his axe he strokes.

The grene knight upon grounde   graythly him dresses,

A little lut with the hed,   the lyre he discoveres;

His long, luflyche lokkes   he layd over his crowne,

420  Let the nakede nek   to the note schewe.

Gawan gripped to his axe   and gederes hit on hyghte,

The kay fote on the folde   he before sette,

Let hit doun lyghtly   lyght on the naked,

That the scharp of the schalk   schyndered the bones

425  And schrank thurgh the schyre gres   and schede hit in twynne,

That the bitte of the broun stele   bote on the grounde.

The fayr hed fro the halse   hit to the erthe,

That fele hit foyned with her fete   there hit forth rolled;

The blod brayd fro the body,   that blykked on the grene –

430  And nauther faltered ne fel   the freke never the helder,

Bot stythly he start forth   upon stif schankes,

And runischly he raght out,   thereas renkes stoden,

Laght to his lovely hed   and lyft hit up sone,

And sithen bowes to his blonk,   the brydel he caches,

435  Steppes into stele-bawe   and strydes alofte,

And his hed by the hayre   in his hande holdes;

And as sadly the segge   him in his sadel sette

As non unhap had him ayled,   thagh hedles he were

In stedde.

440        He brayd his bluk aboute,

That ugly body that bledde;

Mony one of him had doute

By that his resouns were redde.

For the hed in his hande   he holdes up even,

445  Toward the derrest on the dese   he dresses the face,

And hit lyft up the iye-lyddes   and loked ful brode

And meled thus much with his mouth   as ye may now here:

‘Loke, Gawan, thou be grayth   to go as thou hettes,

And layte also lelly   til thou me, lede, fynde

450  As thou has hyght in this halle,   herande these knightes.

To the Grene Chapel thou chose,   I charge thee, to fette

Such a dint as thou has dalt:   disserved thou habbes

To be yederly yolden   on New Yeres morne.

The Knight of the Grene Chapel,   men knowen me mony:

455  Forthy me for to fynde if thou fraystes   fayles thou never.

Therefore com, or recreaunt   be called thee behoves.’

With a runische rout   the raynes he turnes,

Haled out at the halle dor,   his hed in his hande,

That the fire of the flynt   flewe fro fole hoves.

460  To what kyth he becom   knewe non there,

Never more then thay wyste   from whethen he was wonnen.

What then?

The kyng and Gawan thare

At that grene thay laghe and grenne;

465        Yet breved was hit ful bare

A mervayl among tho men.

Thagh Arthur the hende kyng   at hert hade wonder,

He let no semblaunt be sene,   bot sayde ful highe

To the comlyche quene   with cortayse speche:

470  ‘Dere dame, today   dismay you never:

Wel becomes such craft   upon Cristmasse –

Laykyng of enterludes,   to laghe and to synge,

Among these kynde caroles   of knightes and ladies.

Neverthelesse to my mete   I may me wel dresse,

475  For I have sene a selly,   I may not forsake.’

He glent upon Sir Gawan   and gaynly he sayde:

‘Now, sir, heng up thyn axe,   that has inogh hewen.’ –

And hit was done above the dese   on doser to henge,

There all men for mervayl   myght on hit loke

480  And by true tytle thereof   to telle the wonder.

Then thay bowed to a borde,   these burnes togeder –

The kyng and the good knight – and kene men hem served

Of all dayntyes double,   as derrest myght falle.

With all maner of mete   and mynstralsye bothe,

485  With wele walt thay that day,   til worthed an ende

In londe.

Now thenk wel, Sir Gawayn,

For wothe that thou ne wonde

This aunter for to frayn

490        That thou has tan on honde.

FITT II

THIS hanselle has Arthur   of aventures on firste,

In yong yere, for he yerned   yelpyng to here;

Thagh him wordes were wane   when thay to sete wenten,

Now are thay stoken of sturne werk,   stafful her hande.

495  Gawan was glad to begynne   those gamnes in halle,

Bot thagh the ende be hevy,   haf ye no wonder;

For thagh men ben mery in mynde   when thay haf mayn drinke,

A yere yernes ful yerne   and yeldes never like:

The forme to the fynisment   foldes ful selden.

500  Forthy this Yol overyede,   and the yere after,

And uch sesoun serlepes   sued after other.

After Cristenmas com   the crabbede Lentoun,

That fraystes flesch with the fissche   and fode more symple;

Bot then the weder of the world   with wynter hit threpes:

505  Colde clenges adoun,   cloudes up lyften,

Schyre schedes the rayn   in schowres ful warme,

Falles upon fayr flat,   flowres there schewen,

Bothe groundes and the greves,   grene are her wedes;

Bryddes busken to bylde,   and bremlyche syngen

510  For solace of the softe somer   that sues thereafter

By bonk;

And blossumes bolne to blowe

By rawes rich and ronk;

Then notes noble inowe

515        Are herde in wode so wlonk.

After the sesoun of somer   with the soft wyndes,

When Zeferus syfles himself   on sedes and erbes,

Welawynne is the wort   that waxes thereoute,

When the donkande dew   dropes of the leves,

520  To bide a blysful blusch   of the bryght sunne.

Bot then hyes Hervest   and hardenes him sone,

Warnes him for the wynter   to waxe ful ripe.

He drives with droght   the dust for to rise,

Fro the face of the folde   to flye ful highe.

525  Wroth wynd of the welkyn   wrasteles with the sunne,

The leves lausen fro the lynde   and lyghten on the grounde,

And all grayes the gresse   that grene was ere;

Then all rypes and rotes   that ros upon firste,

And thus yernes the yere   in yisterdayes mony,

530  And wynter wyndes agayn,   as the world askes

No fage,

Til Meghelmasse mone

Was comen with wynter wage.

Then thenkes Gawan ful sone

535        Of his anious vyage.

Yet while Alhalday   with Arthur he lenges,

And he made a fare on that fest   for the frekes sake,

With much revel and rich   of the Rounde Table.

Knightes ful cortays   and comlyche ladies,

540  All for luf of that lede   in longing thay were;

Bot never the lesse ne the later   thay nevened bot mirthe:

Mony joyles for that gentyl   japes there maden.

For after mete with mournyng   he meles to his eme,

And spekes of his passage   and pertly he sayde:

545  ‘Now, lege lord of my lif,   leve I yow aske.

Ye knowe the cost of this case:   kepe I no more

To telle yow tenes thereof,   never bot trifle;

Bot I am boun to the bur   barely tomorne,

To sech the gome of the grene   as God wil me wysse.’

550  Then the best of the burgh   bowed togeder –

Ywan and Errik,   and other ful mony,

Sir Doddinaual de Savage,   the Duk of Clarence,

Lancelot and Lyonel   and Lucan the goode,

Sir Boors and Sir Bydver,   bigge men bothe,

555  And mony other menskful,   with Mador de la Porte;

All this compayny of court   com the kyng nerre,

For to counseyl the knight,   with care at her herte.

There was much derne doel   driven in the sale

That so worthy as Wawan   schuld wende on that ernde,

560  To drye a delful dint   and dele no more

With bronde.

The knight made aye good chere,

And sayd, ‘What schuld I wonde?

Of destines derf and dere

565        What may man do bot fonde?’

He dwelles there all that day,   and dresses on the morne,

Askes erly his armes,   and all were thay broghte:

First, a tuly tapit   tyght over the flete,

And much was the gilde gere   that glent there-alofte;

570  The stif man steppes thereon,   and the stele hondeles,

Dubbed in a dublet   of a dere tarse,

And sithen a crafty capados,   closed alofte,

That with a bryght blaunner   was bounden withinne;

Then set thay the sabatouns   upon the segge fotes;

575  His legges lapped in stele   with luflyche greves,

With polaynes piched thereto,   polysed ful clene,

Aboute his knes knaged   with knottes of golde;

Queme quyssewes then,   that coyntlyche closed

His thik-throwen thyes   with thwonges to tached;

580  And sithen the brayden bruny,   of bryght stele rynges,

Umbe-weved that wye,   upon wlonk stuffe,

And wel burnist brace   upon his bothe armes,

With good cowters and gay,   and gloves of plate,

And all the godlyche gere   that him gayn schulde

585            That tyde, –

With riche cote-armure,

His gold spures spend with pryde,

Gurde with a bronde ful sure

With silk saynt umbe his side.

590  When he was hasped in armes,   his harnays was riche:

The lest lachet over loupe   lemed of golde.

So harnayst as he was,   he herknes his Masse,

Offred and honoured   at the highe auter.

Sithen he comes to the kyng   and to his court feres,

595  Laches lovely his leve   at lordes and ladies,

And thay him kysten and conveyed,   bikende him to Cryste.

By that was Gryngolet grayth,   and gurde with a sadel,

That glemed ful gayly   with mony golde frenges,

Aywhere naylet ful new,   for that note riched,

600  The brydel barred aboute,   with bryght golde bounden;

The apparayl of the payttrure   and of the proude skyrtes,

The cropure and the covertor,   acorded with the arsounes:

And all was rayled on red   riche gold nayles,

That all glytered and glent   as glem of the sunne.

605  Then hentes he the helme   and hastily hit kysses,

That was stapled stifly   and stuffed withinne;

Hit was high on his hed,   hasped bihinde,

With a lyghtly urysoun   over the aventayle,

Enbrawden and bounden   with the best gemmes

610  On brod sylkyn borde,   and bryddes on semes,

As papejayes paynted   pervyng bitwene,

Tortors and trulofes,   entayled so thikke

As mony burde thereaboute   had ben seven wynter

In toun.

615        The cercle was more of pris

That umbe-clypped his crowne,

Of diamauntes a devise

That both were bryght and broun.

THEN thay schewed him the schelde,   that was of schyr goules,

620  With the pentangel depaynt   of pure golde hues.

He braydes hit by the bauderyk,   aboute the halse castes:

That bisemed the segge   semlyly fayre;

And why the pentangel apendes   to that prince noble

I am in tente you to telle,   thogh tary hit me schulde. –

625  Hit is a syngne that Salomon   sette sumwhyle,

In bytoknyng of trauthe,   by tytle that hit habbes:

For hit is a figure   that holdes fyve poyntes,

And uch lyne umbe-lappes   and loukes in other,

And aywhere hit is endeles,   and Englych hit callen

630  Overal, as I here,   the endeles knotte.

Forthy hit acordes to this knight   and to his clere armes:

For, aye faythful in fyve   and sere fyve sythes,

Gawan was for good knowen,   and as gold pured

Voyded of uch vilany,   with vertues enurned

635            In mote.

Forthy the pentangel new

He bere in schelde and cote,

As tulk of tale most true

And gentylest knight of lote.

640  First he was founden fautles   in his fyve wyttes;

And eft fayled the freke never   in his fyve fyngres;

And all his afyaunce upon folde   was in the fyve woundes

That Cryst caght on the cros,   as the Crede telles;

And wheresoever this man   in melly was stadde,

645  His thro thoght was in that,   thurgh all other thinges,

That all his forsnes he fong   at the fyve joyes

That the hende heven-quene   had of her childe;

At this cause the knight   comlyche hade

In the inner half of his schelde   her image depaynted,

650  That when he blusched thereto   his belde never payred.

The fyfthe fyve that I fynde   that the freke used

Was fraunchis and felawschyp   forbi all thinges,

His clannesse and his courtaysye   croked were never,

And pyty, that passes all poyntes – these pure fyve

655  Were harder happed on that hathel   then on any other.

Now all these fyve sythes, for sothe,   were fettled on this knighte,

And uchone halched in other,   that non ende hade,

And fyched upon fyve poyntes,   that faylede never,

Ne samned never in no side,   ne sundrede nauther,

660  Withouten ende at any noke,   that nowhere couthe man fynde

Where ever the game began   or glod to an ende.

Therefore on his schene schelde   schapen was the knotte,

Ryally with red gold   upon red goules,

That is the pure pentangel   with the peple called

665            With lore.

Now graythed is Gawan gay

And laght his launce right thore

And gave hem all good day,

He wende for evermore.

670  He sperred the stede with the spures   and sprang on his waye

So stif that the stonefire   strok out thereafter.

All that saw that semely   syked in herte,

And sayd sothly all same   segges til other,

Carande for that comly:   ‘By Cryst, hit is scathe

675  That thou, lede, schal be lost,   that art of lif noble!

To fynde his fere upon folde,   in fayth, is not ethe.

Warloker to have wroght   had more wyt bene

And have dight yonder dere   a duk to have worthed;

A lowande leder of ledes   in londe him wel semes, –

680  And so had better have ben   then brittened to noghte,

Hadet with an alvisch man,   for angardes pryde.

Who knew ever any kyng   such counsel to take

As knightes in cavelouns   on Cristmasse gamnes?’

Wel much was the warme water   that waltered of iyen

685  When that semlyche syre   soght fro tho wones

That day.

He made non abode,

Bot wightly went his way.

Mony wylsum way he rode,

690        The boke as I herde say.

Now rides this renk thurgh   the ryalme of Logres –

Sir Gawan on Godes halve,   thagh him no game thoghte:

Oft ledeles alone   he lenges on nightes,

There he fonde not him before   the fare that he liked;

695  Had he no fere bot his fole   by frithes and downes,

Ne no gome bot God   by gate with to carpe,

Til that he neghed ful negh   into the north Wales.

All the iles of Anglesay   on lyft half he holdes,

And fares over the fordes   by the forlondes,

700  Over at the Holy Hed,   til he had eft bonke

In the wyldrenesse of Wyrale;   woned there bot lyte

That other God other gome   with good herte loved.

And aye he frayned as he ferde   at frekes that he mette

If thay had herde any carp   of a knight grene,

705  In any grounde thereaboute,   of the Grene Chapel;

And all nikked him with nay,   that never in her lyve

Thay saw never no segge   that was of such hues

Of grene.

The knight toke gates straunge

710        In mony a bonk unbene;

His chere ful oft con chaunge

That chapel ere he myght sene.

Mony clyff he overclambe   in contrayes straunge;

Fer floten fro his frendes,   fremedly he rides.

715  At uch warthe other water   there the wye passed

He fonde a fo him before,   bot ferly hit were, –

And that so foule and so felle   that fyght him behoved.

So mony mervayl by mount   there the man fyndes

Hit were to tor for to telle   of the tenthe dole:

720  Sumwhyle with wormes he werres   and with wolves alse,

Sumwhyle with wodwos   that woned in the knarres,

Both with bulles and beres   and bores other while,

And etaynes that him anelede   of the highe felle.

Nade he ben doghty and drye   and Dryhtyn had served,

725  Douteles he had ben ded   and dreped ful ofte.

For werre wrathed him not so much   that wynter was worse,

When the colde cler water   fro the cloudes schadden

And fres ere hit falle myght   to the fale erthe.

Nere slayn with the slete he slepte in his yrnes

730  Mo nightes then inogh,   in nakede rokkes,

Thereas claterande fro the crest   the colde borne rennes

And henged high over his hed   in harde ysse-ikkles.

Thus in peril and payne   and plytes ful harde,

By countre kayres this knight   til Cristenmas even,

735            Alone.

The wye wel that tyde

To Mary made his mone,

That ho him rede to ride

And wysse him to sum wone.

740  By a mount on the morn   meryly he rides

Into a forest ful depe,   that ferly was wylde:

High hilles on uch a halve,   and holtwodes under

Of hore okes ful huge,   a hundred togeder;

The hasel and the hawthorne   were harled all samen,

745  With rogh, raged mosse   rayled aywhere,

With mony bryddes unblythe   upon bare twyges,

That pitously there piped   for pine of the colde.

The gome upon Gryngolet   glydes hem under,

Thurgh mony misy and myre,   man all him one,

750  Carande for his costes,   lest he ne kever schulde

To see the servyce of that Syre   that on that self nighte

Of a burde was born   our baret to quelle;

And therefore sykyng he sayd:   ‘I beseche thee, Lorde,

And Mary, that is myldest   moder so dere,

755  Of sum herber there highly   I myght here Masse

And thy Matynes tomorne,   mekely I aske,

And thereto prestly I pray   my Pater and Ave

And Crede.’

He rode in his prayere

760        And cryed for his mysdede;

He sayned him in sythes sere,

And sayd, ‘Cros Cryst me spede!’

NADE he sayned himself,   segge, bot thrye,

Ere he was ware in the wode   of a won in a mote,

765  Above a launde, on a lawe   loken under boghes

Of mony borlyche bole   aboute by the diches –

A castel the comlokest   that ever knight aghte,

Piched on a prayere,   a park all aboute

With a pyked palays   pyned ful thikke

770  That umbe-teye mony tre   mo then two myle.

That holde on that on side   the hathel avised,

As hit schemered and schon   thurgh the schyre okes.

Then has he hendly of his helme   and highly he thonkes

Jesus and Saynt Gilyan,   that gentyl are bothe,

775  That courtaysye had him kyd   and his cry herkened.

‘Now, bone hostel,’ quoth the burn,   ‘I beseche yow yete.’

Then gederes he to Gryngolet   with the gilt heles

And he ful chauncely has chosen   to the chef gate

That broght bremly the burn   to the brygge ende

780            In haste.

The brygge was breme up brayde,

The yates were stoken faste;

The walles were wel arayed:

Hit dut no wyndes blaste.

785  The burn bode on bonk,   that on blonk hoved,

Of the depe double dich   that drof to the place.

The wal wod in the water   wonderly depe,

And eft a ful huge hyght   hit haled upon lofte,

Of hard-hewen stone   up to the tables,

790  Enbaned under the abataylment   in the best lawe,

And sithen garytes ful gay   gered bitwene,

With mony luflyche loupe   that louked ful clene:

A better barbican that burn   blusched upon never.

And innermore he behelde   that halle ful highe,

795  Towres telded bitwene,   troched ful thikke,

Fayre fylyoles that fyed   and ferlyly longe,

With corven coprounes   craftyly sleye;

Chalk-white chymnees   there chese he inoghe,

Upon bastel-roves   that blenked ful white:

800  So mony pinacle paynted   was powdered aywhere,

Among the castel carneles   clambred so thikke,

That pared out of paper   purely hit semed.

The fre freke on the fole   hit fayr inoghe thoghte,

If he myght kever to come   the cloyster withinne,

805  To herber in that hostel   while halyday lasted,

Avinaunt.

He called, and sone there come

A porter pure plesaunt;

On the wal his ernd he nome

810        And haylsed the knight erraunt.

‘Good sir,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘woldes thou go myn ernde

To the high lord of this house,   herber to crave?’

‘Ye, Peter,’ quoth the porter,   ‘and purely I trowe

That ye be wye welcom   to wone while yow likes.’

815  Then yede him the yateward,   and com ayain swythe,

And folk frely him with   to fonge the knight.

Thay let doun the grete draght   and derely out yede,

And kneled doun on her knes   upon the colde erthe

To welcom this ilk wye   as worthy hem thoghte.

820  Thay yolden him the brode yate,   yarked up wyde,

And he hem raysed rekenly,   and rode over the brygge.

Sere segges him sesed   by sadel while he lyghte,

And sithen stabeled his stede   stif men inowe.

Knightes and swyeres   comen doun thenne,

825  For to brynge this burn   with blisse into halle.

When he hef up his helme   there hyed inowe

For to hent hit at his hande,   the hende to serven;

His bronde and his blasoun   bothe thay token.

Then haylsed he ful hendly   tho hatheles uchone,

830  And mony proud man there presed   that prince to honoure.

All hasped in his high wede   to halle thay him wonnen,

There fayr fire upon flet   ferslyche brenned.

Then the lord of the lede   loutes fro his chamber,

For to mete with menske   the man on the flore;

835  He sayd, ‘Ye are welcom   to welde as yow likes;

That her is all is your owne,   to have at your wille

And welde.’

‘Grant mercy,’ quoth Gawayn,

‘There Cryst hit yow foryelde.’

840        As frekes that semed fayn

Ayther other in armes con felde.

Gawan glyght on the gome   that godly him grette,

And thoght hit a bold burn   that the burgh aghte:

A huge hathel for the nones,   and of high elde;

845  Brod, bryght was his berd,   and all bever hued;

Sturne, stif on the strythe,   on stalworthe schankes;

Felle face as the fire   and fre of his speche –

And wel him semed, for sothe,   as the segge thoghte,

To lede a lordeschyp in lee   of ledes ful goode.

850  The lord him charred to a chamber   and chefly comaundes

To delyver him a lede,   him lowly to serve;

And there were boun at his bode   burnes inowe,

That broght him to a bryght bour   there beddyng was noble –

Of cortynes of clene silk   with clere gold hemmes,

855  And covertores ful curious   with comlyche panes,

Of bryght blaunner above,   enbrawded bisides,

Rudeles rennande on ropes,   red golde rynges,

Tapites tyght to the wowe   of tuly and tarse,

And under fete on the flet   of folwande sute.

860  There he was dispoyled,   with speches of mirthe,

The burn of his bruny   and of his bryght wedes.

Riche robes ful rad   renkes him broghten,

For to charge and to chaunge   and chose of the beste;

Sone as he one hent   and happed thereinne,

865  That sat on him semely,   with saylande skyrtes,

The ver by his visage   verayly hit semed

Wel negh to uche hathel – all on hues

Lowande and lovely   all his lymmes under –

That a comloker knight   never Cryst made,

870            Hem thoght.

Whethen in world he were,

Hit semed as he moght

Be prince withouten pere

In felde there felle men foght.

875  A chayer before the chymne,   there charcole brenned,

Was graythed for Sir Gawan   graythly with clothes:

Whyssynes upon queldepoyntes,   that quoynte were bothe;

And then a mery mantyle   was on that man caste

Of a broun bleaunt,   enbrawded ful riche,

880  And fayre furred withinne   with felles of the beste,

All of ermyn in erde,   his hode of the same;

And he sete in that settel   semlyche riche,

And achaufed him chefly,   and then his chere mended.

Sone was telded up a table   on trestes ful fayre,

885  Clad with a clene cloth   that clere white schewed,

Sanap and salure   and sylveren spones;

The wye wesch at his wille   and went to his mete;

Segges him served   semely inoghe

With sere sewes and sete,   sesounde of the beste,

890  Doublefelde, as hit falles,   and fele kyn fisches:

Summe baken in bred,   summe brad on the gledes,

Summe sothen, summe in sewe,   savoured with spyces, –

And aye sawes so sleye   that the segge liked.

The freke calde hit a fest   ful frely and ofte,

895  Ful hendly, when all the hatheles   rehayted him at ones,

As hende:

‘This penaunce now ye take

And eft hit schal amende.’

That man much mirthe con make

900        For wyne in his hed that wende.

Then was spied and spured   upon spare wyse

By privy poyntes of that prince   put to himselven,

That he beknew cortaysly   of the court that he were

That athel Arthur the hende   holdes him one,

905  That is the riche, ryal kyng   of the Rounde Table –

And hit was Wawan himself   that in that won sittes,

Comen to that Cristmasse   as case him then lymped.

When the lord hade lerned   that he the lede hade,

Loude laghed he thereat,   so lef hit him thoghte;

910  And all the men in that mote   maden much joye

To apere in his presense   prestly that tyme,

That all pris and prowes   and purede thewes

Apendes to his persoun   and praysed is ever:

Before all men upon molde   his mensk is the moste.

915  Uch segge ful softly   sayd to his fere:

‘Now schal we semlyche see   sleghtes of thewes

And the techeles termes   of talkynge noble;

Wich sped is in speche   unspurd may we lerne,

Syn we haf fonged that fyne   fader of nurture;

920  God has geven us His grace   godly, for sothe,

That such a gest as Gawan   grantes us to have

When burnes blythe of His byrth   schal sitte

And synge;

In menyng of maneres mere

925        This burn now schal us bryng;

I hope that may him here

Schal lerne of luf-talkyng.’

By that the diner was done   and the dere uppe,

Hit was negh at the night   neghed the tyme:

930  Chaplaynes to the chapeles   chosen the gate,

Rungen ful richly,   right as thay schulde,

To the hersum evensong   of the highe tyde.

The lord loutes thereto,   and the lady alse;

Into a comly closet   coyntly ho entres.

935  Gawan glydes ful gay   and gos thider sone;

The lord laches him by the lappe   and ledes him to sitte,

And couthly him knowes   and calles him his name,

And sayd he was the welcomest   wye of the worlde;

And he him thonkked throly,   and ayther halched other,

940  And seten soberly samen   the servyce while.

Then lyste the lady   to loke on the knighte;

Then com ho of her closet   with mony clere burdes:

Ho was the fayrest in felle – of flesch and of lere,

And of compas and colour,   and costes – of all other,

945  And wener then Wenore,   as the wye thoghte.

Ho chese thurgh the chaunsel   to cherisch that hende.

An other lady her lad   by the lyft hande,

That was alder then ho:   an auncian hit semed,

And highly honoured   with hatheles aboute.

950  Bot unlyke on to loke   tho ladies were:

For if the yonge was yep,   yolwe was that other;

Rich red on that one   rayled aywhere;

Rogh, ronkled chekes   that other on rolled;

Kerchofes of that one,   with mony cler perles, –

955  Her brest and her bryght throte,   bare displayed,

Schon schyrer then snaw   that schedes on hilles;

That other with a gorger   was gered over the swyre,

Chymbled over her blake chyn   with chalk-white vayles,

Her frount folden in silk,   enfoubled aywhere,

960  Toret and treleted   with trifles aboute,

That noght was bare of that burde   bot the blake browes,

The twayne iyen and the nase   the nakede lyypes, –

And those were soure to see   and sellyly blered;

A mensk lady on mold   man may her calle,

965            For goode!

Her body was schort and thik,

Her buttokes balwe and brode;

More lykkerwys on to lik

Was that scho had on lode.

970  When Gawan glyght on that gay   that graciously loked,

With leve laght of the lord,   he lut hem agaynes.

The alder he haylses,   heldande ful lowe;

The loveloker he lappes   a little in armes;

He kysses her comlyly   and knyghtly he meles;

975  Thay callen him of aquoyntaunce,   and he hit quik askes

To be her servant sothly,   if hemself liked.

Thay tan him bitwene hem,   with talkyng him leden

To chamber, to chymne,   and chefly thay asken

Spyces that unsparely   men speded hem to brynge,

980  And the wynnelyche wyne   therewith uche tyme.

The lord luflych aloft   lepes ful ofte,

Mynned mirthe to be made   upon mony sythes,

Hent highly of his hode   and on a spere henged

And wayned hem to wynne   the worschip thereoffe

985  That most mirthe myght meve   that Cristenmas while,

‘And I schal fonde, by my fayth,   to fylter with the beste

Ere me wonte the wedes,   with help of my frendes.’

Thus with laghande lotes   the lord hit tayt makes,

For to glade Sir Gawan   with gamnes in halle

990            That night,

Til that hit was tyme

The lord comaunded lyght;

Gawayn his leve con nyme

And to his bed him dight.

995  On the morn as uch man   mynes that tyme

That Dryhtyn for our destine   to die was borne,

Wele waxes in uch a won   in worlde for his sake;

So did hit there on that day   thurgh dayntyes mony:

Both at messe and at mele,   messes ful quoynte

1000  Derf men upon dese   dressed of the beste.

The olde auncian wyf,   highest ho sittes,

The lord lovely her by   lent, as I trowe,

Gawan and the gay burde   togeder thay seten, –

Even in the myddes as the messe   metely come,

1005  And sithen thurgh all the sale,   as hem best semed.

By uch gome at his degre   graythly was served,

There was mete, there was mirthe,   there was much joye,

That for to telle thereof   hit me tene were,

And to poynte hit yet I pined me   paraventure.

1010  Bot yet I wot that Wawan   and the wale burde

Such comfort of her compayny   caghten togeder, –

Thurgh her dere dalyaunce   of her derne wordes,

With clene, cortays carp   closed fro fylthe, –

That her play was passande   uch a prince game,

1015            In vayres.

Trumpes and nakerys,

Much pipyng there repayres;

Uch man tented his,

And thay two tented thayres.

1020  Much dut was there driven   that day and that other,

The joy of Saynt Johnes day   was gentyl to here,

And the thrid also thro   throng in thereafter, –

And was the last of the layk,   ledes there thoghten:

There were gestes to go   upon the gray morne;

1025  Forthy wonderly thay woke   and the wyne dronken,

Daunced ful dryly   with dere caroles;

At the last, when hit was late,   thay lachen her leve,

Uchone to wende on his way   that was wye strange.

Gawan gave him good day;   the goodman him laches,

1030  Charres him to his owne chamber   the chymne biside,

And there he drawes him on drye   and derely him thonkes

Of the wynne worschip   that he him wayved hade

As to honour his house   on that highe tyde

And enbelyse his burgh   with his bele chere:

1035  ‘Iwysse, sir, while I lyve   me worthes the better

That Gawan has ben my gest   at Goddes owne fest.’

‘Grant mercy,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘in good fayth hit is youres,

All the honour is your owne – the High-Kyng yow yelde;

And I am wye at your wille   to worke your heste,

1040  As I am holden thereto,   in high and in lowe,

By right.’

The lord fast con him payne

To holde lenger the knight;

To him answares Gawayn

1045        By non way that he myght.

Then frayned the freke   ful fayre at himselven

What derve dede had him driven   at that dere tyme

So kenely fro the kynges court   to kayre all his one

Ere the halydayes holly   were haled out of toune.

1050  ‘For sothe, sir,’ quoth the segge,   ‘ye sayn bot the trauthe:

A high ernde and a hasty   me had fro tho wones.

For I am sumned myself   to sech to a place

I ne wot in worlde whederwarde   to wende hit to fynde;

I nolde bot if I hit negh myght   on New Yeres morne

1055  For all the londe inwith Logres,   so me our Lord helpe.

Forthy, sir, this enquest   I require yow here,

That ye me telle with trauthe   if ever ye tale herde

Of the Grene Chapel,   where hit on grounde standes,

And of the knight that hit kepes   of colour of grene.

1060  There was stabled by statut   a steven us bitwene

To mete that man at that mere,   if I myght laste.

And of that ilk New Yere   bot neked now wontes,

And I wolde loke on that lede,   if God me let wolde,

Gladloker, by Godes son,   then any good welde.

1065  Forthy, iwysse, by your wille,   wende me behoves:

Naf I now to busy   bot bare thre dayes,

And me as fayn to falle feye   as fayle of myn ernde.’

Then laghande quoth the lord:   ‘Now leng thee behoves,

For I schal teche yow to that terme   by the tymes ende, –

1070  The Grene Chapel upon grounde   greve yow no more.

Bot ye schal be in your bed,   burn, at thyn ese,

While forth-dayes and ferk   on first of the yere,

And come to that merk at mydmorn,   to make what yow likes

In spenne.

1075        Dwelles while New Yeres day,

And ris and raykes thenne;

Man schal yow set in way, –

Hit is not two myle henne.’

Then was Gawan ful glad,   and gomenly he laghed:

1080  ‘Now I thonk yow thryvandely,   thurgh all other thinges!

Now acheved is my chaunce,   I schal at your wille

Dwelle and elles   do what ye demen.’

Then sesed him the syre   and set him biside,

Let the ladies be fette   to like hem the better.

1085  There was seme solace   by hemself stille;

The lord let for luf   lotes so mery

As wye that wolde of his wyt   ne wyst what he myghte.

Then he carped to the knight,   cryande loude:

‘Ye haf demed to do   the ded that I bidde:

1090  Wil ye holde this hest   here at this ones?’

‘Ye, sir, for sothe,’   sayd the segge true,

‘While I bide in your burgh,   be bayn to your heste.’

‘For ye have travayled,’ quoth the tulk,   ‘towen fro ferre,

And sithen waked me with,   ye are not wel warist,

1095  Nauther of sustnaunce ne of slepe,   sothly I knowe.

Ye schal leng in your loft   and lye in your ese

Tomorne while the Masse-while,   and to mete wende

When ye wil, with my wyf,   that with yow schal sitte

And comfort yow with compayny   til I to court turne.

1100            Ye lende,

And I schal erly rise:

On huntyng wil I wende.’

Gawan grantes all these,

Him heldande as the hende.

1105  ‘Yet ferre,’ quoth the freke,   ‘a forward we make:

Whatsoever I wynne in the wode   hit worthes to youres,

And what chek so ye acheve   chaunge me therefore.

Swete, swape we so,   sware with trauthe,

Whether lede so lymp   lere other better.’

1110  ‘By God,’ quoth Gawan the goode,   ‘I grante theretille,

And that yow lyst for to layke   lef hit me thinkes.’

‘Who brynges us this beverage,   this bargayn is maked.’

So sayd the lord of that lede;   thay laghed uchone.

Thay dronken and daylyeden   and dalten untyghtel,

1115  These lordes and ladies,   while that hem liked;

And sithen with frenkysch fare   and fele fayre lotes

Thay stoden and stemed   and stilly thay speken,

Kysten ful comlyly   and caghten her leve.

With mony lede ful lyght   and lemande torches

1120  Uch burn to his bed   was broght at the laste,

Ful softe.

To bed yet ere thay yede

Recorded covenauntes oft;

The olde lord of that lede

1125        Couth wel holde layk alofte.

FITT III

FUL erly before the day   the folk are uprysen.

Gestes that go wolde   her gromes thay calden,

And thay busken up bylive   blonkes to sadel,

Tyffen her takles,   trussen her males;

1130  Richen hem the richest,   to ride all arayed,

Lepen up lyghtly,   lachen her brydeles,

Uch wye on his way   there him wel liked.

The leve lord of the londe   was not the laste

Arayed for the rydyng,   with renkes ful mony;

1135  Ete a sop hastily,   when he had herde Masse;

With bugle to bent-felde   he buskes bylive:

By that that any daylyght   lemed upon erthe,

He and his hatheles   on high horses weren.

Then these cacheres that couthe   coupled her houndes,

1140  Unclosed the kenel dor   and calde hem thereoute,

Blw bigly in bugles   bare thre motes;

Braches bayed therefore   and breme noyse maked,

And thay chastysed and charred   on chasyng that wenten

A hundred of hunteres,   as I have herde telle,

1145            Of the best.

To trysteres vewters yod,

Couples huntes of kest;

There ros for blastes good

Gret rurd in that forest.

1150  At the first quethe of the quest   quaked the wylde.

Dere drof in the dale,   doted for drede,

Hyed to the high, – bot heterly thay were

Restayed with the stablye,   that stoutly ascryed.

Thay let the herttes have the gate   with the highe hedes,

1155  The breme bukkes also   with her brode paumes:

For the fre lord had defende   in fermysoun tyme

That there schulde no man meve   to the male dere.

The hindes were holden in   with ‘Hay, hay!’ and ‘Ware!’,

The does driven with gret dyn   to the depe slades.

1160  There myght man see as thay slypped   slentyng of arwes:

At uch wende under wande   wapped a flone,

That bigly bote on the broun   with ful brode hedes.

What! Thay brayen and bleden,   by bonkes thay dyen, –

And aye raches in a res   radly hem folwes,

1165  Hunteres with high horne   hasted hem after,

With such a crakkande cry   as clyffes had brusten.

What wylde so atwaped   wyes that schotten

Was all to-raced and -rent   at the resayte, –

By thay were tened at the high   and taysed to the waters –

1170  The ledes were so lerned   at the low trysteres,

And the grehoundes so gret,   that geten hem bylive,

And hem to-fylched as fast   as frekes myght loke

There right.

The lord for blisse abloy

1175        Ful oft con launce and lyght,

And drof that day with joy

Thus to the derke night.

Thus laykes this lord   by lyndewodes eves,

And Gawan the good man   in gay bedde lygges,

1180  Lurkkes while the daylyght   lemed on the wowes,

Under covertor ful cler,   cortyned aboute.

And as in slomeryng he slode   sleyly he herde

A little dyn at his dor   and dernely open;

And he heves up his hed   out of the clothes,

1185  A corner of the cortyn   he caght up a little,

And waytes warly thiderwarde   what hit be myghte:

Hit was the lady, loveliest   on lyve to beholde,

That drow the dor after her   ful dernly and stille,

And bowed toward the bed;   and the burn schamed,

1190  And layd him doun lystily   and let as he slepte.

And ho stepped stilly   and stel to his bedde,

Cast up the cortyn   and creped withinne,

And set her ful softly   on the bedside,

And lenged there selly longe   to loke when he wakened.

1195  The lede lay and lurked   a ful long while,

Compast in his concience   to what that case myghte

Mene other amount – to mervayl, him thoghte.

Bot yet he sayd in himself,   ‘More semely hit were

To aspye with my spelle   in space what ho wolde.’

1200  Then he wakened and wroth   and to-her-ward turned,

And unlouked his iye-lyddes   and let as him wondered,

And sayned him, as by his sawe   the saver to worthe

With hande.

With chyn and cheke ful swete,

1205        Both white and red in blande,

Ful lovely con ho lete,

With lyppes smal laghande.

‘Good moroun, Sir Gawan,’   sayd that gay lady;

‘Ye are a sleper unslye,   that man may slyde hider.

1210  Now are ye tan as tite!   Bot true us may schape,

I schal bynde yow in your bed,   that be ye ful trayste.’

All laghande the lady   laused tho bourdes.

‘Good moroun, gay,’   quoth Gawan the blythe;

‘Me schal worthe at your wille,   and that me wel likes:

1215  For I yelde me yederly   and yeye after grace;

And that is the best, by my dome,   for me bos nede.’

And thus he bourded agayn,   with mony a blythe laghter.

‘Bot wolde ye, lady lovely,   then leve me grante,

And deprece your prysoun   and pray him to rise,

1220  I wolde bow of this bed   and buske me better, –

I schulde kever the more comfort   to carpe yow tille.’

‘Nay, for sothe, beau sir,’   sayde that swete;

‘Ye schal not rise of your rest,   I riche yow better:

I schal happe yow here,   that other half alse,

1225  And sithen carp with my knight   that I caght have.

For I wene wel, iwysse,   Sir Wawan ye are,

That all the world worschipes   whereso ye ride:

Your honour, your hendelayk,   is hendely praysed

With lordes, with ladies,   with all that lif bere.

1230  And now ye are here, iwysse,   and we bot our one:

My lord and his ledes   are on lenthe faren,

Other burnes in her bed,   and my burdes alse,

The dor drawen and dit   with a derf haspe.

And sithen I have in this house   him that all likes,

1235  I schal ware my while wel,   while that hit lastes,

With tale.

Ye are welcom to my corse,

Your owen won to wale;

Me behoves of fyne force

1240        Your servant be, and schale.’

‘In good fayth,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘gayn hit me thinkes,

Thagh I be not now he   that ye of speken:

To reche to such reverence   as ye reherse here

I am wye unworthy,   I wot wel myselven.

1245  By God, I were glad   and yow good thoghte

At sawe or at servyce   that I sette myghte

To the plesaunce of your pris – hit were a pure joye.’

‘In good fayth, Sir Gawan,’   quoth the gay lady,

‘The pris and the prowes   that pleses all other,

1250  If I hit lakked or set at lyght,   hit were little daynte.

Bot hit are ladies inogh   that lever were nowthe

Have thee, hende, in her holde,   as I thee have here,

To daly with derely,   for your daynte wordes

Kever hem comfort   and colen her cares,

1255  Then much of the garysoun or gold   gat that thay haven.

Bot, I love that ilk Lord   that the lyft holdes,

I have hit holly in my hand   that alle desyres,

Thurgh grace.’

Scho made him so gret chere

1260        That was so fayr of face.

The knight with speches skere

Answared to uch a case.

‘Madame,’ quoth the mery man,   ‘Mary yow yelde,

For I have founden, in good fayth,   your fraunchise noble,

1265  And other ful much of other folk   fongen her dedes;

Bot the daynte that thay delen   for my desert nis hit:

Hit is the worschip of yourself   that noght bot wel connes.’

‘By Mary,’ quoth the menskful,   ‘me think hit an other:

For were I worth all the won   of wymmen alyve,

1270  And all the wele of the world   were in my hande,

And I schuld chepen and chose   to cheve me a lorde,

For the costes that I have knowen   upon thee, knight, here,

Of beaute, of debonerte,   of blythe semblaunce,

And that I have ere herkened   and holde hit here true,

1275  There schuld no freke upon folde   before yow be chosen.’

‘Iwysse, worthy,’ quoth the wye,   ‘ye have waled wel better.

Bot I am proud of the pris   that ye put on me,

And soberly your servant,   my soverayn I holde yow,

And your knight I becom,   and Cryst yow foryelde.’

1280  Thus thay meled of muchwhat   til mydmorn was passed,

And aye the lady let as ho liked him   and loved him swythe;

The freke ferde with defence   and feted ful fayre.

Thagh hit were burde bryghtest,   the burn in mynde hade

The lesse luf in his lode   for lur that he soghte

1285            Bout hone:

The dint that schuld him deve,

And nedes hit most be done.

The lady then speke of leve;

He granted her ful sone.

1290  Then ho gave him good day,   and with a glent laghed,

And as ho stod ho stouned him   with ful stor wordes:

‘Now He that spedes uch a speche   this disport yelde yow, –

Bot that ye be Gawan, ungayn   gos hit in mynde.’

‘Wherfore?’ quoth the freke – and freschly he askes,

1295  Ferde lest he had fayled   in forme of his castes.

Bot the burde him blessed,   and ‘By this skylle,’ sayde:

‘So good as good Gawan   gaynly is holden,

And courtaysye is closed   so clene in himselven,

Couth not lyghtly have lenged   so long with a lady,

1300  Bot he had craved a cosse   by his courtaysye,

By sum touch of sum trifle   at sum tales ende.’

Then quoth Wawan, ‘Iwysse,   worthe as yow likes:

I schal kysse at your comaundement,   as a knight falles,

And prestly, lest he displese yow,   so plede hit no more.’

1305  Ho comes nerre with that   and caches him in armes,

Loutes luflyche adoun   and the lede kysses.

Thay comly bikennen   to Cryst ayther other;

Ho dos her forth at the dor   withoute dyn more,

And he riches him to rise   and rapes him sone,

1310  Clepes to his chamberlayn,   choses his wede,

Bowes forth when he was boun   blythely to Masse,

And then he meved to his mete,   that menskly him keped,

And made mery all day   til the mone rysed

With game:

1315        Was never freke fayrer fonge

Bitwene two so dyngne dame,

The alder and the yonge;

Much solace set thay same.

And aye the lord of the londe   is lent on his gamnes,

1320  To hunt in holtes and hethe   at hindes barayne.

Such a soumme he there slow   by that the sunne helded,

Of does and of other dere,   to deme were wonder.

Then fersly thay flokked in,   folk at the laste,

And quikly of the quelled dere   a querre thay maked.

1325  The best bowed thereto   with burnes inoghe,

Gedered the grettest   of gres that there were

And diden hem derely undo   as the dede askes.

Serched hem at the asay   summe that there were:

Two fyngres thay founde   of the foulest of alle.

1330  Sithen thay slit the slot,   sesed the erber,

Schaved with a scharp knyf   and the schyre knitten.

Sithen rytte thay the foure lymmes   and rent of the hyde.

Then brek thay the bale,   the boweles out token

Lystily for lausyng   the lere of the knotte.

1335  Thay gripped to the gargulun   and graythly departed

The wesaunt fro the wynde-hole   and walt out the guttes.

Then scher thay out the schulderes   with her scharp knyves,

Haled hem by a little hole   to have hole sides;

Sithen brittened thay the brest   and brayden hit in twynne.

1340  And eft at the gargulun   begines one thenne,

Ryves hit up radly   right to the byghte,

Voydes out the avanters,   and verayly thereafter

All the rymes by the rybbes   radly thay lausen;

So ryde thay of by resoun   by the rigge bones

1345  Even doun to the haunche,   that henged all samen,

And heven hit up all hole   and hewen hit of there,

And that thay neme for the noumbles   by name, as I trowe,

By kynde.

By the byght all of the thyes

1350        The lappes thay lause bihinde;

To hewe hit in two thay hyes,

By the bakbon to unbynde.

Both the hed and the halse   thay hewen of thenne,

And sithen sunder thay the sides   swyft fro the chyne,

1355  And the corbeles fee   thay cast in a greve.

Then thirled thay ayther thik side   thurgh by the rybbe

And henged then ayther   by hoghes of the fourches;

Uch freke fonges his fee,   as falles for to have.

Upon a felle of the fayr best   fede thay thayr houndes

1360  With the lyver and the lyghtes,   the lether of the paunches,

And bred bathed in blod   blent thereamonges.

Baldly thay blw prys,   bayed thayr raches,

Sithen fonge thay her flesch,   folden to home,

Strakande ful stoutly   mony stif motes.

1365  By that the daylyght was done,   the douth was all wonnen

Into the comly castel,   there the knight bides

Ful stille,

With blisse and bryght fire bette.

The lord is comen theretille;

1370        When Gawan with him mette

There was bot wele at wille.

Then comaunded the syre in that sale   to samen all the meyny,

Bothe the ladies on lowe   to lyght with her burdes.

Before all the folk on the flet   frekes he biddes

1375  Verayly his venysoun   to fech him before;

And all godly in game   Gawan he called,

Teches him to the tayles   of ful tayt bestes,

Schewes him the schyre gres   schorne upon rybbes.

‘How payes yow this play?   Have I pris wonnen?

1380  Have I thryvandely thonk   thurgh my craft served?’

‘Ye, iwysse,’ quoth that other wye,   ‘here is wayth fayrest

That I saw this seven yere   in sesoun of wynter.’

‘And all I gif yow, Gawan,’   quoth the gome thenne,

‘For by acorde of covenaunt   ye crave hit as your owen.’

1385  ‘This is soth,’ quoth the segge,   ‘I say yow that ilke:

That I have worthily wonnen   these wones withinne,

Iwysse, with as good wille   hit worthes to youres.’

He haspes his fayre halse   his armes withinne

And kysses him as comlyly   as he couthe avise:

1390  ‘Tas yow there my chevisaunce,   I cheved no more.

I vouche hit saf fynly   thagh feler hit were.’

‘Hit is good,’ quoth the goodman,   ‘grant merci therefore.

Hit may be such hit is the better,   and ye me breve wolde

Where ye wan this ilke wele   by wyt of yourselven.’

1395  ‘That was not forward,’ quoth he,   ‘frayst me no more;

For ye have tan that yow tydes,   trowe ye, non other

Ye mowe.’

Thay laghed and made hem blythe

With lotes that were to lowe.

1400        To soper thay yede as swythe

With dayntyes new inowe.

And sithen by the chymne   in chamber thay seten.

Wyes the wale wyne   weyed to hem ofte,

And eft in her bourdyng   thay baythen in the morne

1405  To fylle the same forwardes   that thay before maden:

What chaunce so acheves,   her chevisaunce to chaunge,

What newes so thay nome,   at night when thay metten.

Thay acorded of the covenauntes   before the court alle;

The beverage was broght forth   in bourde at that tyme.

1410  Then thay lovely leghten   leve at the laste;

Uch burn to his bed   busked bylive.

By that the kok had crowen   and cakled bot thryes,

The lord was lopen of his bed,   the ledes uchone;

So that the mete and the Masse   was metely delyvered,

1415  The douth dressed to the wode,   ere any day sprenged,

To chace.

High with hunt and hornes

Thurgh playnes thay passe in space,

Uncoupled among tho thornes

1420        Raches that ran on race.

SONE thay calle of a quest   in a kerre side;

The hunt rehayted the houndes   that hit firste mynged,

Wylde wordes hem warp   with a wrast noyse.

The houndes that hit herde   hasted thider swythe

1425  And fellen as fast to the fuyt,   forty at ones.

Then such a glaverande glam   of gedered raches

Ros that the rocheres   rungen aboute;

Hunteres hem hardened   with horne and with mouthe.

Then all in a semble   sweyed togeder

1430  Bitwene a flosche in that frith   and a foo cragge.

In a knot by a clyff   at the kerre side,

Thereas the rogh rocher   unrydely was fallen,

Thay ferden to the fyndyng,   and frekes hem after.

Thay umbe-kesten the knarre   and the knot bothe,

1435  Wyes, while thay wysten wel   withinne hem hit were,

The best that there breved was   with the blodhoundes.

Then thay beten on the buskes   and bede him upryse,

And he unsoundely out soght   segges overthwerte.

On the sellokest swyn   swenged out there,

1440  Long sithen fro the sounder   that soght was for olde;

For he was borlych and brod,   bor althergrattest,

Ful grym when he gronyed;   thenne greved mony,

For thre at the first thrast   he thryght to the erthe

And sparred forth good sped   boute spyt more.

1445  These other halowed ‘Hyghe!’ ful high   and ‘Hay! Hay!’ cryed

Haden hornes to mouth,   heterly rechated.

Mony was the mery mouth   of men and of houndes

That buskes after this bor   with bost and with noyse

To quelle.

1450        Ful oft he bides the bay

And maymes the mute in melle.

He hurtes of the houndes, and thay

Ful yomerly yaule and yelle.

Schalkes to schote at him   schowven to thenne,

1455  Haled to him of her arewes,   hitten him ofte;

Bot the poyntes payred at the pyth   that pyght in his scheldes,

And the barbes of his browe   bite non wolde;

Thagh the schavene schaft   schyndered in peces,

The hed hypped ayayn,   wheresoever hit hitte.

1460  Bot when the dintes him dered   of her drye strokes,

Then braynwod for bate   on burnes he rases,

Hurtes hem ful heterly   there he forth hyes,

And mony arwed thererat   and allyte drowen.

Bot the lord on a lyght horse   launces him after,

1465  As burn bold upon bent   his bugle he blowes;

He rechated and rode   thurgh rones ful thikke,

Suande this wylde swyn   til the sunne schafted.

This day with this ilk dede   thay driven on this wyse,

While our luflyche lede   lys in his bedde,

1470  Gawan graythly at home   in geres ful riche

Of hue.

The lady not forgat

To come him to salue;

Ful erly ho was him at

1475        His mod for to remue.

Ho comes to the cortyn   and at the knight totes.

Sir Wawan her welcomed   worthy on firste,

And ho him yeldes ayain   ful yerne of her wordes,

Settes her softly by his side   and swythely ho laghes,

1480  And with a lovely loke   ho layd him these wordes:

‘Sir, if ye be Wawan,   wonder me thinkes,

Wye that is so wel wrast   alwayes to goode,

And connes not of compayny   the costes undertake,

And if man kennes yow hem to know,   ye cast hem of your mynde.

1485  Thou has foryeten yederly   that yisterday I taghte

By althertruest token   of talk that I couthe.’

‘What is that?’ quoth the wye,   ‘Iwysse I wot never.

If hit be soth that ye breve,   the blame is myn owne.’

‘Yet I kende yow of kyssyng,’   quoth the clere thenne,

1490  ‘Whereso countenaunce is couthe   quikly to clayme;

That becomes uch a knight   that courtaysye uses.’

‘Do way,’ quoth that derf man,   ‘my dere, that speche,

For that durst I not do,   lest I devayed were;

If I were werned, I were wrong,   iwysse, if I profered.’

1495  ‘Ma fay,’ quoth the mery wyf,   ‘ye may not be werned!

Ye are stif inogh to constrayne   with strenthe if yow likes,

If any were so vilanous   that yow devaye wolde.’

‘Ye, by God,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘good is your speche,

Bot thret is unthryvande   in thede there I lende,

1500  And uch gift that is geven   not with good wille.

I am at your comaundement   to kysse when yow likes;

Ye may lach when yow lyst   and leve when yow thinkes

In space.’

The lady loutes adoun

1505        And comly kysses his face.

Much speche thay there expoun

Of druryes greme and grace.

‘I wolde wit at yow, wye,’   that worthy there sayde,

‘And yow wrathed not therewith,   what were the skylle

1510  That so yong and so yep   as ye at this tyme,

So cortays, so knyghtyly,   as ye are knowen oute –

And of all chevalry to chose,   the chef thing alosed

Is the lel layk of luf,   the lettrure of armes;

For to telle of this tevelyng   of these true knightes,

1515  Hit is the tytelet token   and tyxt of her werkes

How ledes for her lel luf   her lyves haf auntered,

Endured for her drury   delfulle stoundes,

And after venged with her valour   and voyded her care

And broght blisse into bour   with bountees her owne –

1520  And ye are knight comlokest   kyd of your elde,

Your word and your worschip   walkes aywhere,

And I have seten by yourself   here sere twyes,

Yet herde I never of your hed   helde no wordes

That ever longed to luf,   lesse ne more.

1525  And ye that are so cortays   and quoynt of your hetes,

Oghe to a yong thing   yerne to schewe

And teche sum tokenes   of trueluf craftes.

Why! Are ye lewed,   that all the los weldes?

Or elles ye demen me to dille   your dalyaunce to herken?

1530            For schame!

I com hider sengel and sitte

To lerne at yow sum game;

Dos teches me of your wyt

While my lord is fro hame.’

1535  ‘In good fayth,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘God yow foryelde!

Gret is the good gle   and game to me huge

That so worthy as ye wolde   wynne yow hider

And pine yow with so pore a man   as play with your knighte

With anyskynnes countenaunce – hit keveres me ese.

1540  Bot to take the torvayle to myself   to trueluf expoune

And touche the temes of tyxt   and tales of armes

To yow, that (I wot wel)   weldes more sleghte

Of that art, by the half,   or a hundred of suche

As I am, or ever schal,   in erde there I lyve,

1545  Hit were a foly felefolde,   my fre, by my trauthe.

I wolde your wylnyng   work at my myghte,

As I am highly beholden,   and evermore wille

Be servaunt to yourselven,   so save me Dryhtyn!’

Thus him frayned that fre   and fonded him ofte

1550  For to have wonnen him to woghe,   whatso scho thoght elles.

Bot he defended him so fayr   that no faut semed,

Ne non evel on nauther halve   nauther thay wysten

Bot blisse.

Thay laghed and layked longe;

1555        At the last scho con him kysse;

Her leve fayr con scho fonge

And went her way, iwysse.

Then ruthes him the renk   and rises to the Masse,

And sithen her diner was dight   and derely served.

1560  The lede with the ladies   layked all daye;

Bot the lord over the londes   launced ful ofte,

Sues his uncely swyn,   that swynges by the bonkes,

And bote the best of his braches   the bakkes in sunder

There he bode in his bay,   til bawemen hit breken

1565  And made him maugre his hed   for to meve utter,

So fele flones there flete   when the folk gedered.

Bot yet the stifest to start   by stoundes he made,

Til at the last he was so mate   he myght no more renne,

Bot in the haste that he myght   he to a hole wynnes

1570  Of a rasse by a rok   there rennes the borne.

He gete the bonk at his bak,   begines to scrape,

The frothe femed at his mouth   unfayre by the wykes,

Whettes his white tusches;   with him then irked

All the burnes so bold   that him by stoden,

1575  To noye him on-ferum,   bot negh him non durste

For wothe.

He had hurt so mony beforne

That all thoght then ful lothe

Be more with his tusches torne,

1580        That breme was and braynwod bothe. –

Til the knight com himself   cachande his blonke,

Saw him bide at the bay,   his burnes biside.

He lyghtes luflyche adoun,   leves his corsour,

Braydes out a bryght bronde   and bigly forth strydes,

1585  Foundes fast thurgh the forde   there the felle bides.

The wylde was ware of the wye   with weppen in hande,

Hef highly the hayre,   so heterly he fnasted

That fele ferde for the freke   lest felle him the worre.

The swyn settes him out   on the segge even,

1590  That the burn and the bor   were both upon hepes

In the wightest of the water – the worre had that other:

For the man merkkes him wel   as thay mette firste,

Set sadly the scharp   in the slot even,

Hit him up to the hult,   that the hert schyndered,

1595  And he yarrande him yelde   and yedoun the water

Ful tite.

A hundred houndes him hent

That bremly con him bite;

Burnes him broght to bent

1600        And dogges to deth endite.

There was blowyng of prys   in mony breme horne,

High halowyng on high,   with hatheles that myghte;

Braches bayed that best,   as bidden the maysters,

Of that chargeaunt chace   that were chef huntes.

1605  Then a wye that was wyse   upon wodcraftes

To unlace this bor   lovely begines.

First he hewes of his hed   and on high settes

And sithen rendes him all rogh   by the rigge after,

Braydes out the boweles,   brennes hem on glede,

1610  With bred blent therewith   his braches rewardes.

Sithen he brittenes out the brawne   in bryght brode scheldes

And has out the hastlettes,   as hightly bisemes;

And yet hem halches all hole   the halves togeder

And sithen on a stif stange   stoutly hem henges.

1615  Now swythe with this ilk swyn   thay swengen to home;

The bores hed was born   before the burnes selven

That him forferde in the forde   thurgh force of his hande

So stronge.

Til he saw Sir Gawayn

1620        In halle him thoght ful longe.

He calde and he com gayn

His fees there for to fonge.

The lord ful loude with lote   laghede mery

When he saw Sir Gawan,   with solace he spekes.

1625  The good ladies were geten   and gedered the meyny.

He schewes hem the scheldes   and schapes hem the tale

Of the largesse and the lenthe,   the lithernes alse,

Of the werre of the wylde swyn   in wode there he fledde.

That other knight ful comly   comended his dedes,

1630  And praysed hit as gret pris   that he proved hade,

For such a brawne of a best,   the bolde burn sayde,

Ne such sides of a swyn   saw he never ere.

Then hondeled thay the huge hed,   the hende man hit praysed

And let lodly thereat   the lord for to here.

1635  ‘Now, Gawan,’ quoth the goodman,   ‘this game is your owne

By fyne forward and fast,   faythely, ye knowe.’

‘Hit is soth,’ quoth the segge,   ‘and as siker true

All my get I schal yow gif   agayn, by my trauthe.’

He hent the hathel aboute the halse   and hendly him kysses,

1640  And eftersones of the same   he served him there.

‘Now are we even,’ quoth the hathel,   ‘in this eventide,

Of all the covenauntes that we knit   sithen I com hider

By lawe.’

The lord sayd, ‘By Saynt Gile,

1645        Ye are the best that I knawe.

Ye ben rich in a while,

Such chaffer and ye drawe.’

Then thay telded tables   trestes alofte,

Casten clothes upon   clere white thenne,

1650  Wakened by wowes   waxene torches,

Segges set and served   in sale all aboute.

Much glam and much gle   glent up thereinne

Aboute the fire upon flet – and on fele wyse,

At the soper and after:   mony athel songes,

1655  As coundutes of Cristmasse   and caroles newe,

With all the manerly mirthe   that man may of telle,

And ever our luflyche lede   the lady biside.

Such semblaunt to that segge   semely ho made,

With stille stollen countenaunce   that stalworth to plese,

1660  That all forwondered was the wye   and wroth with himselven;

Bot he nolde not for his nurture   norne her ayaynes,

Bot dalt with her all in daynte,   howso the dede turned

To wrast.

When thay had played in halle

1665        As long as her wille hem last,

To chamber he con him calle,

And to the chymne thay passed.

And there thay dronken and dalten   and demed eft newe

To norne on the same note   on New Yeres even;

1670  Bot the knight craved leve   to kayre on the morne,

For hit was negh at the terme   that he to schulde.

The lord him letted of that,   to leng him restayed,

And sayd, ‘As I am true segge,   I siker my trauthe

Thou schal cheve to the Grene Chapel   thy charres to make,

1675  Lede, on New Yeres lyght   longe before pryme.

Forthy thou lye in thy loft   and lache thyn ese,

And I schal hunt in this holt   and holde the touches,

Chaunge with thee chevisaunce,   by that I charre hider.

For I have fraysted thee twys   and faythful I fynde thee:

1680  Now “thrid tyme throwe best”   thenk on the morne.

Make we mery while we may   and mynne upon joye,

For the lur may man lach   whenso man likes.’

This was graythely granted   and Gawan is lenged;

Blythe broght was hem drink,   and thay to bed yeden

1685            With lyght.

Sir Gawan lys and slepes

Ful stille and soft all night;

The lord that his craftes kepes

Ful erly he was dight.

1690  After Masse a morsel   he and his men token.

Mery was the morning,   his mounture he askes.

All the hatheles that on horse   schulde helden him after

Were boun busked on her blonkes   before the halle yates.

Ferly fayr was the folde,   for the forst clenged;

1695  In red rudede upon rak   rises the sunne

And ful clere costes   the cloudes of the welkyn.

Hunteres unhardeled   by a holt side,

Rocheres rungen by rys   for rurd of her hornes.

Summe fel in the fuyt   there the fox bode,

1700  Trayles oft a-traverce   by traunt of her wyles.

A kenet cryes thereof,   the hunt on him calles;

His felawes fallen him to,   that fnasted ful thikke,

Runnen forth in a rabel   in his right fare,

And he fyskes hem before;   thay founden him sone,

1705  And when thay saw him with sight   thay sued him faste,

Wreyande him ful weterly   with a wroth noyse.

And he trantes and tournayes   thurgh mony tene greve,

Havilounes and herkenes   by hegges ful ofte.

At the last by a little dich   he lepes over a spenne,

1710  Steles out ful stilly   by a strothe-rande,

Wende have wylt of the wode   with wyles fro the houndes.

Then was he went ere he wyst   to a wale tryster,

There thre thro at a thrych   thrat him at ones,

All gray.

1715        He blenched ayain bylive

And stifly start astray;

With all the wo on lyve

To the wode he went away.

Then was hit lef upon list   to lythen the houndes,

1720  When all the mute had him met,   menged togeder.

Such a sorwe at that sight   thay set on his hede,

As all the clamberande clyffes   had clatered on hepes.

Here he was halowed   when hatheles him metten,

Yonde he was yayned   with yarrande speche;

1725  There he was threted   and oft thef called,

And aye the titleres at his tayl   that tary he ne myghte.

Oft he was runnen at   when he out rayked,

And oft reled in ayain,   so Reynarde was wyly.

And, ye, he lad hem by lagmon,   the lord and his meyny,

1730  On this maner by the mountes   while mydoverunder,

While the hende knight at home   holsumly slepes

Withinne the comly cortynes   on the colde morne.

Bot the lady for luf   let not to slepe,

Ne the purpose to payre   that pyght in her herte,

1735  Bot ros her up radly,   rayked her thider,

In a mery mantyle   mete to the erthe,

That was furred ful fyne   with felles wel pured;

No hues good on her hed   bot the hawer stones

Trased aboute her tressour   by twenty in clusteres;

1740  Her thryven face and her throte   throwen all naked,

Her brest bare before   and bihinde eke.

Ho comes withinne the chamber dor   and closes hit her after,

Wayves up a wyndow and   on the wye calles,

And radly thus rehayted him   with her riche wordes,

1745            With chere:

‘A! man, how may thou slepe,

This morning is so clere!’

He was in droupyng depe,

Bot then he con her here.

1750  In drye droupyng of dreme   draveled that noble,

As man that was in mournyng   of mony thro thoghtes,

How that destine schulde that day   dele him his wyrde

At the Grene Chapel,   when he the gome metes

And behoves his buffet abide   withoute debate more.

1755  Bot when that comlyche com   he kevered his wyttes,

Swenges out of the swevenes   and swares with haste.

The lady luflyche com,   laghande swete,

Fel over his fayr face   and fetly him kyssed.

He welcomes her worthily   with a wale chere:

1760  He saw her so glorious   and gayly atyred,

So fautles of her fetures   and of so fyne hues,

Wyght wallande joy   warmed his herte.

With smothe smylyng and smolt   thay smeten into mirthe,

That all was blisse and bonchef   that brek hem bitwene

1765            And wynne.

Thay laused wordes goode,

Much wele then was thereinne;

Gret peril bitwene hem stode

Nif Mary of her knight mynne.

1770  For that prynces of pris   depresed him so thikke,

Nurned him so negh the thred,   that nede him behoved

Other lach there her luf   or lodly refuse.

He cared for his courtaysye,   lest crathayn he were,

And more for his meschef   if he schulde make synne

1775  And be traytor to that tulk   that that telde aghte.

‘God schylde,’ quoth the schalk,   ‘that schal not befalle.’

With luf-laghyng a lyte   he layd him biside

All the speches of specialte   that sprang of her mouthe.

Quoth that burde to the burn:   ‘Blame ye deserve

1780  If ye love not that lif   that ye lye nexte,

Before all the wyes in the worlde   wounded in herte,

Bot if ye have a lemman, a lever,   that yow likes better,

And folden fayth to that fre,   festned so harde

That yow lausen ne lyst – and that I leve nowthe.

1785  And that ye telle me that now   truly I pray yow,

For all the lufes upon lyve   layne not the sothe

For gile.’

The knight sayd, ‘By Saynt John,’

And smethely con he smyle,

1790        ‘In fayth I welde right non

Ne non wil welde the while.’

‘That is a word,’ quoth that wyght,   ‘that worst is of alle;

Bot I am swared for sothe,   that sore me thinkes.

Kysse me now comly,   and I schal cach hethen;

1795  I may bot mourne upon molde,   as may that much loves.’

Sykande ho sweye doun   and semely him kyssed,

And sithen ho severes him fro   and says as ho standes:

‘Now, dere, at this departing   do me this ese,

Gif me sumwhat of thy gift,   thy glove thogh hit were,

1800  That I may mynne on thee, man,   my mournyng to lassen.’

‘Now iwysse,’ quoth that wye,   ‘I wolde I had here

The levest thing for thy luf   that I in londe welde,

For ye have deserved, for sothe,   sellyly ofte

More rewarde by resoun   then I reche myghte.

1805  Bot to dele yow for drury,   that dowed bot neked:

Hit is not your honour   to have at this tyme

A glove for a garysoun   of Gawanes giftes;

And I am here on erande   in erdes uncouthe

And have no men with no males   with menskfulle thinges;

1810  That mislikes me, lady,   for luf at this tyme.

Uch tulk mon do as he is tan,   tas to non ille

Ne pine.’

‘Nay, hende of high honoures,’

Quoth that lufsum under lyne,

1815        ‘Thagh I nade oght of youres,

Yet schulde ye have of myne.’

Ho raght him a rich ryng   of red golde werkes,

With a starande stone   stondande alofte

That bere bluschande bemes   as the bryght sunne;

1820  Wit ye wel hit was worth   wele ful huge.

Bot the renk hit renayed   and redily he sayde:

‘I wil no giftes, for goode,   my gay, at this tyme;

I have non yow to norne   ne noght wil I take.’

Ho bede hit him ful busyly,   and he her bode wernes

1825  And swer swyft by his sothe   that he hit sese nolde,

And ho sory that he forsoke   and sayde thereafter:

‘If ye renay my ryng   to rich for hit semes,

Ye wolde not so highly   holden be to me,

I schal gif yow my girdel – that gaynes yow lesse.’

1830  Ho laght a lace lyghtly   that leke umbe her sides,

Knit upon her kyrtel   under the clere mantyle;

Gered hit was with grene silk   and with golde schaped,

Noght bot arounde brayden,   beten with fyngres;

And that ho bede to the burn   and blythely bisoghte,

1835  Thagh hit unworthy were,   that he hit take wolde.

And he nay that he nolde   negh in no wyse

Nauther gold ne garysoun   ere God him grace sende

To acheve to the chaunce   that he had chosen there.

‘And therefore, I pray yow,   displese yow noght

1840  And lettes be your busynes,   for I baythe hit never

To graunt.

I am derely to yow beholde

Bicause of your semblaunt,

And ever in hot and colde

1845        To be your true servaunt.’

‘Now, forsake ye this silk,’   sayd the burde thenne,

‘For hit is symple in hitself?   And so hit wel semes.

Lo, so hit is little   and lesse hit is worthy.

Bot whoso knewe the costes   that knit are thereinne,

1850  He wolde hit prayse at more pris,   paraventure;

For what gome so is gurde   with this grene lace,

While he hit had hemely   halched aboute,

There is no hathel under heven   to-hewe him that myghte,

For he myght not be slayn   for sleght upon erthe.’

1855  Then caste the knight,   and him com to herte

Hit were a juel for the joparde   that him jugged were:

When he acheved to the chapel   his chek for to feche,

Myght he have slypped to be unslayn,   the sleghte were noble.

Then he thulged with her threpe   and tholed her to speke,

1860  And ho bere on him the belt   and bede hit him swythe,

And he granted, and him gave   with a good wille,

And bisoght him for her sake   discover hit never,

Bot to lelly layne fro her lord;   the lede him acordes

That never wye schulde hit wit,   iwysse, bot thay twayne,

1865            For noght.

He thonkked her oft ful swythe,

Ful thro with hert and thoght;

By that on thrynne sythe

Ho has kyst the knight so toght.

1870  Then laches ho her leve   and leves him there,

For more mirthe of that man   myght ho not gete.

When ho was gon, Sir Gawan   geres him sone,

Rises and riches him   in aray noble,

Lays up the luf-lace   the lady him raghte,

1875  Hid hit ful holdely   there he hit eft fonde.

Sithen chefly to the chapel   choses he the waye,

Previly aproched to a prest   and prayed him there

That he wolde lysten his lif   and leren him better

How his saule schulde be saved   when he schulde seye hethen.

1880  There he schrof him schyrly   and schewed his mysdedes,

Of the more and the mynne,   and mercy beseches,

And of absolucioun   he on the segge calles;

And he asoyled him surely   and set him so clene

As domesday schulde have ben   dight on the morne.

1885  And sithen he mas him as mery   among the fre ladies,

With comlyche caroles   and all kynnes joye,

As never he did bot that day,   to the derk nighte

With blisse.

Uch man had daynte thare

1890        Of him, and sayd, ‘Iwysse,

Thus mery he was never are,

Syn he com hider, ere this.’

NOW let him leng in that lee,   there luf him bityde.

Yet is the lord on the launde   ledande his gamnes.

1895  He has forfaren this fox   that he folwed longe.

As he sprent over a spenne   to spye the schrewe,

Thereas he herde the houndes   that hasted him swythe,

Reynarde com richchande   thurgh a rogh greve,

And all the rabel in a res   right at his heles.

1900  The wye was ware of the wylde   and warly abides,

And braydes out the bryght bronde   and at the best castes;

And he schunt for the scharp   and schulde have arered;

A rach rapes him to   right ere he myghte,

And right before the horse fete   thay fel on him alle

1905  And woried me this wyly   with a wroth noyse.

The lord lyghtes bylive   and laches him sone,

Rased him ful radly   out of the rach mouthes,

Holdes high over his hed,   halowes faste,

And there bayen him bremly   mony brothe houndes.

1910  Huntes hyed hem thider   with hornes ful mony,

Aye rechatande aryght   til thay the renk sawen.

By that was comen   his compayny noble,

All that ever bere bugle   blowed at ones

And all these other halowed   that hade no hornes;

1915  Hit was the meriest mute   that ever man herde,

The rich rurd that there was raysed   for Reynarde saule

With lote.

Her houndes thay there rewarde,

Her hedes thay fawne and frote,

1920        And sithen thay tan Reynarde

And tyrven of his cote.

And then thay helden to home,   for hit was negh nighte,

Strakande ful stoutly   in her store hornes.

The lord is lyght at the last   at his lef home,

1925  Fyndes fire upon flet,   the freke therebiside,

Sir Gawan the goode,   that glad was withalle;

Among the ladies for luf   he ladde much joye.

He wer a bleaunt of blue   that bradde to the erthe;

His surkot semed him wel   that softe was furred,

1930  And his hode of that ilke   henged on his schulder;

Blende all of blaunner   were both all aboute.

He metes me this goodman   in-myddes the flore,

And all with game he him gret   and godly he sayde:

‘I schal fylle upon first   oure forwardes nowthe

1935  That we spedly have spoken   there spared was no drinke.’

Then acoles he the knight   and kysses him thryes

As saverly and sadly   as he hem sette couthe.

‘By Cryst,’ quoth that other knight,   ‘ye cache much sele

In chevisaunce of this chaffer,   if ye had good chepes.’

1940  ‘Ye, of the chepe no charge,’   quoth chefly that other,

‘As is pertly payed   the porchas that I aghte.’

‘Mary,’ quoth that other man,   ‘myn is bihinde,

For I have hunted all this day   and noght have I geten

Bot this foule fox felle – the fende have the godes! –

1945  And that is ful pore for to pay   for such pris thinges

As ye have thryght me here thro,   suche thre cosses

So goode.’

‘Inogh,’ quoth Sir Gawayn,

‘I thonk yow, by the rode’;

1950        And how the fox was slayn

He tolde him as thay stode.

With mirthe and mynstralsye,   with metes at her wille,

Thay maden as mery   as any men myghten –

With laghyng of ladies,   with lotes of bourdes,

1955  Gawan and the goodman   so glad were thay bothe –

Bot if the douth had doted   or dronken ben other.

Both the man and the meyny   maden mony japes,

Til the sesoun was seyen   that thay sever moste;

Burnes to her bed   behoved at the laste.

1960  Then lowly his leve   at the lord firste

Foches this fre man,   and fayr he him thonkes:

‘Of such a sellyly sojorne   as I have hade here,

Your honour at this high fest,   the High-Kyng yow yelde.

I yef yow me for one of youres,   if yourselven likes,

1965  For I mot nedes, as ye wot,   meve tomorne,

And ye me take sum tulk   to teche, as ye hyghte,

The gate to the Grene Chapel,   as God wil me suffer

To dele on New Yeres day   the dome of my wyrdes.’

‘In good fayth,’ quoth the goodman,   ‘with a good wille,

1970  All that ever I yow hyght   holde schal I redy.’

There asyngnes he a servaunt   to set him in the waye

And coundue him by the downes,   that he no drechch hade,

For to ferk thurgh the frith   and fare at the gaynest

By greve.

1975        The lord Gawayn con thonk,

Such worschip he wolde him weve.

Then at tho ladies wlonk

The knight has tan his leve.

With care and with kyssyng   he carpes hem tille

1980  And fele thryvande thonkkes   he thrat hem to have,

And thay yelden him ayain   yeply that ilke.

Thay bikende him to Cryst   with ful colde sykynges.

Sithen fro the meyny   he menskly departes:

Uch man that he met,   he made hem a thonke

1985  For his servyce and his solace   and his sere pine

That thay with busynes had ben   aboute him to serve;

And uch segge as sory   to sever with him there

As thay had woned worthily   with that wlonk ever.

Then with ledes and lyght   he lad was to his chamber

1990  And blythely broght to his bedde   to be at his reste.

If he ne slepe soundyly   saye ne dar I,

For he had much on the morn   to mynne, if he wolde,

In thoght.

Let him lye there stille,

1995        He has ner that he soght.

And ye wil a while be stille

I schal telle yow how thay wroght.

FITT IV

NOW neghes the New Yere   and the night passes,

The day drives to the derk,   as the Dryhtyn biddes.

2000  Bot wylde wederes of the worlde   wakened thereoute,

Cloudes kesten kenely   the colde to the erthe,

With nye inogh of the northe   the naked to tene;

The snaw snitered ful snart,   that snayped the wylde;

The werbelande wynd   wapped fro the highe

2005  And drof uch dale ful   of dryftes ful grete.

The lede lystened ful wel,   that lay in his bedde;

Thagh he loukes his liddes,   ful little he slepes;

By uch kok that crue   he knew wel the steven.

Deliverly he dressed up   ere the day sprenged,

2010  For there was lyght of a lamp   that lemed in his chamber.

He called to his chamberlayn,   that cofly him swared,

And bede him bryng him his bruny   and his blonk sadel.

That other ferkes him up   and feches him his wedes

And graythes me Sir Gawan   upon a gret wyse.

2015  First he clad him in his clothes   the colde for to were,

And sithen his other harnays,   that holdely was keped,

Both his paunce and his plates   piked ful clene,

The rynges rokked of the roust   of his riche bruny;

And all was fresch as upon first,   and he was fayn thenne

2020            To thonk.

He had upon uch pece,

Wypped ful wel and wlonk;

The gayest into Grece,

The burn bede bryng his blonk.

2025  While the wlonkeste wedes   he warp on himselven –

His cote with the conysaunce   of the clere werkes

Enurned upon velvet,   vertuous stones

Aboute beten and bounden,   enbrawdede semes,

And fayr furred withinne   with fayre pelures –

2030  Yet laft he not the lace,   the ladies gifte:

That forgat not Gawan   for good of himselven.

By he had belted the bronde   upon his balwe haunches,

Then dressed he his drury   double him aboute,

Swythe swethled umbe his swange   swetely that wye.

2035  The girdel of the grene silk   that gay wel bisemed,

Upon that ryal red clothe   that rich was to schewe.

Bot wered not this ilk wye   for wele this girdel,

For pryde of the pendauntes,   thagh polysed thay were

And thagh the glyterande gold   glent upon endes,

2040  Bot for to saven himself   when suffer him behoved,

To bide bale withoute debate   of bronde him to were

Or knyve.

By that the bold man boun

Wynnes thereoute bylive,

2045        All the meyny of renoun

He thonkes oft ful ryve.

Then was Gryngolet grayth,   that gret was and huge,

And had ben sojourned saverly   and in a siker wyse;

Him lyst prike for poynt   that proude horse thenne.

2050  The wye wynnes him to   and wytes on his lere,

And sayd soberly himself   and by his soth sweres:

‘Here is a meyny in this mote   that on mensk thenkes.

The man hem maynteines,   joy mot he have!

The lef lady on lyve,   luf her bityde!

2055  If thay for charyte   cherysen a gest

And holden honour in her hande,   the Hathel hem yelde

That holdes the heven upon high,   and also yow alle!

And if I myght lif upon londe   lede any while,

I schulde reche yow sum rewarde   redily if I myghte.’

2060  Then steppes he into stirop   and strydes alofte;

His schalk schewed him his schelde,   on schulder he hit laghte,

Gyrdes to Gryngolet   with his gilt heles,

And he startes on the stone,   stode he no lenger

To praunce.

2065         His hathel on horse was thenne,

That bere his spere and launce.

‘This castel to Cryst I kenne:

He gyve hit aye good chaunce.’

The brygge was brayde doun   and the brode yates

2070  Unbarred and born open   upon bothe halve.

The burn blessed him bylive   and the bredes passed,

Prayses the porter,   before the prince kneled,

Gave him God and good day,   that Gawan He save,

And went on his way   with his wye one,

2075  That schulde teche him to turne   to that tene place

There the rufulle race   he resayve schulde.

Thay bowen by bonkes   there boghes are bare,

Thay clomben by clyffes   there clenges the colde.

The heven was uphalt,   bot ugly thereunder.

2080  Mist muged on the mor,   malt on the mountes,

Uch hille had a hatte,   a mist-hakel huge.

Brokes boyled and brek   by bonkes aboute,

Schyre schaterande on schores   there thay doun schowved.

Welawylle was the way there   thay by wode schulden,

2085  Til hit was sone sesoun   that the sunne rises

That tyde.

Thay were on a hille ful high,

The white snaw lay biside.

The burn that rode him by

2090        Bede his mayster abide:

‘For I have wonnen yow hider,   wye, at this tyme,

And now nar ye not fer   fro that note place

That ye haf spied and spured   so specially after.

Bot I schal say yow for sothe – sithen I yow knowe

2095  And ye are a lede upon lyve   that I wel lovy –

Wolde ye work by my wyt,   ye worthed the better.

The place that ye pres to   ful perelous is holden.

There wones a wye in that waste   the worst upon erthe:

For he is stif and sturne   and to strike loves,

2100  And more he is then any man   upon myddelerde,

And his body bigger   then the best foure

That are in Arthures house,   Hestor or other.

He cheves that chaunce   at the Chapel Grene

There passes non by that place   so proud in his armes

2105  That he ne dynges him to dethe   with dint of his hande;

For he is a man methles   and mercy non uses.

For be hit chorle other chaplayn   that by the chapel rides,

Monk other masseprest   or any man elles,

Him think as queme him to quelle   as quik go himselven.

2110  Forthy I say yow as soth   as ye in sadel sitte,

Com ye there, ye be kylled,   may the knight rede,

Trowe ye me that truly,   thagh ye had twenty lyves

To spende.

He has woned here ful yore,

2115        On bent much baret bende;

Ayain his dintes sore

Ye may not yow defende.

‘Forthy, goode Sir Gawan,   let the gome one

And gos away sum other gate,   upon Godes halve,

2120  Kayres by sum other kyth,   there Cryst mot yow spede.

And I schal hye me home ayain,   and hete yow ferre

That I schal swere by God   and all his goode halwes,

“As help me God and the halydam,”   and othes inoghe,

That I schal lelly yow layne   and lause never tale

2125  That ever ye fonded to fle   for freke that I wyste.’

‘Grant merci,’ quoth Gawan,   and gruchyng he sayde,

‘Wel worthe thee, wye,   that woldes my goode,

And that lelly me layne   I leve wel thou woldes.

Bot helde thou hit never so holde,   and I here passed,

2130  Fonded for ferde for to fle,   in forme that thou telles,

I were a knight cowarde,   I myght not be excused.

Bot I wil chose to the chapel,   for chaunce that may falle,

And talk with that ilk tulk   the tale that me lyste,

Worth hit wele other wo,   as the wyrde likes

2135            Hit have.

Thagh he be a sturne knape

To stightel, and stad with stave,

Ful wel con Dryhtyn schape

His servauntes for to save.’

2140  ‘Mary!’ quoth that other man,   ‘now thou so much spelles

That thou wylt thyn owen nye   nyme to thyselven,

And thee lyst lese thy lif,   thee lette I ne kepe.

Haf here thy helme on thy hed,   thy spere in thy hande,

And ride me doun this ilk rake   by yon rok side

2145  Til thou be broght to the bothom   of the brem valaye.

Then loke a little on the launde   on thy lyfte hande,

And thou schal see in that slade   the selve chapelle

And the borlyche burn   on bent that hit kepes.

Now fares wel on Godes halve,   Gawan the noble;

2150  For all the gold upon grounde   I nolde go with thee,

Ne bere thee felawschip thurgh this frith   not on fote ferre.’

By that the wye in the wode   wendes his brydel,

Hit the horse with the heles   as hard as he myghte,

Lepes him over the launde   and leves the knight there

2155            All one.

‘By Godes self,’ quoth Gawayn,

‘I wil nauther grete ne grone.

To Godes wille I am ful bayn,

And to Him I have me tone.’

2160  Then gyrdes he to Gryngolet   and gederes the rake,

Schowves in by a schore   at a schawe side,

Rides thurgh the rogh bonk   right to the dale.

And then he wayted him aboute,   and wylde hit him thoghte,

And saw no syngne of resette   bisides nowhere,

2165  Bot high bonkes and brent   upon bothe halve

And rogh knoklede knarres   with knornede stones;

The skues of the scowtes   skayned him thoghte.

Then he hoved and withhelde   his horse at that tyde,

And oft chaunged his chere   the chapel to seche.

2170  He saw non such in no side,   and selly him thoghte,

Save a little on a launde   a lawe as it were,

A balwe berwe by a bonk   the brymme biside,

By a forw of a flod   that ferkede there;

The borne blubred thereinne   as hit boyled hade.

2175  The knight caches his caple   and com to the lawe,

Lyghtes doun luflyly   and at a lynde taches

The rayne and hit riched   with a rogh braunche.

Then he bowes to the berwe,   aboute hit he walkes,

Debatande with himself   what hit be myghte.

2180  Hit had a hole on the ende   and on ayther side,

And overgrowen with gresse   in glodes aywhere,

And all was holwe inwith – nobot an olde cave,

Or a crevisse of an olde cragge,   he couthe hit not deme

With spelle.

2185        ‘We! Lord,’ quoth the gentyl knight,

‘Whether this be the Grene Chapelle?

Here myght aboute mydnight

The Dele his matynes telle.

‘Now iwysse,’ quoth Wawan,   ‘wysty is here.

2190  This oritore is ugly,   with erbes overgrowen;

Wel bisemes the wye   wruxled in grene

Dele here his devocioun   on the Deles wyse.

Now I fele hit is the fende,   in my fyve wyttes,

That has stoken me this steven   to strye me here.

2195  This is a chapel of meschaunce,   that chek hit bityde!

Hit is the corsedest kyrk   that ever I com inne.’

With high helme on his hed,   his launce in his hande,

He romes up to the roffe   of tho rogh wones.

Then herd he of that highe hille,   in a hard roche,

2200  Biyonde the brok in a bonk,   a wonder breme noyse.

What! hit clatered in the clyff   as hit cleve schulde,

As one upon a gryndelston   had grounden a sythe;

What! hit wharred and whette   as water at a mulne;

What! hit rusched and ronge,   routhe to here.

2205  Then ‘By God,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘that gere, as I trowe,

Is riched at my reverence   me reken to mete

By rote.

Let God worke, we lo!

Hit helpes me not a mote.

2210        My lif thagh I forgo,

Drede dos me no lote.’

Then the knight   con calle ful highe:

‘Who stightles in this stedde   me steven to holde?

For now is good Gawan   goande right here.

2215  If any wye oght wil,   wynne hider faste,

Other now other never,   his nedes to spede.’

‘Abide,’ quoth one on the bonk   aboven ouer his hede,

‘And thou schal have all in haste   that I thee hyght ones.’

Yet he rusched on that rurd   rapely a throwe

2220  And with whettyng awharf   ere he wolde lyghte;

And sithen he keveres by a cragge   and comes of a hole,

Whyrlande out of a wro   with a felle weppen,

A Denes axe newe dight   the dint with to yelde,

With a borlyche bitte   bent by the halme,

2225  Fyled in a fylor,   foure fote large:

Hit was no lesse by that lace   that lemed ful bryghte;

And the gome in the grene   gered as firste,

Both the lere and the legges,   lokkes and berde,

Save that fayr on his fote   he foundes on the erthe:

2230  Set the stele to the stone   and stalked biside;

When he wan to the water,   there he wade nolde,

He hypped over on his axe   and orpedly strydes,

Bremly brothe on a bent   that brod was aboute

On snowe.

2235        Sir Gawan the knight con mete,

He ne lutte him nothing lowe.

That other sayd, ‘Now, sir swete,

Of steven man may thee trowe.

‘Gawan,’ quoth that grene gome,   ‘God thee mot loke!

2240  Iwysse thou are welcom,   wye, to my place,

And thou has tymed thy travayl   as true man schulde.

And thou knowes the covenauntes   cast us bitwene:

At this tyme twelmonyth   thou toke that thee falled,

And I schulde at this New Yere   yeply thee quyte.

2245  And we are in this valay   verayly our one;

Here are no renkes us to ryd,   rele as us likes.

Haf thy helme of thy hed   and haf here thy paye.

Busk no more debate   then I thee bede thenne

When thou wypped of my hed   at a wap one.’

2250  ‘Nay, by God,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘that me gost lante,

I schal gruch thee no grue   for greme that falles.

Bot stightel thee upon on stroke,   and I schal stande stille

And warp thee no wernyng   to work as thee likes

Nowhare.’

2255        He lened with the nek and lutte

And schewed that schyre all bare

And let as he noght dutte;

For drede he wolde not dare.

THEN the gome in the grene   graythed him swythe,

2260  Gederes up his grymme tole   Gawan to smyte;

With all the bur in his body   he bere hit on lofte,

Mynt as maghtyly   as marre him he wolde.

Had hit driven adoun   as drye as he attled,

There had ben ded of his dint   that doghty was ever;

2265  Bot Gawan on that giserne   glyfte him biside,

As hit com glydande adoun   on glode him to schende,

And schrank a little with the schulderes   for the scharp yrne.

That other schalk with a schunt   the schene withholdes,

And then repreved he the prince   with mony proude wordes:

2270  ‘Thou art not Gawan,’ quoth that gome,   ‘that is so good holden,

That never arwed for no here   by hille ne by vale,

And now thou fles for ferde   ere thou fele harmes!

Such cowardise of that knight   couthe I never here.

Nauther fyked I ne flagh,   freke, when thou myntest,

2275  Ne cast no cavelacioun   in kynges house Arthur.

My hed flagh to my fote   and yet flagh I never,

And thou, ere any harme hent,   arwes in herte;

Wherefore the better burn   me burde be called

Therefore.’

2280        Quoth Gawan, ‘I schunt ones,

And so wil I no more.

Bot thagh my hed falle on the stones

I con not hit restore.

‘Bot busk, burn, by thy fayth,   and bryng me to the poynte,

2285  Dele to me my destiny   and do hit out of hande;

For I schal stande thee a stroke   and starte no more

Til thyn axe have me hit,   haf here my trauthe.’

‘Haf at thee then!’ quoth that other,   and heves hit alofte,

And waytes as wrothly   as he wod were.

2290  He myntes at him maghtyly,   bot not the man rynes:

Withhelde heterly his hand   ere hit hurt myghte.

Gawan graythly hit bides   and glent with no membre,

Bot stod stille as the stone,   or a stubbe other

That ratheled is in roche grounde   with rotes a hundred.

2295  Then meryly eft con he mele,   the man in the grene:

‘So, now thou has thy hert hole,   hitte me behoves.

Holde thee now the highe hode   that Arthur thee raghte,

And kepe thy kanel at this cast,   if hit kever maye.’

Gawan ful gryndelly   with greme then sayde:

2300  ‘Wy! thresch on, thou thro man,   thou thretes to longe.

I hope that thy hert arwe   with thyn owen selven.’

‘For sothe,’ quoth that other freke,   ‘so felly thou spekes,

I wil no lenger on lyte   lette thyn ernde

Right now.’

2305        Then tas he him strythe to strike

And frounses both lyppe and browe.

No mervayl thagh him mislike

That hoped of no rescowe.

He lyftes lyghtly his lome   and let hit doun fayre

2310  With the barbe of the bitte   by the bare nekke;

Thagh he homered heterly,   hurt him no more

Bot snyrt him on that on side,   that severed the hyde.

The scharp schrank to the flesch   thurgh the schyre grece,

That the schene blod over his schulderes   schot to the erthe.

2315  And when the burn saw the blod   blenk on the snawe,

He sprit forth spenne-fote   more then a spere lenthe,

Hent heterly his helme   and on his hed caste,

Schot with his schulderes   his fayre schelde under,

Braydes out a bryght sworde,   and bremly he spekes –

2320  Never syn that he was burn   born of his moder

Was he never in this worlde   wye half so blythe:

‘Blynne, burn, of thy bur,   bede me no mo!

I have a stroke in this sted   withoute strif hente,

And if thou reches me any mo,   I redily schal quyte

And yelde yederly ayayn,   and thereto ye tryste –

And foo.

Bot on stroke here me falles:

The covenaunt schop right so

Festned in Arthures halles;

2330        And therefore, hende, now hoo!’

The hathel helded him fro   and on his axe rested,

Set the schaft upon schore   and to the scharp lened

And loked to the lede   that on the launde yede,

How that doghty dredles   derfly there standes

2335  Armed, ful awles:   in hert hit him likes.

Then he meles meryly   with a much steven,

And with a ryngande rurd   he to the renk sayde:

‘Bolde burn, on this bent   be not so gryndel.

No man here unmanerly   thee mysboden habbes,

2340  Ne kyd bot as covenaunt   at kynges court schaped.

I hyght thee a stroke and thou hit has;   holde thee wel payed.

I relece thee of the remnaunt   of rightes all other:

If I deliver had ben,   a buffet paraunter

I couthe wrothloker have waret,   to thee have wroght anger.

2345  First I mansed thee meryly   with a mynt one

And rove thee with no rof-sore;   with right I thee profered,

For the forward that we fest   in the first nighte,

And thou trystely the trauthe   and truly me holdes:

All the gayne thou me gafe   as good man schulde.

2350  That other mynt for the morn,   man, I thee profered

Thou kyssedes my clere wyf,   the cosses me raghtes.

For bothe two here I thee bede   bot two bare myntes

Bout scathe.

True mon true restore,

2355        Then thar man drede no wathe.

At the thrid thou fayled thore

And therefore that tappe ta thee.

‘For hit is my wede that thou weres,   that ilk woven girdel:

Myn owen wyf hit thee weved,   I wot wel for sothe.

2360  Now know I wel thy cosses   and thy costes alse,

And the wowyng of my wyf – I wroght hit myselven.

I sende her to asay thee,   and sothly me thinkes

On the fautleste freke   that ever on fote yede.

As perle by the white pese   is of pris more,

2365  So is Gawan, in good fayth,   by other gay knightes.

Bot here yow lakked a little, sir,   and leaute yow wonted;

Bot that was for no wylyde werk,   ne for wowyng nauther,

Bot for ye loved your lif – the lasse I yow blame.’

That other stif man in study   stod a gret while,

2370  So agreved for greme   he gryed withinne.

All the blod of his brest   blende in his face,

That all he schrank for schame   that the schalk talked.

The forme word upon folde   that the freke meled:

‘Corsed worthe cowardise   and covetyse bothe!

2375  In yow is vilany and vice   that vertue disstryes’.

Then he caght to the knot   and the cast lauses,

Brayde brothely the belt   to the burne selven:

‘Lo there the falssyng,   foule mot hit falle!

For care of thy knokke,   cowardise me taghte

2380  To acorde me with covetyse,   my kynde to forsake,

That is largesse and leaute   that longes to knightes.

Now am I fauty and false,   and ferde have ben ever

Of trecherye and untrauthe – both bityde sorwe

And care!

2385        I beknowe yow, knight, here stille,

All fauty is my fare.

Lettes me overtake your wille

And eft I schal be ware.’

Then loghe that other lede   and luflyly sayde:

2390  ‘I holde hit hardily hole   the harme that I hade:

Thou art confessed so clene,   beknowen of thy mysses,

And has the penaunce apert   of poynt of myn egge,

I holde thee polysed of that plyght   and pured as clene

As thou hades never forfeted   syn thou was first borne.

2395  And I gif thee, sir, the girdel   that is gold-hemmed;

For hit is grene as my goun,   Sir Gawan, ye maye

Thenk upon this ilke threpe   there thou forth thrynges

Among princes of pris,   and this a pure token

Of the chaunce of the Grene Chapel   at chevalrous knightes.

2400  And ye schal in this New Yere   ayain to my wones,

And we schyn revel the remnaunt   of this riche feste

Ful bene.’

There lathed him fast the lord

And sayd, ‘With my wyf, I wene,

2405        We schal yow wel acorde,

That was your enmy kene.’

‘Nay, for sothe,’ quoth the segge,   and sesed his helme

And has hit of hendly   and the hathel thonkes:

‘I have sojourned sadly – sele yow bityde,

2410  And He yelde hit yow yare   that yarkes all menskes!

And comaundes me to that cortays,   your comlyche fere,

Both that one and that other,   myn honoured ladies,

That thus her knight with her cast   have coyntly bigyled.

Bot hit is no ferly   thagh a fol madde,

2415  And thurgh wyles of wymmen   be wonnen to sorwe.

For so was Adam in erde   with one bigyled,

And Salomon with fele sere;   and Samson eftsones –

Dalyda dalt him his wyrde – and David thereafter

Was blended with Barsabe,   that much bale tholed,

2420  Now these were wrathed with her wyles,   hit were a wynne huge

To love hem wel and leve hem not,   a lede that couthe.

For these were forne the freest,   that folwed all the sele

Excellently of all these other   under hevenryche

That mused;

2425        And all thay were biwyled

With wymmen that thay used.

Thagh I be now bigyled,

Me think me burde be excused.

‘Bot your girdel,’ quoth Gawan,   ‘God yow foryelde!

2430  That wil I welde with good wille,   not for the wynne golde,

Ne the saynt, ne the silk,   ne the syde pendauntes,

For wele ne for worschip,   ne for the wlonk werkes,

Bot in syngne of my surfet   I schal see hit ofte:

When I ride in renoun   remorde to myselven

2435  The faut and the fayntyse   of the flesch crabbed,

How tender hit is to entyse   teches of fylthe;

And thus, when pryde schal me prik   for prowes of armes,

The loke to this luf-lace   schal lethe my herte.

Bot one I wolde yow pray,   displeses yow never:

2440  Syn ye be lord of the yonder londe   that I have lent inne

With yow with worschip – the Wye hit yow yelde

That upholdes the heven   and on high sittes –

How norne ye your right name,   and then no more?’

‘That schal I telle thee truly,’   quoth that other thenne:

2445  ‘Bertilak de Hautdesert   I hat in this londe,

Thurgh myght of Morgue la Faye   that in my house lenges

And quoyntyse of clergye,   by craftes wel lerned,

The maystres of Merlin,   mony has taken;

For ho has dalt drury   ful dere sumtyme

2450  With that conable clerk:   that knowes all your knightes

At hame.

Morgue the Goddes

Therefore hit is her name.

Weldes non so high hawtesse

2455        That ho ne con make ful tame.

‘Ho wayned me upon this wyse   to your wynne halle

For to assay the sorquydrye,   if hit soth were,

That rennes of the grete renoun   of the Rounde Table.

Ho wayved me this wonder   your wyttes to reve,

2460  For to have greved Guenore   and gart her to die

With glopnyng of that ilk gome   that gostlyche speked

With his hed in his hande   before the highe table.

That is ho that is at home,   the auncian lady;

Ho is even thyn aunt,   Arthures half-sister,

2465  The duches doghter of Tyntagelle,   that dere Uter after

Had Arthur upon,   that athel is nowthe.

Therefore I ethe thee, hathel,   to come to thyn aunte;

Make mery in my house:   my meyny thee loves,

And I wil thee as wel,   wye, by my faythe,

2470  As any gome under God,   for thy grete trauthe!’

And he nikked him nay,   he nolde by no wayes.

Thay acolen and kyssen,   and kennen ayther other

To the Prince of Paradise,   and parten right there

On colde.

2475        Gawayn on blonk ful bene

To the kynges burgh buskes bolde,

And the knight in the enker grene

Whiderwarde-so-ever he wolde.

Wylde wayes in the worlde   Wawan now rides

2480  On Gryngolet, that the grace   had geten of his live.

Oft he herbered in house   and oft all thereoute,

And mony aventure in vale   he venquished ofte

That I ne tyght at this tyme   in tale to remene.

The hurt was hole that he had   hent in his nekke,

2485  And the blykkande belt   he bere thereaboute

Abelef as a bauderyk   bounden by his side,

Loken under his lyft arme,   the lace, with a knotte,

In tokenyng he was tan   in tech of a faute.

And thus he comes to the court,   knight all in sounde.

2490  There wakened wele in that wone   when wyste the grete

That good Gawan was comen:   gayn hit hem thoghte.

The kyng kysses the knight,   and the quene alse,

And sithen mony siker knight   that soght him to haylse,

Of his fare that him frayned – and ferlyly he telles,

2495  Beknowes all the costes   of care that he hade,

The chaunce of the chapel,   the chere of the knighte,

The luf of the lady,   the lace at the laste.

The nirt in the nek   he naked hem schewed

That he laght for his unleute   at the ledes handes

2500            For blame.

He tened when he schuld telle,

He groned for gref and grame;

The blod in his face con melle

When he hit schulde schewe for schame.

2505  ‘Lo, lord,’ quoth the lede,   and the lace hondeled:

‘This is the bende of this blame   I bere in my nekke;

This is the lothe and the losse   that I laght have

Of cowardise and covetyse   that I have caght thare;

This is the token of untrauthe   that I am tan inne.

2510  And I mot nedes hit were   while I may laste.

For man may hyden his harme,   bot unhap ne may hit,

For there hit ones is tached   twynne wil hit never.’

The kyng comfortes the knight   and all the court alse,

Laghen loude thereat   and luflyly acorden

2515  That lordes and ladies   that longed to the Table,

Uch burn of the brotherhede,   a bauderyk schuld have,

A bende abelef him aboute   of a bryght grene,

And that for sake of that segge   in sute to were.

For that was acorded the renoun   of the Rounde Table,

2520  And he honoured that hit had   evermore after,

As hit is breved in the best   boke of romaunce.

Thus in Arthures day   this aunter bitidde:

The Brutus bokes thereof   beres wittnesse.

Sithen Brutus the bolde burn   bowed hider firste,

2525  After the sege and the assaut   was sesed at Troye,

Iwysse,

Mony aunteres here-biforne

Haf fallen such ere this.

Now that bere the crowne of thorne,

2530        He bryng us to His blisse. Amen.

HONY SOYT QUI MAL PENCE

Notes

NOTES TO PEARL

1     Perle: no title is given in the MS to any of its four poems. In this period, texts were often referred to by their opening words or incipits. Pearl, Cleanness and Patience thus in effect provide the medieval equivalent of a title by announcing their subject in their respective first words. Since lines 4 and 8 make it clear that Perle here refers to a specific rather than to a class, its lack of preceding determiner causes it to function rather as a proper than as a common noun. The child’s name may well have been Margaret or Margery (a name derived ultimately from the Greek word for ‘pearl’), the latter available to the poet as a learned synonym for ‘pearl’ (199, 206, 1037). The pearl was also often used figuratively in commendations of female excellence. Particularly relevant is the love lyric beginning ‘A wayle [excellent creature] whyt ase whalles bon, A grein [pearl] in golde that godly shon’ (Harley Lyrics 9/1–2).

3     orient: where the best pearls came from. The rivers in the Far East were thought to flow directly from the Earthly Paradise and to carry with them the pearls and precious stones with which Paradise had long been associated (cf. Mandeville, Livre 468).

4–5  precious has a double meaning, ‘valuable’ and ‘dear’, appropriate to ‘pearl’ as both object and person. aray likewise has both its narrower sense [clothing] and its wider one [condition], reken in uch aray applying to the jewel (‘fair in every setting’) and to the person it figures (‘beautiful in every costume’; cf. ‘worthliest in ich a wede’: Amis 443). The pronoun her (cf. 6, 8 and 9) similarly allows for both possibilities, and the ModE pronoun system cannot convey its ambiguity. In ME the pronoun hit [it] figured regularly only as the subject of the verb, the oblique forms being his and him, or – if the antecedent noun (in this case from French la perle) was clearly feminine by derivation – her; it is noteworthy that, in the subject case (10), where a feminine pronoun would not normally be selected for an inanimate, the poet uses the pronoun hit, not she (which would make for less ambiguous personification).

6     smal: applicable to the jewel in the meaning ‘small’, but also to the girl in the sense ‘slender’ which the word frequently bore when applied to female beauty, in which connection the words smal, smothe, white and sides often figure: Gordon cites Criseyde’s ‘armes smale … sydes longe … smothe, and white … snowissh throte’ (Troilus III.1247–50).

11   luf-daungere: in amorous contexts daunger indicated a force that thwarted the lover’s desires and referred either to the lady’s own reluctance or standoffishness, or to any circumstances (distance, watchfulness or suspicion from a husband or relatives) that denied him access to the object of his love. The poet here attributes the suffering typical of the frustrated lover to the bereaved father, for whom the distance and separation by which love is frustrated are non-negotiable and absolute.

12   privy: in context probably ‘concealed, hidden’ rather than, as at 24, ‘very own’; the latter sense is more natural with my (24) than with that, which implies what is distant and removed from the speaker, that privy thus reinforcing the separation implied by luf-daungere (11).

14–16  Jewels were believed to possess virtues [powers], warding off particular dangers or ensuring particular benefits. These lines thus continue the allegory of bereavement as the loss of a jewel, a wele [something that brings well-being or good fortune] which had warded off ill-fortune and misery (15) and ensured hap [good fortune] and hele [health].

19   sange: the meaning is unclear. The semantic correspondence between the verbs stele (20) and fleten (21) suggests that fele [many] at 21 refers back to sange and not to stounde (20). Since sounds of sange therefore appear to be prompted by thoughts of the pearl in the earth (22), the word can scarcely denote literal, external sounds of any kind. Gordon suggests that song refers to the poem itself. The metaphor was certainly common and would be appropriate to verse so richly and intricately musical. The lines would then mean that, paradoxically (Yet: 19), the sweetest of verses would come into his head when the mourner thought of his pearl in the earth.

25   mot nedes: the modal verbs (cf. may not, 29, myght fayle not, 34) indicate that the mourner is at present merely picturing the grave. The spot where his daughter’s body is rotting is, in the second and third stanzas, visited by him in imagination, first in revulsion (22–4) and then in a more positive spirit (25–36), as the pearl is imagined as a seed from which fragrant and colourful plants will grow. This conceit convinces him that beauty must be there: indicative schines at 28 contrasts with the modal verbs. He then visits the spot in person at 37–8.

31   graynes: grain was frequently applied to jewels, and is used of a ‘pearl’ of a woman (‘A grein in golde’) in Harley Lyrics (see n. to line 1). The term thus assists in the figurative conflation of pearl and seed that takes place in this stanza. That plants grow from the ‘death’ (the rotting and sprouting) of a seed, was an observation made familiar by two well-known biblical references to that fact (John 12:24–5; 1 Corinthians 15:35–8), both of which use that agricultural reality as a figure for the birth from bodily death into spiritual life. The mourner’s consolation, however, is at this stage derived from the sensual delights of the literal, botanical ‘new growth’ that has occurred, the spiritual point presaged by this being one that he cannot yet grasp (see 51–6).

39   high sesoun: as is clear from the next line, the festival is Lammas [‘loaf-Mass’], 1 August, when the first fruits of the new harvest were offered up in thanksgiving and when, originally, the new corn provided the bread for the Eucharist. The season thus makes a present truth of the observation at 31–2 in the previous stanza: that the death of grains results in the reaping of wheat.

44–5   Gilofre, gyngure and gromyloun, And pyonys: all (including peonies) were valued as spice-bearing plants. The mourner’s prediction that his own buried pearl-seed would have flowered into colourful spyces (25) is immediately confirmed, to become, like the harvest, a visibly present fact. Their fragrance (46) is to be a factor in the onset of the ‘fit of sleep’ during which the coming dream occurs (57–8), their fayr odour complementing the swete song and semely colourfulness (46, 19, 45) to produce from the spot of corrupting flesh an effluence of effects grateful to the senses.

52   resoun, here used as a quasi-personification, was in this period a moral term, and referred to ‘rightness’ or ‘justice’ (cf. 665) and to the faculty that distinguishes right from wrong; participial saght designated absence or cessation of discord or resentment, and set saght meant ‘make peace, cause reconciliation’ (cf. 1201). Line 52 thus indicates that the mourner knew it would be right to ‘come to terms with’ his loss.

53   penned (MS spenned): as A&W (who also emend) note, the MS reading would involve self-rhyme, which the poet normally avoids (the only clear exceptions being 1000:1007 and 1108:1112). The emendation is further supported by the pattern of alliteration in this stanza: all verbs except for schot (58), which rhymes with the refrain word, alliterate with word(s) in the same line.

55   The comfort available through the kynde [nature] of Christ is the promise of life after death held out by the physical and moral nature of a merciful God who rose from the dead. But these persuasions of resoun (52) and faith are here relegated to concessive clauses (Thagh: 52, 55) in a parallelism that equates them as joint losers against grief in a psychomachia (an allegory of psychic conflict).

56   wraghte: the metaphor appears to be from an aching body part: cf. ‘Swa werkes ay the wanges [teeth] in his heed’ (Reeve’s Tale, CT I.4030).

64   The vocabulary imports into the context of a spiritual journey some of the excitement and wonder proper to chivalric romance, rich in aventure and mervayles (cf. G 27–9, 92–5, 479–90); gon (63) … In aventure probably implies ‘gone into unfamiliar terrain’, like the knight on a quest (cf. G 1808).

65   in this world: before an interrogative and after a negative (especially with the verb wit) this expression is normally a mere intensifier (cf. 293 and OED world 20a(a)); here it has more significance, as his location is something the dreamer gradually deduces to be in the vicinity of the Earthly Paradise (137, 248).

66   cleven: the gloss ‘clove the air, rose aloft’ (Gordon and A&W) is unsupported by any other recorded use of the verb. MED assigns cleven to cleven v^1 [stick, adhere], including it under sense 4 [remain, abide, endure], but the implied sense (‘were set fast’) is weak and again without clear parallel. The interpretation offered in our footgloss assumes a sense (‘to be divided’) that is well attested in MED sv cleven v^2 [split] 2.

71–2  It was precisely with jewels that webbes [cloths] were Dubbed (73) for especially splendid effect, in the case of both garments and wall hangings (see 202 and G 193).

80   schrylle is elsewhere in ME always found with reference to sound. The application to visual rather than to aural effect represents an inspired transference (whose ground is intensity of sense impression): OED records no comparable figurative usage of the word before Tennyson.

83   blynde [dim] was sometimes used in a semi-technical sense to describe non-precious, lustreless stones. The usage adds extra point to the hyperbolic reversal of a common similitude for brightness: whereas a jewel might elsewhere be described as sparkling as brightly as the sun (as at G 1819), this jewelled landscape would reduce the sun itself, by comparison, to a non-sparkling stone.

86   Garten: the -en suffix indicates plural subject. Gordon assumed scribal error, but adubbement (85), here a collective noun, may have been felt as plural (cf. The dubbement … Were at 109–10); the intervening noun downes (85) may also have influenced the verb (cf. C 385 and n.).

90   flaumbande: the verb was often applied to jewels and precious metals (as at C 1468). Though it ravishes the other senses as well as that of sight (87–94), this is primarily a jeweller’s paradise.

95   gle had a general sense of ‘delight’, but also the more specific ones of ‘music’ (cf. ‘glee-man’) and ‘radiance’ (MED gle n^1 2a, 3(a) and 4). In different senses it is therefore appropriate to both hearing and seeing (96).

107  by schore that scheres: cf. Douglas’s description of the Tiber ‘Throu fertill feildis scheryng thar and heyr’ (Aeneid VIII.i.99). schore is always used of a steep slope near water: it refers, not to the land which immediately bounds the water, but to the area over which the ground beside it rises to its full height (as is clear from 166 and 230).

114–16   With the first simile, cf. the lady whose beauty is as bright ‘As sonne that schynes throw glasse’ (Ipomadon 5022), though the comparison is more aptly applied in Pearl; the second simile (‘as clear as stars in a frosty night’) is also used of stones in a river-bed in Dunbar’s Golden Targe 36 (see p. 11).

115   strothe: common in personal and place names, but occurring otherwise only here and at G 1710. It is part of the poet’s wide repertoire of topographical terms, many of them of regional or local currency (Elliott 1984, Gordon l–lii).

123–4   Abate, fordo and distrye could all be used in medical senses, with reference to the assuagement of swelling and the expulsion or dispelling of disease or toxicity from the body. Bylde – which stands in general contrast with all three verbs, and in immediate contrast with abated – could represent either of two verbs: belden [embolden, encourage], which acquired such extended meanings as ‘strengthen, help, support, sustain, nourish’ (MED belden 1(a), OED bield v), or bilden [build]. MED, following Gordon and A&W, assumes the latter, used in a nonce sense of ‘aroused joy’. But the usage here seems more consonant with some of those recorded under belden; the sense ‘strengthened, nourished’ would be consistent with the promotion and increase of some healthful quality implied by the antithetical structure and medical logic at work in 123–4.

127  floty: usually explained as a nonce adjective derived from the verb fleten [float] and glossed ‘well-watered’ by MED, in which it figures as the sole instance cited. It is more likely to be a variant of the attested adjective flodi, fludy [pertaining to a river, river-rich], which derives from the noun flod, also spelled flot; cf. ME stremi [endowed with running stream(s)].

128   straynes: metaphorical uses of this verb usually involve painful rather than pleasant emotions; it is by ‘anguish’, ‘sorrow’, ‘pity’, etc, that persons and hearts were ‘strained’ (i.e. ‘wrung’); see MED streinen v^1 3(c), (e). The suggestion is thus that the mourner’s mind and heart are as overtaxed now by a painful intensity of joy as they were earlier by the grief under which he had collapsed into unconsciousness (49–60); the implied parallel gives pertinence to the gnomic comment that follows (129–32).

137–42   The dreamer makes three interrelated assumptions (thoght … hoped … hoped) about this wondrous realm which he still takes to be of this world: (a) that it is so delightful that he must be in the vicinity of the Earthly Paradise (137–8), a place thought of as naturally rich in precious stones (cf. Genesis 2:12 and PP B.10.12: ‘al the precious perree [jewellery] that in paradis wexeth’), and also as locatable in this world, in which it was assumed (and on maps often actually shown) to be somewhere in the East, not in another world (Delumeau 1995: 39–70); the dreamer of Roman de la rose similarly finds the garden he enters so delitables that he believes himself to be en paradis terestre (636–7); (b) that the water is part of the design of some magnificent pleasure garden (139–40) such as that described in Romaunt of the Rose 1412–16 (Roman de la rose 1383–7): ‘But I ne can the number telle Of stremys smal that by devys Myrthe [Pleasure] had don come through condys [conduits], Of whiche the water in rennyng Gan make a noyse ful lykyng [pleasing]’ (cf. devise and mirthes at Pe 139–40); (c) that such an exquisite pleasure garden must form part of some great estate centred on a court and castle lying somewhere across the stream (141–2). devise (139) is often glossed ‘division’, but that is not its usual sense, and Pe 139 is the only example cited in support of such a meaning (sv devis 5) in MED (though Gordon adduces a later Scots instance). The stremys smal in the Romaunt of the Rose are not intended as a ‘division’ but as a device to enhance pleasure. This is the role the dreamer here assumes for the water before him – which is why he is puzzled to find it (143–54) acting as a ‘division’.

141   slente occurs as a topographical term only here in ME (cf. n. to 115).

151–3   wothes … wonde: the same collocation (and rhyme on wonde/honde) occurs at G 487–90, where the narrator adjures the hero ‘For wothe that thou ne wonde This aunter for to frayn That thou has tan on honde.’ To wonde or flinch from a course of action because of wothe testified to want of spirit and perseverance; the dreamer thus feels he should not be weakly ‘put off’ by the dangers and difficulties the stream unexpectedly presents.

155   Cf. Rowlande and Ottuell 49, ‘Bot now come tham newe note one hande’ (i.e. something else came up to occupy the attention) and WA 4918, ‘And namely a new note neghis on hand’.

163  bleaunt: an overgarment of costly silken stuff, associated with the courtly echelons of high society (cf. G 879, 1928).

165  gold … schere: cf. 213, where the girl’s hair shines like schorne gold. The verb probably represents ‘shear’ [cut], the reference being to the practice of cutting gold into thin strips to make gold thread or fil d’or (Gordon). The comparison of hair with such gold wire was a standard one (cf. Harley Lyrics 7/12, Pistel of Susan 192, MED gold adj 2(a)) and underlies the schorne gold of 213. It is easy to see why the colour and thread-like texture of fair hair might elicit the analogy. But the ground of the comparison at 165 seems to be simply shine, as with the explicit comparison of the riverbanks with fil d’or at 106. The verbs in the three cases (brent, schon, schon) give a similar emphasis.

166  schore: see n. to 107.

170  fonte occurs in the MS at 327 as past participle of ‘find’, and is construed as such here by Gordon and subsequent editors, who gloss ‘noticed’ or ‘perceived’. But the line must then be read as a somewhat redundant parenthesis (‘once I had caught sight of her fair person’). OED and MED include fonte here under fonden [test, examine], which follows on more aptly from the preceding line: ‘The more I frayste [examined] her fair face, (and) when I had scrutinized her fair form … ’ The alliterative collocation of fonte (< fonden) and frayste goes back to OE (Soliloquies of St Augustine 35) and survived into the fifteenth century, when it occurs in Towneley Plays 4.53 (‘My servand I will found and frast’).

172  ‘As had been but little wont to do so before’ is the sense suggested by Gordon and A&W. However, the position of little, preceding before rather than wont, indicates that we are here dealing with the common expression little ere, little before [a short time previously] (see OED little adv C.2). The dreamer experiences a full-hearted joy such as, before her recent death, the girl had regularly made him feel – and her identity is thus confirmed partly in the re-experience of feelings formerly associated with her.

178  white as playn yvore: whiteness of skin (an attribute of ideal female beauty) often attracted comparisons with ivory, whale’s bone (212), snow, lilies (195, 753), and ivory (cf. Chaucer, Book of the Duchess 946); the precise comparison with playn [smooth, polished] ivory does not occur elsewhere in ME, but is found in French (e.g. ‘Le front blanc et poli con ivoire planés’: Venus, stanza 158). With regard to the face, rosiness, rich red, or commingled white and red in blande (G 952, 1205), were often commended, but that common notion is here excluded in favour of the pure whiteness that furthers the identification of child with pearl, though in terms still consistent with the courtly beauty which functions to convey her spiritual refinement to her father’s mortal understanding.

179  atount is nowhere else attested. We assume (with Gordon) derivation from OF atoner, a synonym of estoner. The alternative is to emend to astount, but astound does not occur in the MS, which consistently has sto(w)ned.

182  stille can mean both ‘without noise’ and ‘without motion’, and, in view of the coming comparison with the hawk (184), the sense ‘submissively’ (cf. Pa 402, G 2385) is also in play: the dreamer is the tamed ‘creature’ of the vision before him, as tautly attentive to its minutest detail as a hawk to its master’s slightest hint (184).

184  hende meant ‘courteous’ or ‘gracious’ when applied to equals or superiors, but when used of inferiors had a sense closer to its etymon, OE gehende [at hand], which denoted a ‘prompt’ and ‘obedient’ retainer. The hawk often figures in scenes set within hall (e.g. Beowulf 2263–4, CT I.2204); its highly trained obedience would have been especially necessary indoors, and ‘as hende as hawk in (living quarters)’ was semi-proverbial (cf. Harley Lyrics 6/28). The special aptness of the comparison at this point is explained in 183: the wide eyes and closed beak of the tamed and silent bird of prey provide a visual emblem of the compulsive looking and paralysed dumbness of the dreamer. The simile invites comparison with that of the paralysed quail (1085) and of the stricken beast (345–6). All imply an elemental intensity of shock in a lower order of being: in the world in which the mourner finds himself, he stands as do brute beasts (or madmen: 267, 290, 359, 1166) to rational humans in this world.

185   gostly often means ‘spiritual’, and may do so here. But since the dreamer does not yet know that it is his daughter’s heavenly spirit that he sees before him (cf. 282), the sense may rather be – as when it is used to describe speech from a severed head (G 2461) – ‘supernatural, spooky’: the dumbstruck dreamer suspects (as do the speechless and mesmerized courtiers of Camelot: G 240) that there is something paranormal at work. purpose means either ‘agency’ (an extension of the attested senses of ‘intention’, ‘cause’) or perhaps ‘manifestation, phenomenon’, in accord with the sense of the corresponding verb (i.e. ‘offer, present, make outwardly manifest’: MED purposen 3(d), (f)).

189   withouten galle recalls the perle withouten spot of the first section. galle is found in the general sense of ‘(spot of) filth, scum’ only in this corpus of poems (cf. 915, 1060 and Pa 285); other ME usages derive from the two senses (‘bile’, ‘inflamed spot’) of OE gealla.

190   So smothe, so smal: the description of the girl identifies her with the lost pearl, So smal, so smothe (6); smal has the double sense ‘small’ and (of a person) ‘slender’ (see n. to 6). slyght, glossed ‘slender’ by previous editors, and by OED and MED, does not otherwise occur in that sense with reference to personal physical build until much later. Its regular ME sense of ‘smooth, even, of sleek and glossy surface’, is perfectly acceptable in context, where it reinforces smothe. Both adjectives, when applied to people, were generally predicated of skin. The girl’s person is thus described by three epithets that assimilate her to the pearl that represents her and everywhere adorns her garments.

192ff   The detailed description of the costume and ornamentation of the girl invites comparison with that of the Green Knight (G 151–220): both persons are unexpected figures, whose appearance strikes their viewers dumb (with 182 cf. G 243–5); both are dressed with bejewelled elegance, and the distinctive visual impact they make is created by exclusive concentration (in skin, jewels, clothes) on a single colour; both are of aristocratic status (knight and queen), as is evident simply in the profusion of jewels figuring in their accessories.

195   Both the word fresch and the comparison with a lily figure frequently in references to female beauty: see MED lilie-flour (a) and fresh adj 6a(b); cf. n. to 178.

196  The girl is moving down the opposite sloping bank towards the water’s edge (see n. to 107).

198  bounden: used of fabric to which jewels have been sewn or otherwise attached (cf. G 609).

201  lappes large: long, hanging sleeves were fashionable and bespoke wealth and class: cf. the ‘duchess’ whose gown has ‘ladily lappes, the lenghe of a yerde’ [lappes a yard long, in the manner of a great lady] (MA 3254).

202  double perle: unexplained. Pearls ‘in double rows’ (Gordon) and ‘paired pearls’ (Vantuono) give plausible sense, but posit usages unattested elsewhere. Since double was a common way of signalling a particularly large specimen (MED double adj 5), the meaning may be simply ‘the largest kinds of pearl’. The mourner’s appreciation of the sight before him is coloured by the professional interests of a jeweller: as the girl approaches, he registers his ‘heaven-sent’ opportunity (grace, 194) to see some pretty exceptional pearls, and the emphasis in the description falls decidedly (as in the comparable description of the Green Knight in G 151ff) on the jewellery and precious metalwork of her ensemble. There was at this period a close link between the clothing and jewellery professions, a link at its most evident in the fashionable taste for jewel-studded dress; indeed, pearls were normally pierced, partly for those purposes (Campbell 1991: 139, 151).

205–9  The crown has a double spiritual significance which is explained later (445–56, 767–8), as is that of the girl’s clothing (767–9, 791). At this stage, the ‘worth’ it betokens is conveyed to the dreamer through the medium of secular and courtly value, what he sees, with a goldsmith’s eye, being very much a real crown, and one which is technically described: the component ‘parcels’ of a crown are listed precisely as pinacles, flowres [fleurons] and stones in a document of 1430 (quoted in MED sv pinacle (b)). See also the magnificent pearl crown (with pinnacles and fleurons), probably belonging to Anne of Bohemia (Richard II’s queen): Saul 1999: plate 16. flurted is not recorded in ME, but the verb occurs in OF with the meaning ‘adorn with floral motifs’; cf. the reference to a shield fleureté de fleur de lys (cited in DMF sv fleureter I.A).

205  gyrle: both ME senses of the word are relevant here. The original application of the word was to a ‘child’ (of either sex); but the sense ‘young woman’ was also current by this date. For the reader (who does not yet know that this is the spirit of a toddler), the first meaning appears ruled out by the very unpuerile nature of a figure possessing the composure and gravity of a magnate (211). The word thus represents both what the girl was and what she has become.

209   werle: conjecturally derived (by OED) from wear + le and glossed ‘covering, attire’, and (by MED) from OE waerlan [turn, go] and so perhaps indicating a ‘circlet’.

210   The MS reads Her lere leke … , on which much editorial ingenuity has been expended. Gordon emends lere to here [hair], producing good sense, if stilted syntax (‘Her hair enclosed – lying all around her – her semblaunt’, etc), but this removes the alliteration and anticipates the hair (which seems not to be dealt with until 213). MED adopts the interpretation of lere leke as an (otherwise unattested) compound (face-lake [fine linen]) and glosses ‘wimple’; but this leaves 210–13 without a finite verb, and contradicts the poet’s clear statement that the girl had no other covering on her head save the crown (209, 214). The insertion of hit between lere and leke, and the interpretation of leke as past tense of louken [lock: cf. G 1830], make it possible to retain both alliterating words in a way that makes sense in context. The dreamer’s eyes are moving down from the crown to the face framed by it, and the three successive near-synonyms (lere, semblaunt, ble) in 210–12 create a pause on this central feature, so compelling in its whiteness and gravity. Louken and umbe-go had connections with, respectively, the setting of jewels and decoration: framed by the crown (and by the loose-hanging hair), the white face increasingly resembles a pearl set in gold (cf. 1–2 and 215–16).

212–13   Both comparisons were traditional in the praise of beautiful women: see e.g. Harley Lyrics 9/1, 7/12. See also nn. to 165 and 178.

214   unlapped [uncovered, unwrapped]: the emphasis on this point (cf. 209) is significant. Only young, unmarried girls – and, apparently, brides and queens – wore their hair loose. All other adult women (i.e. wives and religious) by convention wore hair-coverings. The girl’s uncovered hair is thus consonant both with the age of innocence and maidenhood at which she died and with the royal and bridal status into which she has therefore been translated (Lucas 1977).

217   poyned (from French poignet) is a semi-technical term that a draper-jeweller might use (see n. to 202): all other recorded instances of the word occur in (mostly French or Latin) factual and formal documents (wardrobe accounts, inventories, glossaries, etc).

220   burnist: not ‘polished’ (Gordon) but ‘decorated with shiny matter’, as when banners or hangings were said to be ‘burnished’ with gold (cf. MED burnishen (d)). The line thus provides, not an unnecessary reminder of the bright white of the girl’s clothing interrupting an account of the white pearls set on it, but a summary of the previous three lines: ‘And (thus) it was with white (gems) that her apparel was brightly set off’.

221–2   As with her dress and crown (see n. to 205–9), this pearl – literally and figuratively central to the girl’s parure – is to be endowed with spiritual symbolism in section XIII (733–42); but it too is seen at this point simply as so ideal a pearl as to defy description even by the connoisseur who beholds it (223–6). Since it is described as set (cf. pyght, 742) at the centre of her breast, this arch-pearl probably takes the form of an institched brooch rather than a pendant.

223   demme: interpreted by previous editors as the verb demmen [dam] and glossed ‘be frustrated, be baffled’, etc. But no such metaphorical usage of that verb is recorded anywhere else. It is more likely to be the verb dimmen [become dim, grow dark], for ‘darkening’ is a common metaphor in expressions denoting failure of intellectual ‘sight’ (see MED sv derken 5(b)). Spellings showing the lowering of i to e are not uncommon (cf. WA 561, 905, 3477). See also n. to demmed at C 384.

224   Cf. ‘And make the mater to malt my mynde withinne’ [and make the sense (of the writing) present to my mind] (C 1566). The purport of the mysterious message does not yet ‘melt’ into Belshazzar’s mind (cf. ‘sink in’ in ModE), while the dreamer of Pearl conversely feels the impossibility of his mynde ‘melting into’ the wonder perle (221).

225   endure: for the sense ‘have power enough to extend to’, ‘suffice’, cf. the reference in Walton’s Boethius 3.pr.8 to the want of X-ray vision in human eyes, ‘wiche mowe noght endure What that thou art withynne forth for to see’ (p. 159).

226   saverly: glossed ‘fitting, adequate’ (Gordon, A&W, MED), but the adjective surely means ‘wise’ or ‘demonstrating a true mental sense of the matter’: cf. MED savour 7(a) (‘knowledge, understanding’), savouren v 8 (‘know, comprehend, understand’) and ‘who evere wol understonde the wordes of Crist plainly and saverely … ’ (Imitatione Christi 2).

230   doun the schore: i.e. down the opposite sloping bank towards the water’s edge; cf. 166, 107 and n.

233   nerre then aunt or nece: the first unambiguous indication to the audience that the bond attaching the bereaved ‘jeweller’ to his ‘pearl’ is one of kinship rather than romance; since the criterion of ‘nearness’ here alluded to is plainly that of blood-relationship with a female, the line suggests the pearl was a daughter or sister (the former being the more probable object of the violent affliction and of the possessive relationship indicated by ‘my pearl’). That the bereavement was that of an infant daughter is still to be revealed (483).

235  profered is usually glossed ‘offered’; but, in a poem so minutely attentive to sequence, the anticipation of the actual greeting in 238 would be anomalous. Profer here indicates preparation for, or signal of an invitation to, a forthcoming action (see MED profren 3(a), (b), (f) and 5); the verb characterizes the ensuing actions and brief greeting (236–8) as an offer of readiness for interchange (profered me speche = offered me an opportunity for speech), but one which (with model filial decorum) leaves the father to initiate it. spyce was a common term of praise for a lady: cf. Harley Lyrics 3/31–40.

238  The girl’s lyght [pleasant, good-humoured] tone is also a mark of her courtly poise; hevinesse [moroseness, melancholy] in social intercourse was often deprecated: ‘Be stabulle of chere and sumwhat lyght’ is the advice given in Boke of Curtesye 321.

244  longing (cf. 1180) was often used, not precisely in the sense of ‘yearning’, but with more general reference to ‘grief’ occasioned by care for, and anxiety about, a loved person – who, in this oeuvre, is actually never a sweetheart, but a relative (as here and at C 779 and 1003) or a loved and valued friend (G 540).

245  aglyghte: the form with prefix is found only here. Glyghte is used in the other poems of this MS, and elsewhere, to mean ‘glanced, looked’ (see Pa 453, G 842, 970; cf. MED glien 2); in Pearl alone is it used (as verbs of such sense often were) of light (‘glistened’: 114) and (with prefix, in the present line) of movement (‘slid’).

254  gray: always used to describe the colour of the eyes of a typical medieval beauty; cf. the reference to the beautiful Guinevere with iyen gray at G 82. Though it is often surmised that the colour meant must have been blue or blue-grey, instructions for painting eyes actually specify the mixing of white and black (to obtain veneda) (Theophilus 7).

257  Sir, ye: the form of deference to the authority of a father is again preserved in the pearl’s model courtesy: in the title of respect (Sir) and in the pronouns (ye, your) with which she addresses him. But, just as she soon replaces (255) the crown she had politely doffed (237), equally soon does she drop the daughter’s upward ye for the teacher’s downward thou (263–4) – a form of address which no fourteenth-century child would normally have used to a parent, though it would have been very natural from a father to a daughter (and is at first the one this father instinctively uses: see 242ff). The concise yet discreet word mysetente [misheeded] is not recorded elsewhere.

259  cofer was a term used (as was forser at 263) to describe chests in which valuables were stored. The vessels of bejewelled precious metal in Cleanness are stored in coferes (1428), which are also referred to as the natural receptacle for gemmes and iuwels at WA 4164 (‘nouthire gemmes ne iuwels in cofirs’).

264  gentyl jueler: the girl takes up the jewel–jeweller logic, but the vocabulary of courtliness is shifted by her from material to moral, as indicated by the move from gemmes gent (253) to gentyl jueler. She urges on her father a gentyl [gracious] response to events: only a petulant jeweller could not accept and appreciate the safe-keeping coffer (263) generously provided for one of his jewels.

267–75  The force of the ME adjective mad is rather different from that of its ModE counterpart. It implies here ‘extravagantly foolish to the point of perverseness’, for the girl’s argument postulates a perversity of response re-emphasized in the antitheses of 274–5: the jeweller views as a ‘theft’ an event that created something out of the nothing he lost and so supplied a gem he did not have, a bote [remedy] which he complains of as a meschef [injury].

271  kyst [chest] continues and extends the metaphor introduced in the previous verse (cofer, forser: 259, 263), by which the pearl’s new location is represented as a ‘jewel-box’, not only gracefully appropriate to her (259–60), but actually transforming her (271–2) into the jewel it worthily safeguards.

272  of pris and put in pref correspond to the words pretium [price, value] and probare [to assay, test, prove the authenticity of] that recur in lapidaries. This semi-technical register reinforces the girl’s logic: before her death, she was not a gemme (266), being a ‘precious pearl’ only in her father’s fond imagination; it was her death that authenticated that metaphor, acting as the jeweller’s assay or pref to validate an analogy which previously had nothing in kynde [nature] to substantiate it. For the kynde (270) which ruled the earth where the girl lived, and where things flowred and fayled, determined her as a perishable rose (269), not a gemme; the kynde of the present kyst (271) is different, and can give her the status of a jewel of pris (272). The lines imply that an entity is determined by the kynde of its context, which also determines the correct metaphor for what is contained within it (perishable ‘rose’ or durable and precious ‘pearl’).

274  Cf. ‘God … that … gonne the world make, And of naught madest aught … ’ (PP B.5.481–2).

276  kynde has here double force. Its appeal is partly (as with gentyl at 264) to courtly values: in resenting an event which created a pearl for him ex nihilo (274), the jeweller is being ungracious (cf. OED kind adj 8: ‘grateful, thankful’). But he is also acting counter to kynde [nature], i.e. behaving as a most ‘unnatural’ jeweller, in taking it ill when presented with a pearl he did not before have.

277–8   juel … jueles: jewel was commonly used figuratively to convey the value of something, as with the reference to the girdle at G 1856 as a juel for the joparde the knight is about to face (MED jeuel 2(a)). The idiom is here applied, to punning effect, to the reassurance the mourner has just received from his ‘pearl’; the sense is thus ‘She and her courtly words were indeed jewels to me at that moment’.

290  mad in the context of bourde [jest] has the sense ‘wanton, madcap’ (MED mad adj 3(b)); cf. ‘ye shall hyre the myrryeste [most facetious] knyght that ever ye spake wythall and the maddyst talker’ (Malory 693); the girl (who must know the dreamer spoke in earnest, not in jest) is thus using the word in a different sense and with more sarcastic force than at 267.

294  In its forceful brevity, the line has an idiomatic, proverbial ring to it. But no other instance of the traditional alliterative pairing of word and wyt to serve this point is recorded in Whiting.

300  joyful: the adjective the ‘jeweller’ himself has focused on (252, 288) – as opposed to those the girl has urged on his attention (gentyl and kynde: 264, 276) – is picked up by the latter only to mark, with dismissive irony, its irrelevance: being joyful is not a passport across the divide into her world; more promising access (of a limited kind) is through the route suggested by her own adjectives.

303  uncortayse: the first of the jeweller’s ‘errors’ is presented, not as a theological failure of faith in the assurances of Holy Writ, but as a social failure in courtesy which insults an honourable lord by implicitly impugning his veracity and reliability (304).

305  your lif to rayse: the reference is to the promises of an afterlife in Scripture, and lif here is comparable to Vulgate usage of anima, a word for ‘life’ that is also used to refer to ‘soul’ or ‘spirit’ as opposed to caro, the corruptible flesch (306). The expression might also have been suggested by Jonah 2:7 (et sublevabis de corruptione vitam meam), a text certainly well known to the poet of Patience.

307  westernays: unexplained. A form of OF bestorneis [turned round, reversed] – which, because it ‘could be applied to a church which faced west instead of east’ (Gordon), has been influenced by west – is an elegant conjecture often repeated. Weste [empty] ernest [pledge] – suggested by Hillmann (1943) – is plausible ME and gives the sense required in context, but does not very well fit the syntactic frame setten … ful. For set in the sense ‘rate’, cf. line 8.

309  a poynt of sorquydrye: in theological contexts, sorquydrye figured (in the sense ‘presumption’ or ‘overweening’) as a subdivision of the deadly sin of pride, occurring ‘when a man demeth himself more worthi than he is’ (Myrour to Lewde Men 106), and one instance or poynt (309) of it lies in the egotism that trusts only to its own judgement (cf. 311–12): ‘Be not selfwitty, ne surquyderous, but be buxom to resceyve and bileve all good counsaile’ (226).

315  bayle, originally the outer wall or outer courtyard of a castle or keep, is consistent with the courtliness in terms of which heaven is imagined in this poem.

318–24  Cf. St Brendan’s journey to the Land of Promise, where he and his monks encounter a ‘fayre rever’ they dare not cross, and are told that ‘this water that thu seyst here departith the worlde asondre. And in that other syde of this water maye no man come while he is here in this lyffe’ (Brendan 271). In Pearl, this river = ‘death’ remains, throughout their encounter, as a narrative and visual analogue to the felt limitations of this reunion and communion between a mortal and a non-mortal.

340  mo: a small liberty for rhyming purposes: more would be the form consistent with the normal usage observed elsewhere in the MS, in which mo is otherwise always reserved for the sense ‘more in number’.

344–8  The sturdily pragmatic reasons here advanced for acceptance of God’s will are reminiscent of Patience, as is the alliterative antithesis of thole and thro and the verb abide (348; cf. Pa 5–8).

345–8  daunce, Braundysch and bray are all verbs associated with animal responses (to alarm, distress, etc), the metaphor here being that of the last and futile wild movements of the do (the female deer, more frequently hunted than the male, which was protected in the ‘close season’: cf. G 1156–7). As the hounds close in upon the deer, it leaps and tosses and cries out, but eventually finds all space for manoeuvre cut off, and is brought to bay. The primary meaning of abide at 348 is ‘suffer, undergo’, but the sense ‘come to a halt’ (MED abiden 6) is also relevant to the passive stillness in which the wildly active movements of the animal must necessarily terminate, at which point it must ‘bide the bay’ – as the mourner must ‘bide the (metaphorical) blow’ (in both of which connections abide was regularly used: cf. G 1450, 1564, 1582; 290, 1754; Pa 7).

346  brathes breme: the singular form brath [force, impetus] is not infrequently used of rage; the plural is, however, unusual, and the plural of a noun generally used in the singular can have a somewhat dismissive or reductive effect: ‘all your towering passions’.

349  Deme Dryhtyn: Demend [judge, decreer] was in OE a common title for God; to Deme Dryhtyn thus suggests a logical absurdity which is further emphasized by the elaboration of the specifically legal connotations of deme: adyte [indict, arraign: 349], mendes [compensation, redress: 351], flyte [dispute: 353] also had legal senses. Protesting at the course of events ordained by Providence, is, the girl implies, like getting litigious with God, which is unlikely to intimidate Him and will not result in any ‘damages’ to the plaintiff.

358  leme: none of the attested meanings of the verb (‘shine, give off light’) produces satisfactory sense for this line, which MED instead assigns to lemen v^1 – a different and rare verb of uncertain meaning, apparently indicating ‘to injure’ in some way. The special sense deduced by MED (of … lemen = drive away, drive off) is not found anywhere else. Gordon emends to fleme [put to flight] and glosses of fleme ‘banish’. But fleme is usually constructed with prepositional of [out of] + noun (cf. 334), not adverbial of [off, away]. It is probably vain, in fact, to seek sense by minor emendation or ingenious glossing of leme, since something seems to have got dropped in the middle of the line, which has, as it stands, only three stresses.

359  marre or madde: the collocation occurs also at Awntyrs 110; in collocation with mourne, mithen means ‘to conceal or suppress one’s feelings’ (MED mithen v^1).

361  damyselle referred strictly to a female of rank who was not yet a dame (a mistress of property) through inheritance or marriage; but it was often used in a more general sense of any young girl (not known to be married) of gentle birth.

368  endorde: formerly assumed to represent a form (otherwise unattested) of ‘adored’. The only other immediately obvious possibility is a form of the OF verb endorer [to gild]; though it occurs in ME only in the culinary sense ‘to glaze’, the poet could credibly have assumed familiarity with the wider application of the verb in French, and a gloss of ‘gold-adorned’ was proposed by Ronberg 1976. But the mineral adornment of the girl’s costume is declared most emphatically to be exclusively white pearl (206, 219); if the verb is from OF endorer, the sense must be metaphorical.

371  This is a mini allegory. ‘To make accord’ was to settle the differences between antagonistic parties. The girl has by her death created regular coexistence and association between two ‘enemies’ (a man and the sorrow that is naturally inimical to him). The mourner is trying to indicate that some kindness, rather than severity, is due to a state she has herself reduced him to, and the rhetorical conceit transforms potential accusation into wry compliment.

375  wroken fro uch a wothe [delivered from every peril]: in the course of explaining his bewildered grief (cf. 376), the mourner makes his mortal’s point – in less uninhibited terms than in his first outcry to the girl (244–50) – that it was precisely when she was removed from human passibility and contingency that the anguish which it causes and which she now dismisses was felt in full force by him.

382  maneres: none of the attempts to make sense of MS marereȝ are convincing, and word is commonly emended to maneres.

401  The line is suspect: it is a syllable short and has clashing stress (inevitable in high pryde), which is elsewhere markedly avoided (MS hyȝe has an unjustified -e which is simply graphic). Since 401–2 are close in sentiment to Proverbs 21:4, An high look, and a proud heart [dilatio cordis] … is sin, it is possible that the original read hertes pryde, the English equivalent of the biblical expression dilatio cordis and superbia cordis (for which see also Isaiah 9:9, Jeremiah 49:16, Obadiah 3).

403  My lord: the possessive the girl does not use with reference to her father is bestowed instead on her lord (cf. 407). In view of the following stanza, the term probably carries the added sense of ‘husband’, and the pearl’s identification of herself with the interests of that lord has thus a double domestic logic.

406  mekenisse (MS mekenesse): the emendation is indicated by the rhyme with blisse. Variation in forms of the suffix occur in both OE (-nes, -nis, -nys) and ME. The scribe obviously normalized to the form in e always elsewhere used in the MS.

407  the Lamb: in its consistent use of the iconographic symbol of the Lamb to designate Christ, the poem is mainly following Revelation. Rev. 14 is the source of the notion of the ‘followers of the Lamb’, an élite in heaven among whom the girl is later revealed to be numbered; but the Apocalyptic significance of the Lamb is not fully apparent at this point, where the commendation of meekness provides sufficient contextual reason for the selection of the word.

410  stage: glossed ‘degree’ or ‘rank’ by Gordon and A&W. But, since that is not self-evidently what the father has indicated he ‘would like to know’, and since it is clear from 447ff that the royal dignity the girl ascribes to herself is not, in heaven, a ‘degree’ but a condition common to all, the word is probably being used in the sense of OF estage (‘form, situation, way of life’).

411  schede: for the use of the verb to refer to the separation of soul from body at death, cf. ‘Thanne shullen the soules of the goode, Whanne thei fro the body schede …’ (Sidrak L 9208–9).

415  Corounde me quene: the mystical marriage-coronation by the Lamb is twice described in the poem: in the present instance, it turns out (447ff) to represent the crown granted to all the saved; but at 762–92, it is given Apocalyptic significance as a distinction bestowed specifically on that ‘innocence’ which is the defining characteristic of the élite group who are the brides of the Lamb. brede is a verb often applied to plant life, in which context (though variously assigned in dictionaries to the separate verbs breden = ‘spread, extend’, breden = ‘breed’) it can mean ‘rise up, spread, grow’ (cf. C 1482), or ‘be in bloom’ (see brædan in Anglo-Saxon Dictionary and OED breed v 12c). Lines 414–16 thus suggest that the girl was granted in heaven the full extension of a biological life cut short on earth (411–12), complemented by full realization (416–20) of all its similarly aborted social potential, expressed here in terms of courtly status and values.

416  wage: the intransitive use of the verb is anomalous, and none of the senses recorded for it in ME really fit this context.

429–30  synglerty refers, not merely to a property of the phoenix, but also to what was supposed to be the meaning of the word: phoenix is explained by Isidore of Seville as an Arabic word meaning ‘singular’ (Etymologies XII.vii.22; cf. Trevisa, Properties I, 625). The comparison between Mary (uniquely mater et virgo) and the phoenix occurs elsewhere (Fletcher 1921: 15). It could also be used of other women in a secular context: Fenice, in Chrétien’s Cligés, is declared to have been well named, for she was as singular as the bird in her peerless beauty (2685–91); and in Chaucer’s Book of the Duchess, the knight likens his dead lady, in her incomparability, to the ‘soleyn fenix of Arabye, For ther livyth never but oon’ (982–3).

431  freles … of her Fasor: freles, which appears to mean ‘without fault’, does not occur elsewhere; it has been conjecturally derived from frele [frailty, weakness] + less (by Emerson 1927 and MED) and from ON frýjulaust (by Gordon). Emendation to fereles [without mate, matchless], suggested by Hamilton 1958: 187, is supported by A&W on the grounds that ‘the emphasis in this passage is on … uniqueness’. But matchlessness or synglerty (429) is in this poem always associated with spotlessness (cf. 4–8 and the mascelles/makelles concatenation at 732–81); and, unless 431–2 simply repeats the point made in 429–30, a new point of comparison would be appropriate: the freles (= flawless) quality of the bird makes it additionally Like (432) the Blessed Virgin by suggesting immediately the latter’s traditional epithet of ‘immaculate’. of her Fasor [creator] implies that the bird was as specially privileged by God the Creator of the physical world as Mary was in the spiritual realm by the God of Grace. Since the rhyme here is on French-derived nouns of masculine gender in -or, rather than feminine ones in -ure, Fasor must represent faisor (‘maker’, and in theological contexts ‘Creator’: see AND sv faisour) rather than faisure (‘make, form, fashion’), which occurs as fasure at 1084 (see further Hillmann 1943).

432  courtaysye forms in this poem a ground of analogy between temporal and divine values; in this section – where, as a concatenating word, it becomes in a specific formal sense a key connective – it is thus used to refer to the specifically theological virtues of charity (457ff) and grace.

439  pray could mean simply ‘acquisition’ (cf. Douglas, Aeneid X.Prol.145, ‘Thou [God] art my pryce, mak me thy praye condyng’; cf. William 64); but the primary sense (‘spoils, booty’) is relevant to the paradox described: though no one is dispossessed (440), there are spoils for all (439).

441  emperise: since those who acknowledge Mary as their lady [mistress: 453] are all monarchs, Mary herself has not mere monarchy, but ‘empire’ (cf. 454), i.e. dominion over multiple sovereignties. There is thus here a special reason for the use of a not uncommon title given to the Virgin (for other examples of Mary as ‘empress’, and of the notion of her triple dominion over heaven, earth and Hell, see MED emperesse 2(b)).

444, 456  At 443–4 the refrain quene of courtaysye turns the father’s objection (that Mary alone, as the acknowledged quene of courtaysye, 432, could be queen of heaven) back on itself by drawing into play a second sense of quene (‘the supreme example of a thing … a model of a particular virtue’: MED quene n^2 3(b)): it is precisely because she is ‘queen of courtaysye’ that Mary would never deprive others of the heavenly crown due to them. There is a similar double sense to the phrase at 456: Mary’s superiority is not resented by others (455) because she is both (a) the rightful queen of divine grace; and (b) the epitome of that graciousness that annuls offence.

445  God alyve: an apparently independent variation on the standard phrase (imitated from Vulgate deus vivus) liviende/living God (see MED sv living(e ppl adj 1(c)).

447–8  The common image of the ‘crown’ of heaven gained by each blessed soul is of biblical origin: see e.g. James 1:12 and Rev. 2:10.

449  For depryve in the specific sense ‘depose’ (MED depriven (b)) cf. C 1227, 1738.

455  gyng: often used of a band of personal followers, a retinue, or household: MED ging(e 1(b). Used of the court (445) of heaven (as of the court of Camelot at G 225), it stresses the corporate nature of life and identity in heaven.

457ff  Now there are diversities of gifts, but the same Spirit … For as the body is one, and hath many members, and all the members of that one body, being many, are one body: so also is Christ. For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body, whether we be Jews or Gentiles, whether we be bond or free (1 Corinthians 12:4–13). The Pauline metaphor serves a different purpose in the Bible, where it urges a sense of oneness to counter divisive reaction to an apparent disparity in gifts (we cannot all be prophets or have the gift of tongues); in the poem, it explains an existing unity that prevents dissatisfaction with the equality of a common supremacy in which no one is in fact superior (since all are kings and queens). This scriptural image emphasizes the notion of the more corporate nature of identity in the heavenly court (see n. to 455), the social ideal expressed by the word courtaysye becoming conflated with the perfect charity denoted by the mystical incorporation in God referred to by Paul.

460  The original sense of Temen is ‘breed, beget’; but it could also refer to a reverse (metaphorical) extension of identity: ‘accept as leader, give allegiance to, belong to the party of’ (MED temen v^1 2(c); cf. C 9). The image here is thus of the limbs as true and tryste ‘adherents’ of their master (the body) – the obverse of the metaphor of every follower of the Mayster as (462) a mystical ‘limb’ of His spiritual entity. tryste: none of the efforts to make sense of MS tyste (see Vantuono) are convincing; Gordon’s emendation to tryste is supported by the frequent alliterative collocation of true and trayst/trest/trist [trusty, reliable]: see Oakden 1935: 340 and cf. G 2348 (‘And thou trystely the trauthe and truly me holdes’).

462  myste: arguing that spelling and rhyme militate against the possibility that this represents ME might [power], Gordon and later scholars posit unattested words meaning either ‘mystery’ (Gordon and A&W) or ‘ministry’ (Murtaugh 1971). However, mist = ‘might’ is securely attested in Central-West Midland texts; cf. ‘moder thou art of muchel mist’ (‘Prayer of the Five Joys’ 2). Since the poet, for metrical purposes, elsewhere uses forms from West Midland dialects further south than his own (Putter and Stokes 2007), a dialect form of might is an unproblematic assumption.

465  gryste: the noun is obviously from the verb gristen [grind the teeth], but is otherwise attested only in an OE glossary, where it glosses Latin stridor and means ‘gnashing’ (see OED grist n^1).

472  A line here has plainly been lost. Marks at the end of line 473 in the MS suggest someone noticed the omission.

477–8  penaunce was used in the broader sense of ‘suffering’ as well as the narrower one of ‘penance’: the bodyly bale referred to is both voluntary mortification of the flesh and patient endurance of adversity.

483  The line provides the first specific indication of the age at which the girl died, rendering explicit the previous emphasis on yong (ful yong, so yong: 412, 474).

485  The Pater Noster and the Creed, together with the Ave Maria, were the prayers which every layman was supposed to know (cf. G 757–8) and which were the first prayers taught to children and the first texts encountered, after the alphabet, in learning to read (Orme 2006: 59; Clanchy 1993: 247). The point is that the girl had not lived long enough to acquire even the rudiments of the Christian faith.

488  The etymological sense of wrong (which is related to wring) is ‘crooked, twisted’. Though the adverb was already being used in the broad moral sense of ModE ‘wrongly’, it also had senses closer to its original one, and in directional contexts conveyed ‘taking a wrong turning’ (cf. ‘al wrang I have mysgon’ in Chaucer’s Reeve’s Tale: CT I.4252). The word here is thus a semi-pun, belonging to both the vehicle and the tenor of the metaphor of ‘deviating from the path’ used to express the concept of God acting ‘wrongly’.

489–92  For the female ranking here implied (queen, countess, lady), cf. ‘Wele mare falles untill a quene Than til a countays … And mare til a countays body Than to anothir simple lady, And mare til hir that men lady calles Than to a symple woman falles’ (Speculum Vitae 10633–8).

489  damysel here suggests exactly the put-down that would be implied if a modern father were to use the modern equivalent (‘young lady’) as a term of address to his daughter.

490  fayr: for the social sense here and its application to rank (cf. OED fair adj A.3), cf. ‘To be called a knight is fair … To be called a kyng is fairer’ (PP B.19.28–9).

497  Cf. Pa 9–10 and C 51, where there is the same implication that a text about to be paraphrased will have come to notice because it formed one of the Gospel readings for a particular Mass. The parable of the vineyard (Matthew 20:1–16) was the reading for the Mass of Septuagesima Sunday (third Sunday before Lent).

498  MED, sv almight adj (a), records other instances of this form of ‘almighty’ as applied to God (all in rhyme, where it obviously formed a useful variant).

499  This absolute use of gesse is anomalous. It cannot here mean ‘conjecture’ (something which God is presumably never reduced to). It possibly represents an extension of the use of the word as an equivalent of Latin aestimare to mean ‘estimate’ or ‘evaluate (amounts, values, etc)’ (MED gessen 2(b) and (c)): ‘he makes in a parable a most just estimation (of reward due)’ would be consistent with the defence of God’s justice in this stanza (495–6), and with the reply the parable constitutes to the dreamer’s charge (469ff) that heavenly rewards, distributed on the system described to him, misestimate relative values.

500  lyknes hit to: by contrast with ModE, this phrasal verb could be used with the similitude as direct object and the application of it as indirect object, in which form it was thus equivalent to ‘applies (a proverb, parable, etc) to’: cf. CT III.368–70.

504  The verb labor was often used in agricultural contexts with the sense ‘work on (soil, crops, plants, etc) so as to make fruitful’ (cf. OED labour v I.1). dere is glossed variously by editors as ‘right’, ‘good’, ‘excellent’, but the sense here seems to be ‘all-important, crucially relevant’ – a meaning consistent with other instances in this group of poems in which dere refers to what critically affects or concerns someone or something: cf. C 214 (‘Dryhtyn with His dere dome him drof to the abyme’), 683, 1604; StE 193. Cf. also the sense ‘having great import or significance’ instanced in OED (from Shakespeare alone) sv dere adj^1 II.4b.

505ff  these: here used exophorically to refer, not to persons already mentioned, but to a class familiar to writer and reader from the world outside the text – a usage common in ME (cf. ‘these true knightes’ at G 1514). This reference to surviving realities of the agricultural year and the work it brings is consistent with the realistic detail in which the events of the parable are imagined as a visualizably familiar scenario (there is no equivalent in the Vulgate to 503–5, 511–12 or the dialogue at 515–21); the historic present used at 508–14 contributes to this effect. The parable would in any case have been broadly recognizable in terms of the labour conditions it describes. ‘Day-labourers’ formed a well-known category in fourteenth-century society. As in the parable, they were paid in the evening (‘i the eventid hwen me yelt wercmen hare deies hure’ [in the evening, when labourers are given their daily wage]: Ancrene Wisse 152), while the rate of a penny a day accords with the wage for agricultural labour at haymaking time as fixed by the Statute of Labourers of 1351 and subsequent legislation (Bowers 2001: 47).

509  The line forms the only entry in MED for this application of the verb decline. The expression is perhaps an inventive variation on the use of fall in similar contexts (‘they fell at one’, ‘she fell of his accord’, etc: see MED fallen 25(e) and 26, and OED accord n 1b).

512  Kerven and caggen: vineyards were still common in England in the poet’s day, and day-labourers were hired ‘to prune and tie up’ the vines, etc (Power 1922: 158). man hit clos: cf. ‘(A vineyard) is closed aboute with walles and with hegges, and a wayte [watch, guard] is there ysette in an hih place to kepe the vyneyerde that the fruyt be nought destroyed’ (Trevisa, Properties II, 1073–4).

513  under: undern was an early term for terce, one of the seven canonical hours (Matins, Prime, Terce (9.00 a.m.), Sext, Nones, Vespers, Compline) whose names were used (in the centuries before timepieces became common) to refer to times of day; Aboute under renders circa horam tertiam (Matthew 20:3).

518  soght here means ‘found, got’ (MED sechen 9). As the lord’s question (515–16) was an implied accusation, their answar is probably what was found by them (not from them), i.e. ‘This was the answer they all found (to the charge)’ (cf. Owl and Nightingale 470, 657, 665, 705, 1573).

523  runne: run or run up (in the sense of ‘mount up’) is not uncommon with reference to money, though this is the earliest of the illustrations in MED (sv rennen v^1 19(a)), which include ‘unto the sayde somme of too hundreth marc be fulle ron up’ and ‘unto the tyme that the som of cc marcs be ronne’ (from fifteenth-century documents).

524  pay: Hillmann and Vantuono retain MS pray, but only by producing from 521–4 a sense that much less exactly translates the Vulgate: Ite et vos in vineam meam [Go ye also into the vineyard], et quod justum fuerit dabo vobis [and whatsoever is right I will give you] (Matthew 20:4). in dede and thoght [in act and will] was a formula used to assert good faith and sincere intentions (cf. Troilus III.1053–4).

529–30  The ‘eleventh hour’ of Matthew 20:6 – the origin of the figurative use of the expression (= at the last minute) in ModE – is here referred to by the canonical office that marked that point of the day: Vespers, or evensong, was celebrated an ‘hour’ before sunset – i.e. at the eleventh of the twelve equal portions into which the time of daylight was divided, and which were called ‘hours’, but which actually varied in length according to season (summer ‘hours’ being longer than winter ‘hours’).

542  The reve (an official responsible for the financial administration of an estate) is here the equivalent of Vulgate procurator (Matthew 20:8); the two terms are likewise considered as interchangeable by Langland (PP B.19.260).

545–7  The detail of the rowe, not in the Vulgate, gives ceremonial visibility to the lord’s potentially offensive remunerative priorities and palliates them somewhat by associating them with another less offensive principle observed by him: his exaltation of the ‘lowly’ and ‘humble’ (547).

556  counterfete could be used with implications of falsehood (probably relevant here) to mean ‘falsely imitate’, or without (‘be a copy of’); the line translates et pares illos nobis fecisti [and thou has made them equal unto us] (Matthew 20:12).

560–64  Lines 560–61 and 563–4 are expansions on the Vulgate which result in a greater legalistic emphasis on the lack of any contractual grounds in the complainants’ claim for ‘more’ than their fellows; the legal register of the words covenaunt and plete [plead at law], in particular, lends to 563 the air of a legal maxim by which the plaintiffs are distinctly non-suited.

565–8  Having defended the lawfulness of the wage he has paid the complaining first-comers, the lord now defends the legitimacy of the remuneration bestowed on the later arrivals. The lines correspond to Matthew 20:14–15: I will give unto this last, even as unto thee. Is it not lawful for me to do what I will with mine own? [Aut non licet mihi quod volo, facere?] Is thine eye evil, because I am good?

565  louyly: both context and the word licet in the corresponding passage from the Vulgate (see previous n.) suggest the meaning ‘lawful, legitimate’ – a meaning borne by both laweli and leveli (adjectives derived from ‘law’ and ‘leave’ respectively). Emendation of o to a or e is therefore one possibility (louyly has in fact often been assumed to be a form of lauely, though law- is not recorded elsewhere spelled with o). Another would be to posit an adjective from the verb (al)louen [approve, accept], which also commonly referred to (legal) permission or acceptability; cf. aphetic loues for ‘allows’ at 302.

567  An ‘eye’ that is ‘evil’ is a biblical idiom connoting malice or envy (see A&W, who cite Proverbs 23:6–7 and Deuteronomy 15:9); the question thus hypothesizes a spiteful or envious instinct to find fault with a good and generous deed. For a similar rhetorical use of Or elles to introduce less creditable possible motivations cf. G 1528–9.

568  non byswykes has no parallel in the Vulgate; like 544 (also original) it stresses the lord’s determination not to take advantage of the fact that the pay of the later-comers lies in his discretion. Gordon points out that the -s inflection on byswykes obeys a northern syntactic convention by which, when a pronoun (here I) was followed by more than one verb, the second ends in -(e)s, whatever the person of the pronoun (i.e. it is not a ‘cheat’ for the purposes of rhyme).

569–72  Except for the introduction of the metaphor of the race (be he never so swyft), lines 570–72 closely follow Matthew 20:16: the parable thus ends, as in the Vulgate, by defiantly compounding the apparent perversity of heavenly evaluations with a categoric assertion of not merely equality, but priority of pay for less service.

572  mykes: usually assumed to be an aphetic form of Latin amicus [friend]. The only other two instances recorded in MED suggest ‘close friend’ or ‘intimate’. Since the equivalent word in the Vulgate is electi, the sense is perhaps ‘chosen companions’.

573–6  The moral pointed, obviously with her own case in mind, by the girl herself picks up the symbolism of 547 to conflate God’s treatment of the ‘late’ with His merciful generosity to the ‘humble’ and ‘lowly’ – which were regular senses of both pore and little (573, 574): He does not penalize those who had no power to give more significance to their service. In the new context given to the parable, the puzzled resentment of the longer-servers is thus balanced by the grateful praise expressed by one identified with the shortest-servers, to create a more complex effect.

575  atslykes: presumably a prefixed form of MED sliken v^2, which occurs only at Awntyrs 617, where it refers to a swinging blow by a sword that slikes from [slides from, is deflected by] chain-mail, and where it is plainly the equivalent of a French verb used with similar sense and occurring frequently in Arthurian romance in participial form (en eslicant) to characterize a stroke or blow.

577  More have I: the common ‘penny’ of the parable was usually interpreted as the perfect bliss of eternal life granted to all the saved, which by definition does not allow of degrees. In this poem, too, it has been introduced as a figure for the equal glory of supreme royal status enjoyed by all (481ff). The girl is not therefore here claiming to enjoy a greater reward than can be won by other souls in heaven, but to enjoy, in common with others, a greater reward there than any human endeavour could ever claim in strict justice (579–80).

581ff  The ‘eleventh hour’ entrants were usually interpreted as late converts (or late penitents), whose worldly ‘service’ of the Lord began late in life. But since the point lies in the comparatively short duration of the ‘labour’, the present application to those who died in infancy (and thus also entered the vineyard near the end of their life or ‘day’) is not illogical (and not unprecedented: see Vantuono).

585–8  The other are adults who – unlike the baptized innocent who dies with no sins to atone for, and therefore goes at once to heaven (625–36) – have inevitably failed in some way and must normally spend some preliminary time in Purgatory; though they lived and ‘laboured’ longer than the girl did, some are still waiting (587–8) for their ‘penny’ of heavenly bliss.

591  Cf. Prope est justus meus … et justitia mea non deficiet [My righteousness is near … and my righteousness shall not be abolished] (Isaiah 51:5–6). rert is glossed by Gordon ‘upraised’ (in the sense ‘supreme’), but there is no evidence of such a usage in MED, which itself assigns it to reren v^1 6(b) (‘raise from sleep’) and glosses ‘alert, vigilant’, a solution also open to various objections. But (a)reren in the sense of ‘establish, institute, set up’ was often used of the law of God, and this usage seems more relevant to the present context, in which case evermore rert [established in perpetuity] would echo a proposition found in many other verses of the Bible besides that quoted from Isaiah (e.g. Psalms 110:3, 8, 116:2).

593  verce referred specifically to a section ‘of a psalm or canticle corresponding to the compound unit (usually a couplet) of Hebrew poetry’ (OED sv verse 4). Chapters of the Bible were not divided into what are now called ‘verses’ until the sixteenth century. The verce referred to here is Psalm 61:13/62:12: tu reddes unicuique juxta opera sua [thou renderest to every man according to his work]; cf. Psalm 27:4; but in neither case does the apostrophe of 596 occur in the Vulgate.

594  determynable: determinen was a verb used in legal and theological contexts to mean ‘decide an issue, pass judgement, pronounce authoritatively upon’ (see MED determinen 3 and 4). determynable thus means ‘conclusive, putting an end to dispute’.

596  pertermynable or pretermynable (the scribal abbreviation being expandable, as by Gordon and Hillmann, to -re, as well as to -er) is not recorded anywhere else, but terminen had a sense similar to that of determinen (see n. to 594); pertermynable would thus mean ‘giving an authoritative verdict’. Other suggestions, derived from other senses of terminen, include ‘foreordaining’ (Gordon) and ‘infinite’ (Hillmann). The legal and scholastic connotations of the vocabulary used by the father are appropriate to his stress on God’s justice, and his claim to be making a ‘conclusive’ or ‘decisive’ point appears reasonable, since the psalmic text he quotes is one repeated categorically at many points in Scripture (e.g. Job 34:11, Proverbs 24:12, Matthew 16:27, Romans 2:6).

601–2  Of more and lesse … no joparde: ‘jeopardy’ (< OF jeu parti [divided game]) was used of any situation in which the outcome hung in the balance: cf. ‘lyff and deth stonde in Iupartye’ (Lydgate, Secrees 1113); for the construction with of + two nouns, indicating similar uncertainty as between two states, cf. ‘eche stood in a Iupardye Of Love and Schame’ (Lydgate, Troy Book I.2240–41). Here in Pearl, the point is that ‘more’ and ‘less’ are not competing alternatives to be resolved one way or the other with regard to the heavenly reward (which is always and for everyone the jackpot).

605  the gentyl cheftayn is no chyche: parsimoniousness in a lord was deplored, being quite inconsistent with the largesse demanded by the values of courtaysye. For the application of this social logic to theology, cf. ‘God is na chynche of his grace: for he haves ynogh therofe’ (Yorkshire Writers, I, 133; cf. I, 306).

609–10  A&W assume His fraunchis is large refers to God (‘His liberality is great’), and put a pause after large, interpreting that ever dard … rescowe as an anticipatory definition of hem in 611. But syntactical and metrical units are in this poem not usually permitted to run so out of sync with one another. Though fraunchis often meant ‘liberality, generosity’, its root sense is the ‘free status’ that is the opposite of servitude; the word thus connoted lordship, status and possessions, and could refer specifically to rights of residence or to privileges, liberties or exemptions granted by a superior authority. ‘Make rescue’ was used in various connections, especially military ones (MED sv rescous (a) and (b), rescoue (a) and (b), and rescousen). The image here is that of a cheftayn (605) delivering his followers from servitude and rewarding them for their allegiance to him with free status and the ‘freedom of the (heavenly) city’, i.e. full socio-economic rights and privileges there. Much the same metaphor is used of Christ and Christians in PP B.19.30–41; and the language is consistent with the social terms in which the concepts of heaven and blessedness are elsewhere expressed in this poem. dard has not been satisfactorily explained. The only verb of which it is a possible past tense seems to be daren, the meanings of which ranged from ‘lie hidden, lurk’ to ‘cower, crouch in fear’. An extended sense (‘submitted to’ or ‘humbled himself’) has often been suggested, but is unparalleled (as is the construction dare to).

611  hem: ‘for the use of the plural pronoun after the indefinite singular [His at 609], cf. 685–7’ (Gordon).

612  The refrain alludes to a popular saying, ‘The grace of God is good enough’ (Tilley G393; cf. 2 Corinthians 12:9, ‘My grace is sufficient for thee’). This refrain diverts the focus from the justice of God’s rewards to the liberality of them, as issuing from grace rather than human merit: grace (etymologically related to gratis [free]) refers strictly to what is freely given, as opposed to what is owed in justice.

613  motes … mate: the vocabulary is that of the competitive debate. Mote [moot, argue] was a verb of dispute, including legal dispute. And for mate [checkmate, overcome, cause to be at a loss] in the sense of ‘baffle the wits of’, cf. ‘Clerk ful of skill, That cowthe with wordes men mate and stylle [reduce to silence]’ (‘Against Death is No Defence’ B 5–6).

616  lowere: Vantuono retains MS lere and glosses ‘abode, dwelling place’ (MED leir n^1 (e)). But it is her status, not her dwelling, in heaven that the girl’s father has objected to. Most other editors follow Gordon in emending to fere, explained as an aphetic form of OF afaire and glossed ‘dignity, pomp’, etc. But, though the phrase in fere [in company] may sometimes have acquired the sense ‘in style’, there is no meaning recorded in MED for fere n^1 [company] or fere n^5 (< OF afaire) that fits the present context. Since it appears from the peny of 614 that the girl is still speaking in the terms of the parable, a meaning such as ‘hire, wages, recompense’ seems required, and is provided by lowere (< OF loier/louier, AN loer), which can occur with stress on the second syllable (see MED louer(e n^2).

625  innocent [without sin]: the reference here is to a baptized child, cleansed of original sin in baptism (cf. 626–7), who has not yet reached the age (usually put around seven years old) at which sin is possible (‘children of this age be clepid innocentis, for thei lak use of resoun for to discerne vice fro vertu’: Capgrave, St Augustine 7). The word is thus a semi-technical term from the register of theology – and marks the key-change (from emotional to intellectual) that has taken place: the domestic and personal identification of the girl as the mourner’s ‘lost pearl’ (241ff) is superseded by identification of her theological status, through a dialectical process in which it is the mourner’s mind, rather than his personal grief, that resists the answers given him (contrast 325ff with 481ff).

626  by line: most editors follow Gordon in glossing ‘successively, one after the other’; but the present line forms the only illustration of such a sense in MED. Scots in a line (= directly) (DOST line 6c) and ME idioms such as even as line, right as line, which similarly denote prompt procedure to a certain place (MED sv line n^1 8(b)), suggest a meaning here of ‘directly, straight away’ (cf. As sone as). It was important that infants be baptized as soon as possible after birth, since, if they died in infancy (as many did), they could not, if unbaptized, enter heaven.

629–30  the day … The night of deth dos to enclyne: the expression is not recorded elsewhere in ME, but cf. inclinata est jam dies [the day is far spent] (Luke 24:29) and ‘li solaus dut cliner’ (Ami et Amile 579). the day, with derk endent involves an unparalleled metaphorical use of endenten. The basic meaning of this verb (from French dent [tooth]) was ‘to serrate, to notch’. But the past participle was also used to mean ‘studded’ (e.g. with jewels) or ‘braced’ (e.g. with steel), and endenting could be used to translate Latin commissura [mingling, joint, seam]; that is, the word could be used to express the idea of something hooking firmly or protruding into something else to form a joining. ‘The day encroached (from croc [hook]) upon by darkness’ conveys the idea intended, though it over-naturalizes an unusual figurative usage – whether the metaphor is that one or one that pictures the day as ‘studded’ or ‘inlaid’ with darkness (as assumed by Gordon and A&W).

647–56  The reference is to the blood and water which issued from Christ’s side at the crucifixion: as explained in 651–6, the blood paid (on man’s behalf) the penalty of original sin, the guilt of which was cleansed by the water, commonly held to be the origin of the sacrament of baptism.

651–2  The lines refer not only to the fate of damnation from which succeeding generations of mankind were freed, but also to the actual rescue by Christ, from their ‘prison’ of Hell, of the Old Testament faithful at the Harrowing of Hell (recounted in the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus).

654  The spear thrust by a soldier into Christ’s side (to ensure His death) occurs in the canonical Gospels (John 19:33–4), but the story in its best-known form derived from the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus. The phrasing shows the poet’s familiarity with alliterative verse: cf. P3A 202 (‘grym grownden glaive’), MA 3761.

659  The line is usually glossed ‘And that (i.e. blisse: 658) is restored (to us) in a happy hour’. But 658–9 summarize the redemptive effects of, respectively, the blood and the water (with which the rest of the stanza is concerned) in removing the original sin that once stood ‘between’ man and heaven; it is thus more likely that the two instances of that in 658 and 659 are parallel relatives (‘that which’), and that restored means ‘made amends for, rectified’ (see OED restore v 2). The next stanza certainly assumes that what is established at this point is specifically the sinless state (rather than the bliss that follows it) which is ‘restored’ through baptism.

661–4  The girl here moves from the sacrament of baptism, which mediates grace for original sin, to the sacrament of penance, which mediates grace for subsequent actual sins; 663–4 refer to contrition, confession and satisfaction (payne [penance, penalty]: 664), which were the constituent elements of shrift.

663  sorw and syt: the phrase is of Norse origin and occurs only in more northerly texts; cf. Ormulum 4852 and 7967, where it is also used of contrition: ‘To betenn thine sinnes, With serrwhe and sit, wiþþ bitter wop’.

669  gyltyf: the adjective appears elsewhere in the MS as gulty. The more formal and learned form with French-derived suffix -yf (which was less common and seems to have had more specifically legal connotations) is consistent with the jurisprudential logic of the stanza and with the judicial associations of resoun and right (both commonly used of ‘justice’), dome [ruling, sentence], gyltles and innocent (665–8).

671  For the image from directional deviation, cf. 488, 665. The same metaphorical application of the verb glenten [sheer away, turn aside] occurs in StE: ‘Non gete me fro the hegh gate to glent out of ryght’ (241).

672  innocence: the penultimate letter of the word in the MS could be c or t, which are hard to distinguish in scripts of this period. It looks to us a little more like a c. The word has normally been transcribed inoscente, right being then interpreted as past participle of the verb righten (in its sense of ‘justify’ or ‘give justice to’), and At emended to And or As, thus giving ‘And/As innocent, is saved and vindicated’. We have interpreted the MS reading as the noun rather than the adjective (which never otherwise appears with final -e); right also as a noun, ‘justice’ (which the logic of the stanza seems to require, as a contrast with mercy at 670); and At as governing both those nouns in its attested meaning of ‘by the agency of, by means of, through’ (MED at prep 9). This is consonant with the logic of the stanza, which contrasts the longer-serving adults, who are inevitably occasionally gyltyf of sins, and whose salvation is therefore through grace and mercy alone (661, 669–70), with the shorter-serving innocent (666), who, gyltles (668) of sins, can claim exemption from the penalty of damnation (672) through his innocence and thus through justice itself (resoun and right: 665, 672).

675  see His face: based on a biblical idiom (used e.g. at Rev. 22:4); to be in heaven was to see God face to face (cf. C 1810, Pa 24).

677–88  The passage quoted is from Psalm 23/24:3–4: Quis ascendet in montem Domini? aut quis stabit in loco sancto ejus? Innocens manibus et mundo corde, qui non accepit in vano animam suam, nec juravit in dolo proximo suo [Who shall ascend into the hill of the Lord? or who shall stand in his holy place? He that hath clean hands, and a pure heart; who hath not lifted up his soul unto vanity, nor sworn deceitfully]. A very similar passage occurs in Psalm 14/15, and line 679 seems to have been influenced by the wording of the first verse of that Psalm (aut quis requiescet in monte sancto tuo?), the equivalent of which in Psalm 23/24 (aut quis stabit …) has influenced the additional line given to the ‘answer’ (There schal his stepe stable stille: 683), to make it pick up more exactly the question, with perhaps a reminiscence of the ending of Psalm 14/15 (non movebitur in aeternum), stille (‘without movement’ and/or ‘for ever’) reinforcing the temporal and spatial stability implied by the line. The poet is probably quoting from memory; both passages were well known, and separately or in conflation formed a locus classicus for the definition of those who would be saved: i.e. the guilt-free righteous (cf. PP B.3.230–45, StE 274–8). But these dicta are here adapted carefully and selectively to a context in which, by stricter definition of terms, the qualities of righteousness and innocence have become virtually mutually exclusive rather than more or less synonymous: the ryghtwys man (675) is the righteous adult, who can never be entirely sinless, and the harmles hathel (676) is the sin-free innocent who, lacking the faculty of moral choice, cannot be righteous for the same reason that s/he cannot be sinful. Psalm 23/24:4 is thus divided into two halves to refer to these separate categories of the saved, the first half of it (translated at 681–2) applied to the innocent, the second half (translated at 687–8) to the ‘righteous’ man. The two are further divided by being assigned to separate stanzas.

680  Himself to answare: that the question is a rhetorical one in the Psalter (commonly assumed to have been composed in its entirety by King David), and is immediately followed by its answer, is also noted in PP: ‘And David assoileth it himself, as the Sauter telleth’ (B.3.237). The answer, translated in 681–2, is Innocens manibus et mundo corde [He that hath clean hands, and a pure heart] (Psalm 23/24:4).

681  Hondelynges harme: an inventive alliterative rendering (of Innocens manibus), derived from the OE adverb handlinga [with the hands] – which is recorded elsewhere in ME only in Cursor 3933, where it has the different, etymological sense of ‘hand-to-hand’, as applied to conflict.

687  That takes not her lif in vayn occurs also as a translation of qui non accepit in vano animam suam (Psalm 23:4) in the Wycliffite Bible, where, however, ‘soul’ is used in place of lif (on which see n. to 305). The literalness of the renderings makes it difficult to determine exactly how the Latin was understood – and whether or not there is any relation with the idiom take in vain (‘treat with contempt, disregard’: OED sv vain adj 6), which would suggest an abuse of the anima consistent with the explanation of the Vulgate wording given in the Glossa Ordinaria: ‘Id est, qui non deputavit animam rebus non permanentibus, sed eam sentiens immortalem aeterna desiderabit’ [that is, who has not dedicated his soul to things that do not last, but, feeling it to be immortal, desires eternal things] (PL 113, col. 876).

690  MS How kyntly oure con aquyle. The line, which makes no sense without emendation, needs to introduce the mentor of the righteous man, referred to in 691–4. In the chapter from Wisdom (commonly attributed to Solomon) which those lines paraphrase (Wisdom 10:10), that figure is Sapientia [Wisdom], represented as always guiding the just man along the right ways and keeping him physically and morally ‘safe’ amid the dangers and depravity besetting him. Perhaps the scribe was thrown by an uncommon French loan word – such as that speculatively supplied here. Other suggested emendations include ‘How Koyntise [Wisdom] onoure [honour] con aquyle’ (Bradley 1890, followed by Gordon) and ‘Hym Koyntyse oure (‘our Wisdom’ = God) con aquyle’ (A&W).

691–2  Haec … justum deduxit per vias rectas, et ostendit illi regnum Dei [wisdom guided him in straight paths; she shewed him God’s kingdom] (Wisdom 10:10).

693–6  The passage from Wisdom has been extended (693–4) to give the just man encouragement to effort and perseverance, rather than assurance of success, in order to contrast the conditional nature of his salvation (if: 694) with the guarantee of such safety (hardily, withoute peril: 695) assured to the innocent by right [justice: 696].

699–700  Domine … non intres in judicium cum servo tuo, quia non justificabitur in conspectu tuo omnis vivens [Lord … enter not into judgment with thy servant: for in thy sight shall no man living be justified] (Psalm 142/143:1–2).

703–4  The point is that, since no man’s justness can bear the scrutiny of absolute justice (699–700), no man can claim salvation as his just desert. The reference in 701–7 is to divine judgement, passed at death on each soul, as well as in general and in public at Judgement Day. The analogy with secular justice in courts of law (cf. 701–2) was not uncommon, and in PP also leads to advice to the defendant about the best grounds on which to plead his case (B.7.188–201).

703  Alegge is a legal term (‘make a formal declaration in court … in support of a right or in justification of a claim’: MED allegen v^1 1), and innome, in the context of legal debate, meant something like ‘(dialectically) trapped, confuted’; cf. ‘Artu yut inume? / Artu mid righte overcume’? (Owl and Nightingale 541–2; see Everett and Hurnard 1947).

707  passe, in the context of the theological court trial introduced at 701, means ‘escape or avoid punishment (i.e. of damnation) or pain’ (cf. MED passen 13(f)), as at Cursor C 28706–7: ‘For quen a [one] sin was wroken [punished] sua, Hu sal he passe has hundert ma?’

708  innocence: i.e. the sinlessness achieved through the grace of forgiveness, conferred in confession and absolution (661–4), and made available through the redemption and atonement of the crucifixion (705–6). This is the only way an adult can achieve the innocence that is crucial in the theology of salvation.

710–24  The biblical passage referred to is Luke 18:15–17 (corresponding to Matthew 19:13–15, Mark 10:13–16).

712  brayde is the equivalent of afferebant (Luke 18:15), oblati sunt (Matthew 19:13), offerebant (Mark 10:13), and so means ‘presented’; the verb is similarly used in the sense ‘proffer’ at G 2377 (‘Brayde brothely the belt to the burne selven’). MED unconvincingly assigns the two instances to different and doubtful senses of breiden v^1, Pe 712 forming the single instance of breide unto as ‘lead, bring’ under 3(b), and G 2377 glossed under 7 as ‘fling or hurl’.

718–19  Suffer little children [pueros] to come unto me, and forbid them not: for of such is the kingdom of God (Luke 18:16). For arayed in the sense of ‘appointed’ or ‘destined’, cf. Troilus 2.200 and ‘He hath skapid the deth to hym arrayed [Latin sibi paratam]’ in Book of the Foundation of St Bartholomew’s 15.

721–4  The stanza is more elaborately (if less obviously) concatenated with the previous one than usual: the first four lines repeat the sense and key words of the last four of the preceding section: Jesus (717, 721), -ryche (719, 722), childer/childe (718, 723). The deviation from the norm signals a pronounced modulation in the poem, as most of its essential topics – in this verse, ‘child’, ‘pearl’, ‘spotlessness’ – are reconfigured to express wider and more general (and less personal and emotional) truths. Given the number symbolism operative in the poem (see p. 6) the point at which this shift in application occurs (at the end of twelve sections) may well be significant. The lines render Luke 18:16–17: But Jesus called [the children] unto him, and said … Verily I say unto you, Whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child [sicut puer] shall in no wise enter therein.

726, 732  The alliterative collocation mote or mascle occurs also at 843 and at C 556, but is unusual, mascle (derived through French from a variant of Latin macula) being a comparatively rare and learned word for ‘spot’. The suffixed form with -les is unique to this poem, in which the mascelles pearl of salvation (732) is lexically associated with the childlike soul Withoute … mascle (726) to which alone it is accessible; the refrain of the opening section, withouten spot, thus here reappears in a more sophisticated form, mascelles, consistent with the more sophisticated and theological application of it.

728  the yate unpynne: cf. ‘Conscience … made Pees porter to pynne the yates’ (PP B.20.298–9; cf. 331).

730–32  Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man, seeking goodly pearls: Who, when he had found one pearl of great price [Inventa … una pretiosa margarita], went and sold all that he had, and bought it (Matthew 13:45–6). The girl had herself (241–336) formerly figured as the ‘spotless pearl’ which the dreamer, cast as a jueler, had been anxious to porchase [obtain: 744]; but here and at 733–5 she points beyond herself to a larger quest for perfection latent in the metaphor.

733  Concatenation is in this section used to associate two words similar in sense and sound, makeles [matchless, peerless], in stanza-initial position at 733 and 757, concatenating with mascelles [spotless, immaculate] in refrain position. The pearl of the opening stanza, without peer and without spot, thus reappears, although the attributes are now those of heavenly bliss.

738  endeles rounde: the shape of the pearl, like that of the endeles pentangle-knot in Sir Gawain (629–30, 660–61), is associated with the circular form of both texts (in which the opening and final lines mirror one another), and with the ‘perfection’ for which in both texts the two images provide a geometrical focus: the infinite and mascelles perfection of the sphere of heaven, and the fautles integrity (G 640) of the perfect knight.

740  The reintroduction (here and at 748–67) of the costume described in section IV (now endued with spiritual symbolism) and of the iconic Lamb (an image not used since 413) enhances the impression given of textual elements reassembling themselves in this section to express larger significance.

745  Cf. 769, 780. Whereas the girl applies the concatenating words mascelles and makeles to the deity and His realm, her father applies them to the daughter who is still the focus of his more mortal, and therefore more personal, orientation; there is a similar distinction in the use of the concatenating word deme in section VI.

749–54  Aristotle and Pygmalion occur as types of the philosopher and artist who cannot vie with nature at Roman de la rose 16174–81 (a dream-vision mentioned by this poet in C 1057–64), and Pygmalion (who created a statue so lifelike and beautiful that he fell in love with it) also figures elsewhere as the typical artificer whose work is similarly proved, by the beauty of a given lady, unable to compete with that of nature: see CT VI.14. The more extravagant claim, that even nature seemed surpassed by a beauty so superlative as to suggest angel rather than mortal origins (cf. Troilus I.100–105), was likewise a commonplace in the eulogy of feminine pulchritude, but it is here applied to a beaute which is truly supramortal and divine.

755  offys: though previously read as oftriys or ostriys and variously emended, the word in the MS has since been confirmed as offys (Vantuono). Since the question which the father is asking in this stanza – and which the girl answers in the following one – is how and by whom she acquired her present visible form and beauty, the sense seems to be ‘state of being, life-form’ (an extension of such meanings as ‘functioning’, ‘operation’: see MED office 3 and 4), rather than ‘status’ or ‘position’ (which the father has already been informed of).

757–60  There is some wordplay involved in the makeles [‘mateless’, matchless] Lamb taking as His make [mate, consort] a being so insignificant in secular terms as to have rendered the marriage an unsuitably unequal one (759–60). Christ was able, by turning her into a lady of status and beauty (765), to remedy this disparity, since He was a being that all may bete [who can remedy all things: 757], a phrase that alludes to the crucifixion (often referred to as the boot [remedy] of bale).

761  your worlde wete: the plural your [of you mortals] has here the distancing effect it has elsewhere (cf. 305–6, 497), placing the father in a different category of being – and in a different ‘world’, detachedly characterized (cf. worlde wod at 743) as wete (i.e. with a climate that marks the dismalness and mutability absent from heaven).

763–4  Thou art all fair, my love [amica mea]; there is no spot [macula] in thee. Come … my spouse (Song of Solomon 4:7–8;cf. immaculata mea at 5:2). This and other passages from the Song of Songs – a love song featuring a groom and bride (sponsus and sponsa) – were often quoted in contexts of both religious and secular love (cf. CT IV.2137–48). The Song was regarded by exegetes as expressing, at the allegorical level, God’s love for the Church and/or the individual soul. The text here combines the literal and spiritual interpretations (since it is uttered by Christ, but precisely as sponsus). The ‘spotlessness’ referred to confers scriptural confirmation upon an attribute of the pearl that has been repeatedly adduced.

766  Rev. 7:14 refers to the blessed who laverunt stolas suas in sanguine Agni [have washed their robes … in the blood of the Lamb]. It is in this stanza that the Book of Revelation (a vision) begins to impose its own defining logic (together with its defining images of the Lamb, His followers and the New Jerusalem) on this dream-vision.

775  a comly anunder cambe: an alliterative periphrasis for ‘woman’, coined according to a common pattern; cf. such expressions as lufsum under lyne [linen], lively under lace and comly under kelle [caul]; see Oakden 1935: 321, 331.

781–4  The cool correction recalls the girl’s first speeches, in which she had also pointed out errors in her father’s wording (257–8; 291–2). In response to his application to her at 780 of both the concatenating words makeles and mascelles, she accepts the second (there is no point in false modesty in heaven), but points out that makeles [‘peer’-less] she is not: she has makes in the other wives of the Lamb; for wifehood, like monarchy, is a corporate, not a singular, honour in heaven, where (in her more exact language use) only the realm itself and its lord are truly makeles (733, 757).

785–9  The 144,000 of Revelation are the followers of the Lamb: And I looked, and, lo, a Lamb stood on the mount Sion, and with him an hundred forty and four thousand (Rev. 14:1). These beings are declared to be sine macula [without spot] and to be all virgins (14:4–5), and innocents such as the girl herself were therefore commonly assumed to be numbered among them; the murdered little boy of the Prioress’s Tale is also imagined as destined to figure in this group: ‘O martir, sowded to virginitee, Now maystow syngen, folwynge evere in oon The white Lamb celestial … Of which the grete evaungelist, Seint John, In Pathmos wroot’ (CT VII.579–83). The representation of them in Pearl as brides is by conflation with another image from Revelation, that of the nuptials of the Lamb, in which the bride Arayed to the weddyng (791) is a collective figure, the elect generally or the heavenly city of Jerusalem itself prepared as a bride adorned for her husband (21:2; cf. 19:7).

788–90  Saynt John … The apostel: the John who identifies himself in its opening chapter as the author of Revelation was assumed to be the disciple and evangelist of that name. The visions and voices recorded in Revelation are seen and heard in spiritu (1:10, 4:2, etc), and the Book thus became the archetype of the gostly dreme (790) – i.e. the dream which is in fact a spiritual vision of divine truths, a category in which this poem also ultimately places itself (1184), as a dream-vision increasingly subsumed and verified by that of John.

789  clot: often glossed ‘mound’ or ‘hill’, but that is the contextual implication rather than the meaning of the word, which elsewhere signifies ‘soil, turf, earth’; the application found here is unusual.

791  hil-coppe gives an imperfect rhyme. Emendation to hil-mot would provide one solution. Mot(e) [mound] – later used as a poeticism for city (see n. to 948) – could occur with long or short o in ME, as could its OF etymon mote/motte.

792  The heavenly city of the ‘New Jerusalem’, the glorified version of its earthly counterpart, is a major topic of Revelation, in which it is seen to descend from heaven (3:12, 21:10).

797–840  The poet here conducts quite a technical exercise in ‘concording’, or tracing an image or theme (here, that of the Lamb) through a number of biblical passages; cf. Ancrene Wisse Part 7, where images of the shield and of heat, respectively, are followed through several different biblical passages. There were handbooks (such as John Bromyard’s Summa Praedicantium) available for use in such exercises, but the poet may well here be concording simply from a retentive memory of the Bible. The texts cited all serve to authorize the figure of the lamb for Christ, and, together with the concatenating refrain Jerusalem, introduce the two major images of Revelation, which come to form the focus and eventually (973–1152) the climax of the poem.

799–803  Isaiah 53 (which actually refers to the innocent who becomes a scapegoat for man’s collective guilt) was not unnaturally taken as a prophetic reference to the crucifixion (cf. CT X.280); verses 7 and 9 are the ones specifically referred to here: he is brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he openeth not his mouth … he had done no violence, neither was any deceit in his mouth.

802  nem (MS men): the emendation was first suggested by Morris.

808  toke on Himself: see n. to 826.

817–18  Jerusalem, Jordan and Galilee all lie beside the river Jordan, in which St John the Baptist first performed what became the sacrament of baptism (Mark 1:5). His activities and his baptism of Christ are recorded in all the canonical Gospels (Matthew 3, Mark 1:4–11, Luke 3:3–22, John 1:28–36).

822–4  Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world (John 1:29). as true as stone (822) was a proverbial expression for unfailing constancy and loyalty.

826  on Himself … clem: clem seems to represent the verb ‘claim’ (AN clemer), though ‘claim’ is not elsewhere used of assuming liability; the usage here is presumably an emphatic variation (for the sake of rhyme) of the comparable construction with the verb take at 808 (where the same theological point is made), with which cf. ‘Jhesu Crist took upon hymself the peyne [penalty] of alle oure wikkednesses’ (CT X.282).

827  and who shall declare his generation (Isaiah 53:8) follows immediately on the passage which is quoted from Isaiah in the previous stanza and which, in the present stanza, is specifically ‘concorded’ (819) with that from the Gospels.

831  ayther prophete: i.e. Isaiah and John the Baptist, who was regularly classified as the last of the prophets.

835–40  The description of the Lamb breaking the seven seals of what is identified (at Rev. 21:27) as the Book of Life occurs in Rev. 5 and 6: And I saw in the right hand of him that sat on the throne a book … sealed with seven seals … And one of the elders saith unto me … behold … the Root of David hath prevailed to open the book, and to loose the seven seals thereof. And I beheld, and, lo, in the midst of the throne … and in the midst of the elders, stood a Lamb as it had been slain … And he came and took the book out of the right hand of him that sat upon the throne … And every creature which is in heaven, and on the earth, and under the earth, and such as are in the sea, and all that are in them, heard I saying, Blessing … unto the Lamb for ever and ever … And the four and twenty elders fell down and worshipped him (5:1, 5–7, 13–14). The passage forms the third and final of the scriptural authorities cited by the girl for the image of Christ as a lamb, and it is through this apocalyptic image that He is consistently referred to henceforward. This ensures that God and heaven continue to be felt as something beyond human comprehension: Christ, even when directly beheld by the dreamer (1110–46), remains removed and estranged by the figure of the Lamb, an emblem rather than a metaphor, a visual image which actually discourages visualization – a feature of Apocalyptic imagery particularly noticeable in this stanza (a lamb standing in the middle of a throne and breaking the seals of a book or scroll is a scene which cannot be pictured with any precision).

841–6  One of the poetic functions served by the apocalyptic image of the Lamb is to suggest a ‘compatible’ mate for the girl (cf. worthly wyf at 846), and to transfer the focus from her to the God to whom she has been joined, by attributing to Him qualities closely associated with her: the preciousness of a ‘jewel’ (795), and, here, whiteness, spotlessness (with 843 cf. 726) and even the innocence of youth.

841  peche: sometimes assumed to represent OF peche [sin, stain] (Gordon, A&W) or ME patch (Emerson 1922), but the former is not otherwise recorded in ME and makes imperfect sense in the context of the following line, while the latter is not attested in this spelling. The noun more probably represents piece (in the sense ‘part, patch’), also spelled pec(c)he in ME (< OF p(i)ece but also p(i)eche): see MED sv pece.

850  The mo, the merier: the earliest occurrence of this expression, and in fact the only one in ME, unless one counts a looser and probably chance instance in Margery Kempe: ‘the mor schame I suffyr and despite, the meryar may I ben in owr Lord Ihesu Crist’ (135).

857–9  Two common collocations – dense in associations with, respectively, mortality (clottes and clynge) and lamentation (remen and routhe) – serve dismissively to distinguish the mortal world from the ‘mirth’ and ‘gladness’ (860–64) of eternity.

860  on deth: often assumed to refer to Christ’s death, the basis of mortal hope of eternal life. But the girl seems here to be dealing rather with the contrast between mortal sorrow and biological death and immortal bliss, in which the saved are liberated by that on deth to full security from the more final ‘second’ death (652), i.e. eternal perdition (Hillmann).

862  The joy and dignity of heavenly life are again expressed through the social values of courtaysye: the reference is to the mystical feast of heaven sacramentally betokened at messe [Mass] by the Eucharist (cf. 1064), but the image is that of a secular lord honouring his household at a public feast, with which the terms mirthe and messe [course or portion of food; feast] are typically associated: cf. G 45, 1004, 1007.

863–4  This repeats the paradox of monarchical supremacy to which no one is inferior (cf. 445ff): each is best, but none is lesse; for the corporate nature of heavenly life allows only the superlative, not the comparative, degree.

865  les: sometimes interpreted as ‘less’, but les = ‘false, fictive’ (cf. C 1719, Pa 428) more logically introduces the verification that follows (866) by the irrefutable authority of Scripture.

866–76  wro [corner, nook] does not occur elsewhere in the transferred sense required here. The wro or ‘passage’ of Revelation at issue (referred to more summarily at 787–9) is 14:1–2: And I looked, and, lo, a Lamb stood on the mount Sion, and with him an hundred forty and four thousand, having his Father’s name written in their foreheads. And I heard a voice from heaven, as the voice of many waters, and as the voice of a great thunder.

868  thryven and thro: in this established alliterative collocation (cf. Harley Lyrics 9/16) the adjectives gained a more general sense (‘fine, impressive’) than that in which they were normally used (i.e. ‘fully formed; having thrived’ and ‘vigorous; fierce’) – though the connotations of full and vibrant life remain relevant here.

874  laden: the footgloss follows the interpretation of the line that is generally given but which is somewhat suspect (as is the line itself, metrically overheavy). laden does not occur elsewhere as a spelling for leden [language, tongue, voice], for which the form at 878 is ledden.

875  Cf. C 951, where clouds are said to form themselves into torres which are then split by thunder. Breeze (1996) documents applications of the word ‘tower’ to stormy and densely piled-up cloud-masses in various romance languages, but torres may well be a plural of tor [hill, peak], since (except at Pe 966, where it occurs in a series of rhymes spelled -or in the MS) tower is elsewhere in the MS always spelled tour(e) or towre.

877–80  These lines have no equivalent in Revelation, and provide a transition from the volume to the melody of the song, which seems only gradually to emerge from its terrific resonance.

881–8  … and I heard the voice of harpers harping with their harps: And they sung as it were a new song before the throne, and before the four beasts, and the elders (Rev. 14:2–3). The four beasts and the twenty-four elders were well-known details from Revelation, which mentions them several times as worshippers of the Lamb.

889–900  … and no man could learn that song but the hundred and forty and four thousand, which were redeemed from the earth [qui empti sunt de terra]. These are they which were not defiled with women; for they are virgins. These are they which follow the Lamb whithersoever he goeth. These were redeemed from among men, being the firstfruits unto God and to the Lamb [Hi empti sunt ex hominibus primitiae Deo, et Agno]. And in their mouth was found no guile [mendacium]: for they are without fault [sine macula] before the throne of God (Rev. 14:3–5). Given his central theme of ‘spotlessness’, and the superstitious veneration of virginity characteristic of the period, it is remarkable that this poet makes so little of the subject (cf. n. to C 693–712); virginity gains only one passing mention (767), and is here omitted as the defining feature of the ‘immaculateness’ of the 144,000; the poem concerns itself with a much larger and more abstract kind of perfection.

894  The image is that of the ‘first fruits’ of the new harvest – offered to God at Lammas, the season in which the poem is set (see 39–40 and n. to 39), and the associations of which here gain a significance far beyond that first suggested by a season when ‘corne is corven with crokes kene’ (40).

895–6  anjoynt: ‘enjoin’ could mean simply ‘unite’ or specifically ‘unite in marriage’; the two lines, unparalleled in the Vulgate, thus conflate the scriptural association between the Lamb and His meyny (892) (who, though commonly assumed by exegetes to include females, are actually referred to in the masculine plural in the Vulgate) with the closer association of marriage, justifying that association as a union of compatibles. lote and hue could also have specific and less specific meanings, and here convey a broader sense (lote = behaviour, hue = form) focused through the narrower ones of hue = ‘colour’ (i.e. whiteness) and lote = ‘sound/speech’ (i.e. tongues free from lesyng and tale untrue: 897).

903  tempte: here used in a sense (‘subject presumptuously to verification, require proof’) that occurs elsewhere only in connection with divine beings (God and Christ), whose truth it is hubristic sin to cross-question or test. The father emphasizes that it is his own mortal limitations (905, 911) that prompt his request for clarification, not any doubts as to the veracity (903, 909) of what his daughter has told him.

904  chamber could refer to that department of a household which was devoted to its lord’s private quarters and affairs; employment or attendance in this chamber testified to a servant’s enjoyment of his master’s good will and confidence (cf. CT I.1437–41). The word could also be used of a bridal chamber. It is thus compatible with both the social relationships used to convey the corporate life in heaven, where the meyny gains its identity from the mayster (899–900), and the bride from her lord (cf. nn. to 403 and 895–6). The girl’s consistent reference to the Lamb as her lord (407, 413, 741, 795) also conflates the relationships of servant and wife.

905  amonk (MS among): the rhyme indicates that the word needs to be pronounced with the unvoicing of final consonants characteristic of western dialects (cf. flonc for flong in rhyme at 1165). mul [dust, ashes] is often used to indicate the humble inferiority of the mortal condition by contrast with the immortal (cf. C 736); the collocation with mokke occurs also in ‘Death, the Soul’s Friend’ 45. The father here expands this image into a larger horticultural contrast, in which he stands to his beatified daughter as mokke and mul to a reken rose (906).

911  blose: found only here, and variously emended and interpreted. Emendation to bose [boss] – suggested by Gordon and taken up by A&W – is unsatisfactory: the sense ‘lump of a man’ (MED boce 3(d)) has only doubtful (and later) attestation, and – being not merely derogatory, but belonging to the register of colloquial abuse – would be stylistically out of key here. Gordon, followed by MED, tentatively associated blose with French blos (related to German blos), meaning ‘bare, empty’, and glossed ‘(?)rough uncouth person’, which is obviously the general sense.

915–16  The granting of a bone [boon] is a feature of courtly ethics (see e.g. Malory 99, 112, 294), and it is by her own perfection (915) that the dreamer here conjures his daughter to grant him his.

929  On jewels as a regularly used metaphor for women, see n. to line 1.

930  For lye thereoute in the sense of ‘lodge or spend the night in the open’, cf. CT VII.2172 and Twenty-Six Political and Other Poems 6/38 (and cf. G 2481).

931  gele: apparently from OE gaelan [delay, hesitate], but this is the only recorded instance of the survival of the word into ME.

943–4  … new Jerusalem, which cometh down out of heaven from my God … And I John saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven (Rev. 3:12, 21:2).

947  flake: not recorded elsewhere in the sense of ‘flaw’ required here – a word to which it is related, though neither appears in MED in any sense other than ‘flake’. OED compares fleck = ‘spot’.

948  mote [castle, keep, fortress] is used of a city only in this poem and in Patience (422). The poet is plainly picturing a city that is, in physical and social structure, an enlarged court: it centres on a castle and a court, surrounded by a wall (917), and on a lord who defines its identity and loyalties, and on whom its livelihood depends. The terms ‘manor’ and ‘bailey’ (1029, 1083) are also extrapolations from the realm of castle courts, which provide the model for an ideally happy, civilized and united community.

951  nis … no more to mene: is to mene was a common idiom equivalent to ‘means’. The usually passive sense of the infinitive when preceded by is to indicates that the idiom was probably understood as ‘is to be interpreted’; cf. the translation of quod interpretatur at Judges 15:17 (which also concerns the explication of a name) in the earlier version of the Wycliffite Bible: ‘He clepide the name of that place Ramathlei, that is to meenyn, the hevyng up of the chekebon.’

952–60  Of the two etymologies for Jerusalem, the first is based on the biblical civitas Dei (applied to the New Jerusalem at Hebrews 12:22 and Rev. 3:12), while the second, found in Isidore of Seville’s Etymologies (VIII.1.6), was popularized by the seventh-century hymn Urbs beata Hierusalem, dicta pacis visio [the blessed city of Jerusalem, designated the vision of peace] – cf. Hilton II.xxi: ‘Jerusalem is as mykel for to say as sight of pees.’ Both etymologies are seen as applicable to both Jerusalems, the second being explicitly explained as applying to the earthly Jerusalem as the site in which, through the crucifixion, pese (man’s reconciliation with God) was made (953), and to the heavenly Jerusalem as the place where the fruits of that act are enjoyed, where pese is ‘gleaned’ (955) – a verb which strictly referred to the gathering of corn-heads after the reaping. The transformation from and through mortality and death to glory and increase is repeated in 958–9, in which Christ’s followers rote [rot] only to enjoy an ‘increasing’ harvest from their deaths.

961  The decorated initial that elsewhere in the text always marks the beginning of a new section is found also here. It is the only error in the visual guides to the structure of the poem which these initials provide.

963  bygly (derived from an ON adjective meaning ‘habitable’) occurs in ME applied only to habitations (bylde here, ‘bower’, ‘house’ elsewhere) and to ‘bliss’.

967  aquylde (< OF acueillir [pursue, obtain]) occurs in ME only in this poem (here and at 690); cf. enquylen (Pa 39 and n.).

968  The sight of the New Jerusalem the dreamer is to be permitted correlates interestingly with the sight of pese (952) given as an etymological explanation of the name, and marks the last change of mode in the dream, as it moves back from dialogue to visual description (description now based on that given in Revelation).

973  unhyde: an exact translation of Greek apocalypse (apo [from] + kalyptein [to cover or hide]), the term translated by ‘Revelation’; the poem does not merely follow Revelation for the details of the city’s construction, but suggests a re-enactment of that vision in a private and personal dream-apocalypse whose arche-type is the gostly dreme (790) of St John.

980  blusched occurs chiefly in alliterative verse as a synonym for ‘looked’ (for the collocation with burgh, see DT 8242 and C 982); it is selected by this poet at critical and dramatic moments (cf. especially Pa 474 and G 793).

982  Having the glory [claritatem] of God: and her light was like unto a stone most precious, even like a jasper stone, clear as crystal (Rev. 21:11). The intense bejewelled glitter of the city is a further feature of this second object seen beyond the river that links it with the first (the girl herself: cf. e.g. 165–6).

983–8  These lines indicate the closeness with which the ensuing description of the New Jerusalem follows that given in Revelation, which acts to authorize the veracity of what is here related. The city is seen as if ‘set down’ (keved, 981) on the very hill (979, 988) from which St John saw it descend from heaven in Rev. 21:10: And he (an angel) carried me away in the spirit to a great and high mountain, and shewed me that great city, the holy Jerusalem, descending out of heaven from God. The construction As John … (so) I (used at 985–6 and at the beginning of the next stanza and at 1021) presents the two visions, St John’s and the poet’s, as mutually confirmatory.

989–90  … and the city was pure gold, like unto clear glass (Rev. 21:18).

991–6  And the wall of the city had twelve foundations … And the foundations of the wall of the city were garnished [ornata] with all manner of precious stones (Rev. 21:14, 19). The figure twelve – on which the dimensions of the New Jerusalem are based (as are the 144,000 followers of the Lamb) in Revelation – receives emphasis in the poem (992, 993), which has taken it as a number mystically symbolic of divine perfection and adopted it as the numerical principle of its own twelve-line stanzas and 1212 lines. The twelve-tiered foundation steps of precious stones are visualized in precise and concrete terms, the vocabulary being technical (bantels, basyng, fundementes, tenoun, tabelment) – very much so in the case of bantels (992), a word of uncertain derivation, which occurs only here and at C 1459, and whose meaning has therefore to be inferred from these two attestations: ‘projecting tiers of masonry (here at the base, in Cleanness at the top) of an architectural structure or model thereof’ is the gloss which suggests itself; see also Gordon and Onions 1933 and n. to C 1458–63.

999–1004  The jewels mentioned here are not always quite identical with those indicated by the same name today. Jasper is typically green in other medieval texts: cf. Trevisa, Properties II, 853; Court of Sapience 1006 (‘The jaspre grene of syght’). On the translucent paleness of chalcedony, cf. Trevisa II, 840; Capgrave, Life of St Katharine III, 1285–7 (‘a stoon / … is cleped a Calcedony … liche a cloude of reyn / … swiche his colour is’).

999–1007  gemme, hemme, wemme repeats rhymes found at 217, 219, 221; and con wale recurs at 1000 and 1007 to result in a rare instance of self-rhyme; a list of jewels, much though the poet may have enjoyed it, is probably no great prompter of inspiration.

1007  ruby (MS rybe): Greek sardion is in the Vulgate translated sardius, which, though a red stone, was not usually identified with the ruby. But Gordon points out that it is clear from 1041 that the poet was collating the description of Jerusalem in Revelation with a passage traditionally associated with it, the account of Aaron’s ephod and breastplate in Exodus 28 – in which sardius is used to translate Hebrew odem (28:17), and this stone was understood by several early commentators to be a ruby – an interpretation which may well have led the poet to give a similar translation for sardius here.

1011  clere and white: ‘clear’ and ‘bright’ are the epithets typically applied to the beryl at this period (cf. 110, C 554, 1132), attributes confirmed by the fact that the name was used of a particular type of crystal (see editor’s n. to Chaucer’s House of Fame 1184).

1012  topace twynne-hue: Gollancz cites Bede’s Explanatio Apocalypsis: ‘Topazius … duos habere fertur colores, unum auri purissimi, et alterum aetherea claritate relucentem’ (PL 93, 200). The topaz is similarly credited with ‘tweye colours as it were of gold and of cleere ayer’ by Trevisa (Properties II, 877), in medieval lapidaries (Lapidaire de Modène 414), and in the gloss to Rev. 21:20 (the poet’s source for the present line) in Glossa Ordinaria.

1013  tyt: Gordon and Onions 1933 argue that MS tyȝt, given the words with which it here rhymes, probably represents the past participle ‘tied’. (Unvoicing of final d to t was a characteristic of western dialects.) For the application of the word to tiers or steps (cf. 1022), cf. ‘Ther stont a trone … Sevene steppes ther beoth therto, That so feire with ordre itiyed [var. ijoyned] beoth’ (Castle of Love 736–40).

1015  the gentylest in uch a plyt: most lapidaries say only that the amethyst is good against drunkenness, but some attributed to it a wide range of healing and protecting powers (Lapidaire de Berne 1013–28, Anglo-Norman Lapidaries 380): these probably represent ‘the tradition on which the present line is based’ (Gordon).

1017–18  See nn. to 982 and 989–90. The comparison with glass occurs twice both in the poem (990, 1018) and in the passage from Revelation (21:11, 18) it is following.

1023–5  And the city lieth foursquare … The length and the breadth and the height of it are equal … and the street of the city was pure gold, as it were transparent glass [vitrum perlucidum] (Rev. 21:16, 21).

1026–8  These lines are an expansion consistent with both dream-texts, Revelation and this poem itself. The independent variation at 1026 on the Vulgate simile with glass (reproduced at 1018 and 1025), and the unusualness of the image chosen (glayre does not otherwise figure in ME outside recipes for food, glue, paint, etc) prompts more precise visualization; in combination with 1025, this produces a pause on the translucent purity of overall effect which recalls the climax of the earlier descriptions of both the landscape (the glassy dazzle of the river: cf. 114) and of the bepearled girl (her breast-pearl, so ‘clene and clere and pure’: 227).

1029–32  And he that talked with me had a golden reed to measure the city … and he measured the city with the reed, twelve thousand furlongs. The length and the breadth and the height of it are equal (Rev. 21:15–16).

1029  uch sware: square could be used of a tool for measuring right angles and developed a special contextual sense in which it referred to a measurable portion, line or side, of a geometrical figure: thus a triangle has three ‘squares’, a rectangle four, a hexagon six, etc (see MED square n 2(b) and squaren v 2(b)). Since the present city is a cube, it has three significant measurements (height, width and length), which are listed in 1031, a line that in effect spells out what uch sware actually means.

1030  Twelve forlonge space: the Vulgate specifies twelve thousand stadia [furlongs]. Since the point of the number clearly lies in a mystical significance focused through the figure twelve, it was not uncommon for the noughts to be ignored in commentaries on and versions of this part of Scripture. See Gordon’s note and the widely disseminated Apocalypse of St Paul (30).

1034–42  And had a wall … and had twelve gates … and names written thereon, which are the names of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel: On the east three gates; on the north three gates; on the south three gates; on the west three gates … And the twelve gates were twelve pearls; every several gate was of one pearl (Rev. 21:12–13, 21). Rev. 21:21 (translated at 1037) is the source of the expression ‘the pearly gates’.

1036  pyked of: referred to the verb ‘pick’ by Gordon and by A&W, and glossed ‘decorated with’. But no such sense is recorded for ‘pick’ (the illustrations for ‘keep neat, make trim’, etc, sv MED piken v^1 5, are all related to a basic sense of ‘pick clean’). pyked is more likely to be an aphetic form of apiken, otherwise recorded only at C 1479 and 1637 (and perhaps at CT I.365), where the meaning is plainly ‘set’ in the sense of ‘set richly, array’. The plates reflect the same instinct to analyse in the technical terms of the artificer, as is evident in pane, poursent and portales (1034–6; cf. n. to 991–6): they probably represent the metal plates on which the poet assumes the names were written (see MED plate 1(d)).

1040–42  The reference is to the twelve sons of Jacob (whose name was changed by divine deed-poll to ‘Israel’: Genesis 35:10), after whom the twelve tribes of Israel were named. The chronological order of the names is a point derived, not from Revelation, but from its analogue in Exodus 28 (see n. to 1007), in which two stones on the ephod are engraved with the names of the twelve tribes of Israel juxta ordinem nativitatis eorum [according to their birth] (Exodus 28:10).

1041  The second element of the compound byrth-whates [birth-fortunes], from OE hwatu [omen], occurs elsewhere (in the sense ‘luck, fortune’), but the compound is the poet’s own coinage, and concisely expresses the adventitious aspect of chronological seniority.

1043–4  Recapitulating Rev. 21:21 (already translated at 1025) and an anticipation of Rev. 21:23 (And the city had no need of the sun, neither of the moon, to shine in it: for the glory of God did lighten it, and the Lamb is the light thereof), more fully translated at 1045–8, but here given a less abstract application. The triple reference in Revelation to the crystalline clarity of the city (21:11, 18, 21) is thus multiplied further by the poem, which makes a defining characteristic of it (982, 989–990, 1018, 1025, 1043), while the supersession of the planetary luminaries (Rev. 21:23, 22:5) is expanded to form the concatenating key-note of the present section – thus linking the brightness of the city with its separateness from the known sublunary world.

1046  lambe lyght [bright luminary]: usually printed as a compound, but ‘lamplight’ is not otherwise recorded before the late sixteenth century, and the noun would yield a self-rhyme (with the noun lyght at 1050, emended to syght by A&W), which this poet usually avoids – whereas rhyme on the adjective and noun would give rime équivoque (rhyme on homonyms or on the same word in different parts of speech), which was not only permissible but actually admired. lambe is a reverse spelling reflecting the unvoicing of consonants in this dialect (see p. xx). It obviously provides a phonic link with the Lamb (= Christ) of 1047, though lombe is how that word is spelled there (as usually elsewhere) in the MS; but the pertinence of the ‘lamp’ lies chiefly in the fact that the word was often used figuratively of the planetary luminaries (see MED laumpe n (b)).

1047  lantyrne: the same word is used as the equivalent of Vulgate lucerna in the Wycliffite Bible.

1049–50  The lines are independent of the Vulgate, but consistent with the poem’s emphasis on the sparkling clarity of the city (see n. to 1043–4). The climax of this vision is thus vision indeed – a consummate visual experience, in which all is literally ‘crystal clear’.

1051–4  The passage from Revelation the poem is following does not include at this point any vision of God upon His throne; such a sight is seen, however, at Rev. 4:1–6, which also contains the description (of the apparaylmente) to which the reader is referred (1053).

1055–60  The river issuing from God’s throne is almost certainly this bornes heved (974) towards which the dreamer had been told to proceed: i.e. it is the source of the river on whose banks he stands and which had figured as the chief glory of the jewelled landscape he had found himself in, the present lines equating with 107–20. The city now seen on the further shore also recalls the even greater beauties the dreamer had earlier glimpsed on the opposite bank (148). The description of the jewelled city is thus linked with the earlier one of the jewelled landscape, now transformed into a more sublime and scripturally verified version of itself.

1055–6  And he shewed me a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal [splendidum tanquam crystallum], proceeding out of the throne of God and of the Lamb (Rev. 22:1).

1061–4  And I saw no temple therein: for the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are the temple of it (Rev. 21:22).

1064  refet: the MS reads reget, of which no convincing interpretation has been offered. The emendation to refet was first suggested by Wright 1939 and makes good sense: the ‘Lamb of God’ on earth nourishes the congregation in the sacrament of the Eucharist, a ritual superseded here (as is the Church itself: 1061–3) by the reality it adumbrated.

1065–8  And the gates of it shall not be shut at all by day: for there shall be no night there (Rev. 21:25). The biblical explanation of the permanently open gates is that in heaven there is no night (when city gates were locked); the poet implies a slightly different explanation by his juxtaposition of the open gates with a paraphrase in 1067–8 of Rev. 21:27 (And there shall in no wise enter into it any thing that defileth [aliquod coinquinatum], neither whatsoever worketh abomination, or maketh a lie): no undesirables to close the gates against ever arrive in the city. His lines also reflect actual practice in medieval cities, which could and did, when necessary, bar entrance to or exit from the town itself and even to streets and lanes within it, as in Sir Beves 4343–8: ‘Thai shette anon everi gate … Everi lane and everi strete Was do drawe with chaines grete’ (a situation the reverse of that described in Pe 1065–6).

1069  For a similar use of acroche in the context of what today would be called physics, cf. Gower: ‘And fyr, when it to tow aprocheth, To him anon the strengthe acrocheth Til with his hete it be devoured’ (CA 5.5623–5).

1070  grym: the appropriate sense here is that in which the word was used to describe gross, heavy and unwieldy persons (cf. PP B.5.354, Pierce the Ploughman’s Crede 221). To spotty ho is: the spots on the moon were something medieval science had addressed itself to, and they are the subject of a learned and technical ‘explanation’ in Dante’s Divine Comedy (Paradiso II.49–148). The ideal of ‘spotlessness’ running throughout the poem here reaches a climax in which the absence of (primarily moral) defilement referred to in the Vulgate (see n. to 1065–8) is expanded by added details that amount to a kind of otherworldly physics (or metaphysic) based on an innate repulsion of all grossness of matter: the translucence of solids (1049–50), the absence of impurities to impede the flow of the river (1059–60), the spotty moon that is disabled by grossness of body from absorbing the rarefied light of this city (1069–70).

1072  compas: a semi-technical word used of the orbit or course of a planetary body. Cf. Lydgate, Troy Book 2.238 (of the sun) and Envoy 10–11 (‘Lucyna [= the moon] … Goth compas rounde with hir pale light’).

1077–80  In the midst of the street of it, and on either side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every month (Rev. 22:2).

1077  schym: the adjective is found only here, and may well have been improvised by the poet from the attested verb schimen [shine, be bright].

1085  dased quayle: the quail, like other low-nesting birds not especially fast in the air, tends to stay absolutely still (instead of taking to flight) in the presence of danger. The habit is so marked that it was said that, if flushed by dogs into the sight of a bird of prey, it would instantly freeze – and thus be a sitting duck for its captors (Topsell 80). To ‘couche [cower motionlessly] as doth a quaille’ (CT IV.1206) was semi-proverbial. The verb dase is similarly used of numbed stillness at Pa 383. The simile is closely comparable with that of the soundless and motionless hawk (182–4) which had conveyed the paralysed fascination induced by the sight of that other vision of bliss and loveliness – the girl herself.

1086  fresch (MS freuch): the emendation to frelich, commonly adopted by editors, is implausible for metrical reasons (Putter and Stokes 2007: 485–6).

1088  glymme: probably from ON; though there are cognates in other Germanic languages, the word is not otherwise recorded in ME.

1090  For bone, when collocated with abide, meaning ‘lot’ or ‘experience’ that befalls someone, see MED bon n^2 5(a) and (b).

1093–1100  The sudden inclusion in the visionary city of its occupants, who seem to gather spontaneously and as if out of nowhere (sodenly and withoute sumoun: 1095, 1098), is the subject of a complex simile: the moon’s appearance in the sky while it is still daylight – its arrival and presence virtually imperceptible against a non-darkened background – is similarly a phenomenon of which one ‘becomes aware’ (cf. 1095–6) rather than something seen to happen. The image is appropriate to the crystalline purity of the place and its denizens, the latter at one with the former, which suddenly becomes an animate composite.

1099  vergynes in the same gyse: the girl’s fellow-brides, identified with the 144,000 ‘followers of the Lamb’ of Revelation (785–92). The regalia of her previously single image (193–228) are here seen as characterizing a multiple entity, a visual sign of the now corporate identity into which she has been absorbed, and the father finally ‘sees’ what she had tried to explain: that she is not a single queen or a unique bride (447–8, 784–7). The earthly concepts of singularity and individuality have no place here.

1103–4  ME in could mean ‘on’ or ‘in’, and here suggests that the position of the literal pearl on the breast is a sign of the bliss and purity in it (cf. 740, where in-myddes has the same effect). blysful and with gret delit are similarly poised between their subjective and their objective meanings: their primary sense is ‘beautiful(ly)’ (see MED blisful 3(c) and with delit sv delit(e n^1 3(b)), but the words also refer to the bliss and joy which this company enjoy.

1105  glod: in poetic usage, ‘glide’ was often used simply as a generalized verb of motion. In these poems, however, the more specific sense of the word is also usually relevant (cf. 79, Pa 269); in the present instance, a gliding motion is appropriate to the glassy surface of 1106 – and to the movement of maidens and queens, in connection with whom the word is not infrequently used: cf. C 1590 and MED sv gliden 4(a) and (c).

1107  Hundred thousandes alludes to the 144,000 who are said at Rev. 14:4 to follow the Lamb (who here too precedes them: 1110) wherever He goes (cf. 889–900 and n.).

1108  all in sute her livres wasse: influenced by Rev. 7:9 (a great multitude, which no man could number … stood before the throne, and before the Lamb, clothed with white robes). livres were the garb given by a lord to those in his service, who thus ‘wore his livery’. The word emphasizes the subordination of individual identity to the group identity drawn from the master whose colours (cf. 1112) the followers wear.

1109  Tor to telle (MS tor to knaw [know]): tor (from ON) is, by this date, found only in alliterative verse or as an element in alliterating phrases – of which ‘tor to telle’ was the commonest and was almost certainly the original reading here (cf. G 165, 719).

1114  plyt: plight [state, condition], from OE pliht, was originally distinct from OF-derived plit [danger, sorry circumstances, etc]. But the two words had fallen together by this date, and in this MS both forms are used indiscriminately for either sense – and in Pearl provide useful rhyming options (cf. 647, 1015, 1075).

1115  The simile ‘mild as a maiden’ is conventional – cf. Chaucer’s Knight, who, ‘meeke as is a mayde’, never speaks churlishly to anyone (CT I.68–71) – but the expanded version of the figure here has the odd effect of actualizing the simile: those to whom it is applied are precisely ‘maidens’ (cf. 1099) at the divine reality betokened by the Mass (see 1064 and n.).

1119–26  Cf. Rev. 5:9–14 (describing the homage paid the Lamb before the throne of God): And they sung a new song … and I heard the voice of many angels round about the throne and the beasts and the elders: and the number of them was … thousands of thousands … And the four and twenty elders fell down and worshipped him. On the alder men (1119) in Revelation, cf. notes to 835–40 and 881–8. The ensens (1122), typically, has a more literal and less symbolic presence in the poem than in Revelation, in which the golden vials of the elders are full of odours, which are the prayers of saints (5:8).

1123  abroched: the metaphor is from opening a wine-cask: glory and gle are allowed to ‘pour out’ like wine. For the figurative usage of the verb, cf. e.g. CT III.177.

1135  a wounde ful wyde and wete: a reference to the spear-wound in Christ’s side (cf. 654 and n.). For the collocation wyde and wete as applied to a wounde, cf. DT 1328, Rowlande and Ottuell 940. The normal sense of the verb wyse is ‘guide, show, point out’. Our footgloss ‘show, be visible’ follows Gordon, but we have found no parallel for this intransitive sense.

1138  who did that spyt: the dreamer speaks as if uninitiated in basic Christian history and dogma (cf. 771–2, 919–22). The effect is to defamiliarize familiar material. The Lamb’s wound is as fresh as the dreamer’s question implies the crucifixion is for him, an event which he is now comprehending as if for the first time.

1141–5  The thinking is courtly: it was the business of a lord, at feasts and festivals, to encourage good cheer by a cheerful demeanour and to banish from his semblaunt all sign of personal care or distress: see e.g. G 467–9.

1141  wene: A&W and Gordon assume wene = ‘suppose’, here in a special (and otherwise unattested) sense of ‘doubt’ (‘No one would see fit to doubt the delight of the Lamb’). We have understood it to be the verb wane in its sense ‘decrease, diminish’ (MED wanen v^1 (d); cf. waning [deduction, diminution] at 558); weniand [waning] in The Towneley Plays indicates that an e form (which rhyme has necessitated) was possible in the poet’s dialect. For post-positioned none (delit non), cf. e.g. ‘Thou getest fable noon ytoold for me’ (CT X.31).

1146  laste (the only record of the survival into ME of the OE verb gehlaestan) and lade: both words mean ‘fully fraught’ and belong to verbs that were applied primarily to cargo and provisions, etc, though the latter was also used of trees ‘laden’ with fruit. The alliterating metaphor gives body to the biblical notion of the ‘abundance’ of life promised to the saved (John 10:10).

1150  Among her feres belongs syntactically apo koinou, i.e. in common, with both 1149 and that was so white at 1150. The girl is thus placed both spatially and in terms of her attributes ‘along with’ her companions – from whom, however, she is instinctively picked out by the eye of her father, whose recognition and feelings instantly claim his own child (my little quene, 1147).

1151–2  wade … in gret delit: a variation on the familiar metaphors ‘bathe in bliss’, ‘swim in gladness’, etc: see MED sv bathen 5(a) and swimmen 3(a); cf. Romaunt of the Rose 5022 (‘in vanite to droune and wade’) and the later but pertinent parallel in Hooker’s sixteenth-century Ecclesiastical Polity, ‘a sea of comfort and joy to wade in’ (V.lxvii.4), cited in OED sv wade 3b. The phrase thus suggests the human paradise towards which the mortal’s luf-longing directs itself – prompting, however, a resolve literally to wade, i.e. cross the river, something which, as a mortal, he has been told he cannot do (299–300). This wordplay on the figurative and literal senses of wade underlines how the father’s reaction is both humanly inevitable and fatally inappropriate to his daughter’s now supra-human state. luf-longing marks a return to the register of romantic love which had been initially used to express the preciousness of the child to her father (cf. 11 and n.).

1154  manes mynde to maddyng malt: the association between madness and mortal man (cf. 267, 290) is made several times in this final section (1154, 1166, 1199), and is applied particularly to the foolish attempt to resist the divine will, a point explicitly spelled out at 1199–1200. The overpowering Delit (1153) which is the immediate cause of the maddyng confirms earlier indications that otherworldly bliss is such as to overtax mortal powers (1081–92), with the result that manes mynde eventually ‘melts’. For a similar use of melt to describe a state of complete loss of self-control, cf. ‘nygh she meltith for pure wood [rabid rage]’ (Romaunt of the Rose 276).

1158  With fech me bur, cf. ‘right as the ram renneth backward to fecche the strenger strook … so feccheth this beem his strook ayenst the wal that stant byfore hym’ (Vegetius 168). take me halte is less clear and has been variously interpreted (‘strike me lame’, ‘take hold of me’); the parallelism with fech me bur suggests an identical grammatical structure (infinitive + dative pronoun + noun), and we construe ‘give me a check or restraint’ (MED hold n^2 5), i.e. ‘restrain me’. take meaning ‘give’ is well attested (cf. G 1966). halte cannot represent the noun halt (not recorded before the late sixteenth century) but is a well-attested spelling of nominal hold.

1161  bitalt: an otherwise unrecorded verb, apparently from OE tealtian [totter, shake, move unsteadily], of which the only other instance is the phrase talterande ythes [?rolling waves] at SJ 286. It is presumably related to tilte, a verb likewise found only in alliterative verse and derived from OE tyltian (a variant of tealtian), which, in transitive usage, means ‘push, make topple’.

1162  start … astray [leave one’s place, strike out]: see n. to G 1716.

1163  bycalt: presumably from bicalle, which elsewhere means either ‘accuse’ or ‘call upon’ (as at 913); the required sense here (i.e. ‘called, summoned’) is not otherwise attested.

1165  flonc: a West Midland form of flong (see n. to 905).

1166  For arayed used of the signs of a state of mind, cf. ‘With salt teres why be ye thus arrayde?’ (Court of Sapience 747).

1167  For ronk applied to the will given its head, cf. C 455, 873, Pa 298.

1169–70  Being woken from a dream by a sudden movement within it is a verisimilar detail found in both earlier and later dream-visions (cf. Skelton, Bowge of Court 526–32, and see Burrow 1993: 13–15). The naturalism is here not an end in itself: by jolting him out of his dream, the father’s human response to his own daughter in particular is revealed as inconsistent with the more corporate perspective proper to the next world.

1173  This image is the one consistently used by the father-narrator to refer to the death of his daughter (cf. 10, 41, 245), though she herself puts it more bluntly (958). For a similar use of strayd (here ‘fell, slipped’), cf. ‘Oure Lord God … his blod strayed in [down into] the strete’ (Castle of Perseverance 2304–5).

1174  raxled is often translated ‘stretched’, a meaning which the verb certainly could have; but in the context of waking from sleep, it is found translating French esperecier [waken, rouse] and seems simply to refer to the bodily signs of return to consciousness (see MED sv raxlen (a)).

1179  Both quik and the near-synonymous lifly are found translating Latin vividus, which itself (derived from vivere [to live]) provides a model for the metaphorical application to intensity of sense impression. The basic sense of the word quik [living] is presumably also relevant here.

1182  of rich renoun: though it could apply to the pearl-child in the looser sense of ‘splendid’ (cf. ‘Thei rafe [rent] ther robes of rych renoun’: Metrical Paraphrase 14403), the phrase could apply in its strict sense only to ‘the pearl of great price’ (732–5), i.e. heaven. It thus acts to conflate the two pearls and to indicate that the longing (1180) is no longer simply that of bereavement, but is for the greater whole, the heavenly sightes (1179), of which the girl is now realized to be a part.

1184  veray avysyoun: whether and which dreams could be regarded as revelations was a much-discussed topic. Dreams were commonly assigned variously to causes basically physiological (somnium naturale), psychological (somnium animale) or divinely inspired (somnium celestiale, of which Revelation was the archetype): cf. House of Fame 1–52, Parliament of Fowls 99–105, CT VII.2923–3156, PP B.7.149–67. The word avysyoun itself [what is shown in a dream] could be used of any dream – delusory or visionary; but veray [true, veritable] firmly categorizes this dream as a revelation of divine truth of the type experienced by St John.

1186  stykes: sometimes emended to strykes [proceeds], to produce a reference to the crown under which the girl walks. But stick in its sense of ‘be set firmly in position’ (see MED stiken 4a and 9a) suggests that she is being imagined as a jewel set in a coronal: a garlande could refer to bejewelled diadems and chaplets as well as wreaths; and it seems relevant that the girl should be represented at this point as part of a greater whole. The garlande gay in which she is set is a metaphor for heaven, which is endeles rounde (738) (Bishop 1957).

1187  doel-doungoun: the common ideas of the world as a ‘vale of tears’ and the ‘foule prisoun of this lyf’ (CT I.3061) are here expressed in an alliterating compound apparently original to this poet (cf. the compounds at 337, 1041, 1094).

1189–94  Being content with no more (1190) would have led to mo (1194) – a paradox reflected in the verbs: had the dreamer holden himself (1191) within the prescribed bounds, that voluntary stasis would have led to progress forward (drawen, driven: 1193–4). The reasoning (that he would have got further by obedience) lends point to the word mad (1199) and its implications of perverse disregard of one’s own best interests (see n. to 267–75).

1196  upon hem clyven: for the verb used in the sense ‘belong, be the allotted portion of’, cf. ‘dignytees and poweres … suffren hemselve to cleven or joynen hem to schrewes’ (Chaucer, Boece 2.pr6.90).

1204  The noun sequence is in decreasing degrees of remoteness, with increasing emphasis on the benefits conferred by dependence on a superior: God becomes the (then) social reality of a lord, with all the security, patronage and protection that implied; and frende in this sequence has its more formal sense, common in earlier English, of a (usually powerful) ‘benefactor’ or ‘patron’ who will befriend one’s cause or interests (cf. ‘friends in high places’): see MED frend 1(b).

1206  enclyin: an adjective (< OF enclin) which elsewhere in ME occurs only in the sense ‘submissive’; the sense here (‘prone, brought low’) is from French usage.

1208  As demonstrated by Davis (1966), 1208 is a formula of blessing used primarily by parents to children. The narrator’s relationship with the ‘pearl’ is thus most explicitly owned and asserted at the very point at which it is being resigned. The form of words was itself especially associated with parental farewells (epistolary or actual); to God I hit bytaght (1207) has, in any case, as well as its strict sense, the implication of ‘I said goodbye to it’, since biteche [commend] to God figured commonly as a salutation used in, or as a periphrasis for, leavetaking (see G 1982, 2472–3). The parental formula has here a particular pertinence it did not usually have: the girl is being resigned to the Christ she now belongs to and whose blessing, in the fullest sense, she has received. He is the husband to whom the father now, in a manner, ‘gives away’ his daughter, together with his own rights in and duty of care for her.

1209  That in the forme of bred and wyne: both the relative That [who] and the Eucharistic real presence referred to create a submerged link in Christ between father and daughter and their two different orders of being: the heavenly Christ to whom she is ceded is revealed daily to mortals in the more enigmatic form of the sacrament of the altar.

1210  The reference is not to communion, which would not be taken daily, but to the elevation of the host, at this period the most solemn point of the Mass, when the priest raised the host (after the consecration which performed the miraculous incorporation of Christ) to demonstrate it to the congregation. The moment – marked by the pealing of bells, the sounding of the sacring bell and the provision of extra illumination – was conceived of as that at which Christ entered again into the world: ‘hic in terris cotidie videtur dum per manus sacerdotum elevatur, cum hominibus conversatur’ [He is seen here on earth every day (cf. uch a day) when He is elevated by the hand of priests, and comes into the company of men] (Coventry Statutes, cited in Rubin 1991: 57). The dative pronoun us classes the first-person speaker with the congregation (cf. Pa 9–10), which suggests that the poet was either a layman or a clerk in minor orders below the rank of ordained priest (by whom alone the sacraments could be administered).

1211–12  The prayer for salvation that forms a common conclusion to ME narrative poems, secular and sacred (cf. Sir Gawain), is here adapted to fit both the form and the themes of the poem, since the last line draws the text into a lexical circle by echoing the first. The close has a more collective note (us in 1210, the collective noun hyne, the plural perles) than is sounded in the opening stanza, and in this sense shows the influence of the vision of the New Jerusalem – as a corporate state, a household deriving its being and identity from its prince.

NOTES TO CLEANNESS

1–4  As in Patience, the virtue that is the subject of the poem occurs as its first word (CLANNES) and is given biblical authority by being introduced as one of the eight Beatitudes (23–8; cf. Pa 9–45). The contrasting Fayre formes and combraunce huge offered by cleanness and uncleanness as subjects of discourse in the opening quatrain clearly reflect the contrasting fates met by the clean and the unclean in the exempla: the fair lot that befalls the clean (cf. 27) and the disasters that cumber [overwhelm] the unclean (cf. 901, 920).

2     ho [she]: both OE clænnes and Latin munditia were grammatically feminine nouns. Cf. the personification of the eight Beatitudes (including mery Clannesse) as ladies at Pa 30–33.

9–12 On the especial obligation on priests to be clean, cf. ‘[priests] þe on godes temple þenian sceolon & haligdom & halige bec handlian, þa scelon symble heora clannesse healdian’ (cited from Dictionary of OE, sv diacon; cf. Speculum Vitae 12138–44); and for hondel applied specifically to the Eucharist (in which God’s body was believed to be actually present), cf. also the reference in Everyman to the priest as someone who ‘handeleth his Maker bytwene his handes’ (739). usen in this context means, not ‘use’, as it is sometimes glossed, but ‘partake of’ (see Lay Folks’ Mass Book 380–82), communion being associated particularly with the clergy, because most laymen simply saw the Eucharist at Mass, at the elevation (cf. Pe 1210), normally partaking of it only once a year at Easter.

9     Cf. ‘Eft to trede on thy temple and teme to thyselven’ (Pa 316). For temen used in its social sense (‘form part of the following of a particular lord or leader’: MED temen v^1 2(c)) and applied to the adherents of the Christian God, cf. ‘alle that evre to Cryst wil teme, byhoueth be baptysed … ’ (Mannyng, Handlyng Synne 9553–4).

12–16  The allusion is to the doctrinal point that the Eucharist is taken to one’s salvation (12) if taken when cleansed of sin (through the sacrament of confession), but to one’s damnation (13–16) if received unworthily.

18   The presentation of God as presiding over an impeccable household prepares for the Parable of the Wedding Feast (51ff), in which He is represented as a lord holding a feast.

19–20  clene Bothe withinne and withouten: contrast ‘honest outwith and inwith all fylthes’ (14).

23–25  allude to Christ’s Sermon on the Mount, in which He promises eight rewards for eight virtues (Matthew 5:1–11), one of which is purity of heart. The full eight are listed at Pa 13–28.

27–8  Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God (Matthew 5:8).

28   with a love-chere: love is regularized from what we read as loue (read as bone, and emended to leue, by Menner and A&W), which Anderson glosses ‘low’. For loke … with a love-chere, cf. the loving looks exchanged by Paris and Helen when they first see each other at DT 3105: ‘So be lokyng of lenght with a love-chere’ (where MS loue definitely represents love, not low, which is spelled with w in that text: contrast ‘he louted … with a low chere’ at 1777).

29   As so says is a variant of the more normal ‘As who says’, a variant especially common in northern texts: cf. Northern Homily Cycle 20/103; Cursor C 19059, 19854; Rolle, English Psalter 13 (unnecessarily emended to wo by the editor).

33–4  prepare for the parable to come by introducing a common figurative equation between scruffy clothes and moral impurity: cf. the sin-stained clothes of Haukyn (PP B.13.273–330).

40–41  cokres [leg-coverings worn for extra warmth out of doors] are associated with outdoor labouring: cf. Piers, who, in preparation for ploughing, ‘caste on hise clothes, yclouted and hole, Hise cokeres and his coffes [mittens]’ (PP B.6.59–60). The tabarde was a sleeveless overgarment that was also worn by the labouring classes: Chaucer’s Plowman wears one (CT I.541), and cf. the ‘Curtel and tabard’ in which a son is dressed by a mother who then ‘dede him into felde goon To kepe swyn’ (Seege or Batayle of Troye 268–70). The word tote denotes a projecting part of various kinds in ME, and a ‘point’ or ‘tip’ in Middle Dutch, in which it was also used of the toe of a shoe (Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek sv toot 2). It may bear a similar sense here, in which case oute would appear to mean ‘worn away, gone’: cf. ‘Ther is a busch’ I, 363: ‘The grete bagge … the bothom is ny ouyt; Hit is so roton on ych a side.’ The closest parallels for the vagabond’s disarray can be found in sympathetic descriptions of downtrodden labourers (cf. the poor Ploughman in Pierce the Ploughman’s Crede 425: ‘His ton toteden out as he the londe treddede’), but, in marked contrast with that tradition, the poet here enters wholeheartedly into the logic of the coming parable (in which the lord rebukes a guest for wearing working clothes on a feast day: 141) and presents the peasant’s clothing as disrespectful slovenliness.

47   schrowde feble (cf. goun feble: 145): for the application of the adjective to unmagnificent clothing indicative of low status, cf. ‘And therhinne dede hire fede Pourelike in feble wede’ (Havelok 322–3) and (of a queen who disguises herself) ‘Un draps mult feble vestu a’ (Protheselaus 12466).

48   in tale ne in touch: ‘in word nor in deed’ is the explanation (accepted by most editors) suggested by Skeat (1901: 289) of MS in talle ne in tuch. But the spellings are unusual, and touch is not recorded in the required sense. We may be dealing with other words and with another idiom (perhaps involving clothing: see MED taille 1(b), ‘cut, fashion’) meaning ‘in any way’, which is the sense required here. Anderson in fact glosses ‘neither in general appearance … nor in detail of dress’ and assumes some literal reference to clothing (which would not make sense, as the point is that the unsuitable clothing would be offence enough for punishment (47), though (48) no other sin were committed).

49   worthlych is emended to wordlych (a possible form of worldly) by A&W. The reference is indeed to a mortal prince; but that perhaps does not need to be spelled out.

51   As Mathew meles in his Masse: cf. ‘As Mathew meles in your Messe’ (Pe 497). The poet assumes his audience would be familiar with the Parable of the Wedding Feast from its use at Mass as a Gospel reading (on the twentieth Sunday after Trinity). His own retelling of it actually combines Matthew 22:1–14 with the version of the parable in Luke 14:16–26. Only Matthew contains the guest who offends the host, and only Luke contains the excuses offered by the invited and the vivid description of the wayfarers.

51–4  The kingdom of heaven is like unto a certain king, which made a marriage [Luke 14:16: coenam magnam [a great supper]] for his son, And sent forth his servants to call them that were bidden to the wedding: and they would not come. Again, he sent forth other servants, saying … (Matthew 22:2–4). The poet follows Luke in having only one initial message sent, as opposed to the two in Matthew. The reference to comly quoyntyse has been added to prepare for what is to come; for quoyntyse meaning ‘finery’, see MED queintis(e 3(b) and (c).

55–60  Elaborated from Matthew 22:4: Behold, I have prepared my dinner: my oxen and my fatlings are killed, and all things are ready: come unto the marriage.

57   penne-fed: free-range meat was not prized in the Middle Ages, when pen-fed cattle and poultry were a luxury (Wilson 1973: 119). WA and MA offer as examples of delicacies, respectively, a ‘penyd hoge’ (4407) and ‘Pygges … that pastured neuer’ (183).

59   right to the sete: Menner assumes adjectival sete (cf. G 889) and glosses ‘appetizingly’. We follow Anderson, who assumes OED seat 1 (‘an assembly at a banquet’), where the citations include e.g. Ormulum 11059 (‘He turnnde waterr inntill win … Att an bridaless saete [wedding feast]’).

61–72  And they all with one consent began to make excuse [excusare]. The first said unto him, I have bought a piece of ground [villam emi], and I must needs go and see it: I pray thee have me excused. And another said, I have bought five yoke of oxen, and I go to prove them: I pray thee have me excused. And another said, I have married a wife, and therefore I cannot come (Luke 14:18–20). Matthew (22:5) is more summary, but his version underlies lines 71–2, which is where the poet turns back to Matthew for the next stage in the story: But they made light of it [neglexerunt], and went their ways [abierunt], one to his farm [villam suam], another to his merchandise.

66   yat: the poet’s normal past participle is geten; he here selected the variant yat for alliterative reasons.

67   byes: MS hyȝeȝ is usually retained and glossed ‘servants’, but the MS reading is suspect on the grounds of metre and hyȝe is nowhere else attested as a form of ME hine or heue [servant] (the latter in any case confined to more southerly dialects: Kaiser 1937: 286). The word by [farmstead] fits the context well.

73–92  The poet omits the verses in Matthew (22:6–7) which tell of the ill-treatment of the messengers by those who sent their excuses and the resulting destruction of themselves and their cities by the lord (events not in Luke). Matthew then continues (22:8–10): Then saith he to his servants, The wedding is ready, but they which were bidden were not worthy [digni]. Go ye, therefore, into the highways [exitus viarum], and as many as ye shall find, bid to the marriage. So those servants went out into the highways, and gathered together all as many as they found, both bad and good: and the wedding was furnished with guests. Luke 14:21 has: So that servant came, and shewed his lord these things. Then the master of the house being angry said to his servant, Go out quickly into the streets and lanes of the city [plateas et vicos civitatis], and bring in hither … The remainder of the verse (listing the lame and the blind, etc) is used at 97ff.

76   I.e. the Gentiles, the heathens who have no knowledge of the Christian message, are less to blame than those who, having heard the Gospel, decline its offer. The Northern Homily Cycle makes the same point apropos the Parable of the Vineyard: those who are invited to go to God’s vineyard but make excuses are worse than the Saracens, who have never heard tell ‘Nouthir of hevene ne of hell. Forthy be we on Domisdaye Wele more blamid for synne than thai’ (Northern Homily Cycle 14/162–4). This is in fact closer to the point of the Parable of the Wedding Feast as it appears in Luke, where the target of the story (which ends at 14:24 with the statement translated at C 105–8) is those who refuse the invitation, not the ill-clothed wedding guest, who does not appear in Luke.

86–8  The poet moves down the social hierarchy from the bacheleres (knights retained by a feudal lord) and Swyeres (the squires who attend or sue them) to non-gentles who travel on foot, first freemen and lastly bondmen (i.e. serfs). The poet’s meticulous observance of hierarchy, here and in the seating arrangements for the Wedding Feast (92), has no counterpart in the Bible.

90   Stightled with the steward: the steward was in charge of household affairs, and arranging lodgings is often associated both with him and with the verb stightelen: ‘His steward stightled al his meyne’ (William 1199), ‘He commande … To styghtylle the steryn men as theire statte askys, That they bee herberde in haste’ (MA 156–8).

91   The marschal was responsible for household protocol; his duties included arranging seating at feasts (cf. StE 337–8), precedence being therefore a matter in which he was expected to be expert: ‘To the birthe of uche estate a mershalle must se’ (Book of Nurture 1105).

93–108  The poet follows Luke in having two trawls for guests, as opposed to Matthew’s one. But he uses Matthew for the first (see n. to 73–92) and combines Luke’s two into the second. Go out quickly into the streets and lanes of the city, and bring in hither the poor, and the maimed, and the halt, and the blind. And the servant said, Lord, it is done as thou hast commanded, and yet there is room. And the lord said unto the servant, Go out into the highways and hedges, and compel them to come in, that my house may be filled. For I say unto you, That none of those men which were bidden shall taste of my supper (Luke 14:21–4). The poet’s reorganizing selection from the two accounts makes more of a downward progression between the two searches than occurs in Luke: from the streets (77) to the open fields (98–9), and from the varied ranks of the hale and travelling (86–8) to the disabled and homeless (99–103).

98   Ferkes is Gollancz’s emendation of MS ferre. The MS reading is defended by Anderson and Vantuono, but the repetition of comparative ferre (97) would be clumsy and positive ‘far’ is always spelt fer in this MS (except at line ending at G 1093, ‘fro ferre’, where the form is prompted by metrical requirements). Ferkes out reflects Luke’s Go out [exi: 14:23], though the imperative is there singular, since only the one ‘servant’ is addressed, whereas the lord in the poem speaks to a body of servants (gomes, segges, ledes: 77, 93, 97) and therefore uses the imperative plural (Laytes, feches, Waytes: 97–9).

105   redily: MS certeȝ does not alliterate and is not a word that occurs anywhere else in the MS; redily is well attested in the sense of ‘certainly’: MED redili adv^2 2(d).

106  denounced me noght: the verb meant ‘announce, reveal (the truth), make known’. Gollancz translates ‘proclaimed’. Anderson glosses ‘borne witness to, acknowledged’, citing from Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch, ‘Aouret l’ont et denonciet’ (with reference to the three kings adoring the infant Jesus). Cf. the reference to prophets who endured persecution in the name of God ‘qu’il avoient denuncé et adoré’ (Dictionnaire du Moyen Français sv denoncer 2). The sense ‘proclaimed (as Lord) by their actions and words’ suits both the two French examples and the context in Cleanness, where it is pertinent to both the secular lord and to the heavenly Lord he represents.

112–24  have no parallel in the Bible.

115–16  The seating arrangement is that of the medieval hall: the highest-ranking are seated at the high table (The derrest at the highe dese: cf. G 445, ‘the derrest on the dese’); the others biloogh at tables placed lengthwise (on lenthe) down the sides of the hall. Cf. G 114–15.

117   as segges serely is Gollancz’s emendation of MS a segge soerly; as is supported by So (118) and segges by the plural pronoun her (117). by her wedes: the order of seating is determined by clothes, those dressed most richly being assumed to be the highest-ranking (114–15).

119   For the collocation of Clene and compayny, and the sense of Clene here (‘splendidly dressed’), cf. ‘Themperour … romed him ayens / with the clennest cumpanye that ever king ladde, / & whan the clene cumpanyes comen togadere, / the sight was ful semly’ (William 1609–12). forknowen can scarcely represent the recorded verb for(e)knowen [foresee], and must therefore be a different and otherwise unrecorded one. It has been assumed (by Anderson, A&W and MED) to show prefix for (not fore) in its pejorative force and glossed ‘neglected’, with lyte as adverb, but this gives weak sense. The sense that would best fit the context (of guests assembled from travellers and beggars) is that there were few who stood out as elegantly dressed for a party. We therefore assume adjectival lyte [few] and prefix for used with intensifying rather than pejorative force (OED for, pref^1 8 and 10) and follow Menner (who glosses ‘recognized, perceived’) in assuming forknowen = ‘clearly seen’.

123   Cf. ‘men ben mery in mynde when thay haf mayn drinke’ (G 497), ‘That man much mirthe con make For wyne in his hed that wende’ (G 899–900).

124   mach [mate, companion]: for the term used of a mess-mate, cf. PP B.13.35, 47 (var.), with reference to the meal hosted by Conscience: ‘Pacience and I were put to be macches’, ‘Bifore Pacience breed to brynge and me that was his macche’.

125–38  An expansion of Matthew 22:11: And when the king came in to see the guests, he saw there a man which had not on a wedding garment.

125  NOW: Significant developments in the various narratives are marked in the MS by a line beginning with a three-line-deep initial capital. We mark these lines by using upper case for the initial word in the relevant lines, as here. In three instances, the initial capital is larger – at line 1 (eight lines deep) and at lines 557 and 1157 (four lines deep) – and these capitals indicate the larger organization of the poem into a triad of three major exempla, occurring as they do at the transitions between them. These lines are marked in our text by preceding I, II and III and by emboldened upper case for the first word.

128  On cherisch, see n. to G 946.

131  sylede: silen [flow, sink] occurs in verse with the generalized sense of ‘go’, but when so used it always indicates fairly formal or even ceremonial procession: see illustrations in MED sv silen v^2 b. The word thus indicates formal procession down the ranks of his guests, and indicates that the lord is observing the forms belonging to the occasion (as he expects his guests also to do).

134–5  The lines occur in reverse order in the MS (which also reads hit, not He, in our line 135). Previous editors have not emended, but their retention of the MS reading involves some tortuous and unlikely syntax: A&W treat our 135 as a parenthesis between 133 and our line 134, and Anderson translates he fonde … the throng as ‘he found there was a thrall not properly dressed for a festival’, which assumes a very unlikely word order over 133b and our line 135a.

135–6  halyday is always elsewhere used of an actual holy day. The occasion is in fact a pre-Christian wedding feast (52), but since marriage was a sacrament in the Christian Church, the term is not without justification here. festival could be used of secular festivity, but, in contrast with werkes, also retains here its stricter reference to Church feast days, on which worldly labour or werkes was supposed to cease. The verb filen could refer to literal soiling, but also to moral defilement and desecration of the sacred: see MED filen v (2) 1 and 2. The terminology thus points to the allegorical level of the parable (by giving a moral-spiritual dimension to the social impropriety of the unbefitting garment) and is also consistent with the presentation of sin as involving an element of sacrilegious defilement of consecrated objects and occasions (cf. 5–16, 1133–52).

139–52  And he saith unto him, Friend, how camest thou in hither not having a wedding garment? And he was speechless (Matthew 22:12).

145  ungoderly: the precise sense and derivation are not known. The word occurs here and at 1092.

146  gnede [niggardly, scanty, scarce] is Morris’s emendation of MS nede (since adverbial nede occurs only in senses involving inevitability). Cf. the scribal variation between gnede and nede at Cursor 8599, 9107 and 2488, where ‘the pasture tham bigan to knede’ (= gnede [grow scarce]) appears in MS T as ‘her pasture tho wex al nede’ – which Anderson takes as indicating the existence of adjectival nede meaning ‘scanty’, citing the line in support of his own gloss of C 146: ‘You set a very poor and meagre value on me and my house.’ But the word reads more naturally as an adverb, and the line seems to mean ‘You honoured me and my house in a most poor and niggardly/scanty manner’.

147  prest to aproche my presense: the echo of line 8 (‘And aprochen to His presense and prestes are called’) serves to link this exemplum with the sacrilege committed by unclean priests; cf. n. to 135–6.

150  hurkeles doun with his hed: hurkelen occurs in alliterative verse with reference to the crouching or nestling posture of a timid hare or bird (WW 13, P3A 19, WA 504). Its use here vividly captures the gesture by which the alarmed guest attempts to hunch down his head out of harm’s way.

153–60  Then said the king to his servants [ministris], Bind him hand and foot, and take him away, and cast him into outer darkness; there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth (Matthew 22:13). The Bible here begins to reveal the moral of the parable, since the wording clearly recalls scriptural descriptions of Hell: cf. many … shall sit down … in the kingdom of heaven. But the children of the kingdom shall be cast out into outer darkness [tenebras exteriores]: there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth (Matthew 8:11–12).

158  doungoun was often used figuratively of Hell (cf. PP B.Prol.15), and here corresponds to outer darkness in the Bible. For the alliterative collocation with doel, cf. doel-doungoun at Pe 1187.

159  Gollancz emends MS gryspyng to gryspytyng. Editors have defended the MS reading as a possible shortened form, comparing the MS variant gryspude (for grysbat) in Mirk’s Festial (see MED sv grispen), but the emendation is supported by metrical considerations, since the b-verse requires a long dip.

160  For quoynte [elegant] meaning ‘smartly dressed’ (MED queynt(e adj 1(f)), cf. ‘Y … was sumtyme so queint and gay [splendid] in my good arraye’ (Knight of La Tour-Landry 38).

161–4  Combining Matthew 22:2 (The kingdom of heaven is like unto a certain king, which made a marriage for his son: cf. C 51–2) with Matthew 22:14 (For many are called, but few are chosen).

164  fulwed in font: cf. ‘fulloght in fonte’ (StE 299). The poet reflects orthodox doctrine in representing baptism as a prerequisite for eligibility for salvation.

172  lyned with the lykyng: since u and n are indistinguishable, lyned has been transcribed elsewhere lyued, but lyned with can certainly enter into clothing allegories (cf. Skelton, Bowge of Court 177–8, 286) and would here pertinently point to the inner will that in orthodox doctrine determined the virtue or otherwise of all outer werkes (171).

178–88  For comparable catalogues in the Bible, see 1 Corinthians 10:7–10, Matthew 15:19, Galatians 5:19–21. The present list of sins that can cost us the kingdom of heaven begins with the recognizable deadly sins of the spirit: sloth (178), pride (179) and various forms of covetousness and wrath (181–4). The poet then progresses from such archetypal sins to more topical abuses (185–8).

180  develes throte: a common image for the mouth of Hell, going back to the Old Testament (e.g. Isaiah 5:14).

185–6  dysheriete and depryve are explained by Anderson and A&W as infinitives with the force of verbal nouns (‘disinheriting’, ‘depriving’). The term dowrie referred to any property to which a wife or widow had legal claim. Widows were notoriously vulnerable to attempts to wrest their property from them by lawsuits or other means: cf. Troilus II.1416–21, 1465–84; Ordinances of Chivalry 70. There were likewise lawyers ready, if offered sufficient bribes or fees to do so, to find ways of annulling marriages: see PP B.XX.138–9. mayntnaunce is a word much used in connection with contemporary abuses of power in local and legal affairs, especially the keeping of retinues that often amounted to private armies (whose outrages were the subject of much protest), and the abetting or protecting of client wrongdoers (see MED maintenaunce 1(a) and (b) and 2(b)); it is in connection with the last matter that the construction with of occurs elsewhere.

195  Prince that Paradise weldes: cf. ‘to the Prince of Paradise’ (G 2473), ‘the prince that paradise weldes’ (StE 161).

197–204  The poet’s claim that God reacts to fylthe of the flesch with uniquely rabid passion has no biblical or patristic authority and involves some startling theology. For he represents God as being eminently passible and irascible in these circumstances, losing all His divine fre thewes (i.e. His calmness, long-suffering, mercy, etc), and in fact guilty of what in humans would be clearly recognizable as the sin of wrath: He acts hastily and sodenly (200–201), growing wod [rabid] for wrath (204); contrast Pa 520 and Chaucer’s Tale of Melibee (a warning tale directed at wrath), ‘ye moste also dryve out of your herte hastifnesse; for certes, ye may not deme for the best by a sodeyn thought that falleth in youre herte, but ye moste avyse yow on it ful ofte’ (CT VII.1134).

201  unsoundely: see n. to G 1438.

205ff  The punishments of Lucifer and of Adam and Eve are offered as examples of God visiting severe punishment, but in a considered and controlled manner (cf. 215, 230, 247), not with the precipitate violence provoked in Him by fylthe of the flesch (202).

205–32  The story of Lucifer’s fall is not in the Bible, but was developed by early commentators with the aid of such biblical hints as Rev. 12:7–9, Isaiah 14:12–15 (partially quoted at 211–12) and Ezekiel 28:14–19, where verse 17 (recalled at 209, 217–18) reads Thine heart was lifted up because of thy beauty, thou hast corrupted thy wisdom by reason of thy brightness: I will cast thee to the ground.

208  unkyndely: the root of the word is kind [nature], and unkyndely in contexts such as this one denoted the violation of what was regarded as a natural obligation or bond (see MED unkindeli adv 3), an act of filial, marital or feudal disloyalty or ingratitude. Lucifer, returning the gifts of his Soverayn (210) with rebellion, thus acts unkyndely, i.e. ‘disloyally, ungratefully, unnaturally’, showing (though created athel: 207) the coarseness of feeling of a carle.

209  were: subjunctive were sometimes occurs in place of indicative was at line ending for metrical reasons, to provide the required line-final unstressed syllable (Putter et al. 2007: 43–4).

211–12  For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God: I will sit also upon the mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north: I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; I will be like the most High (Isaiah 14:13–14).

213  God’s vengeance strikes as soon as Lucifer speaks. Cf. ‘Talia iactantem praecelsa Potentia caelo / iecit et eiectum prisco spoliavit honore’ [even as he threw out these words, the All-Mighty threw him out of heaven and robbed the outcast of his former glory] (Avitus II.45–6).

214  For the sense of dere here, see n. to Pe 504.

215  methe: emended from MS metȝ; cf. 565 (‘In the mesure of His mod and methe of His wille’). The MS reading has been defended as a form of mes [blow], but only in verb endings does tȝ represent s in this MS.

216  The expression tythe-dole was common. It was often used of tithes, but also in other contexts (e.g. William 5346), and the variant tithe part occurs in Tithe-Giving 21 to explain why God created man (‘God wil nat the tith part of hevene to be voide and idel’): to fill the tenth part of heaven left empty after the expulsion of the rebel angels (often believed to have been the tenth of the ten angelic orders; cf. ‘The tend ordyr of angell Thurgh pryde … Unto fowle fendes fell’: Metrical Paraphrase 69–71). tour is taken by Anderson and A&W to be a form of atour [entourage], but there is no dictionary support for either the existence of an aphetic form of atour or for the use of atour in the sense of ‘entourage’. For tour used of the stronghold of heaven, cf. Pe 966, Harrowing of Hell 31, Cursor T 487 (‘And thus he [Lucifer] lost that heye tour’).

217  feloun: the crime of ‘felony’ (cf. 205) referred specifically to an act of disloyalty towards one’s feudal superior and was punishable by exile and loss of lands and goods to the king (Alford 1988: 58). Lucifer has been disloyal to his Lord and thus forfeits heaven.

221  fendes ful blake: the beautiful angels became ugly fiends only after their treason. Cf. ‘But fellen out in fendes liknesse [for] nyne dayes togideres’ (PP B.1.121).

222  as the snaw thikke: cf. ‘Seue daies and seue night, As ye seeth that fallith snowe, Vte of heuen hi alight, And in to helle were ithrow’ (‘Fall and Passion’ 25–8). The source may be the apocryphal Life of Adam and Eve 106: ‘And he and alle his feeren fullen out of hevene: heo fullen as thikke as the drift of the snouh.’

223  as the hyve swarmes: cf. ‘Right so as bees out swarmen from an hyve, Out of the develes ers [i.e. the pit of hell] ther gonne dryve Twenty thousand freres on a route, And thurghout helle swarmed al aboute’ (CT III.1693–6).

224  forty dayes lenthe: nine is the number in Milton’s Paradise Lost and Langland (see n. to 221), seven in ‘Fall and Passion’ 26–9 (see n. to 222). The metre-prompted forty is justified by its association in the Bible with trial and tribulation: e.g. the Flood lasts for forty days (369, 403), Moses dwells on the Mount for forty days (Exodus 24:18), Christ fasts for forty days in the wilderness (Mark 1:13).

226  smylt [?sieved]: MED records this as past participle of a verb that occurs only here and compares Scottish smuil [break into fragments], treating smult at DT 910 (‘the dragon … With a smorther and a smoke smult through his nase’) as past participle of a different verb, smolten (which occurs at C 461 and 732), though both verbs appear to be similar in sense (‘filter, slip, escape’) and to be related to Scottish smool [slink, sneak] (see SND sv smool).

228  erde is Gollancz’s emendation of MS worlde, which does not alliterate. Man was created to replace the fallen angels (see 240 and n.), but for the assumption that man’s world of earth already existed when Satan fell, cf. PP B.I.124–5.

229  This: the top of the first letter is indistinct, and the character, though usually read as a thorn, is transcribed as Y by A&W. But Yis as a narrative interjection usually occurs to contradict a contrary assumption (cf. 1113, Pa 117).

231  for wylnesful: wylnesful occurs only here and is emended to wylfulnes by A&W, but retained by Anderson and in MED, where it is convincingly explained as formed from the genitive of the noun wilne [will] in the same way as the well-attested adjective willesful was formed from the similar noun wil(le). In ME, the construction for + adjective means ‘because of being … ’ (cf. G 1440). In connection with the treachery of this feloun (217), the legal connotations of ‘wilfulness’ (see Alford 1988: 167–8) are probably relevant here: cf. ‘ … were forsworen ofte; Witynge and wilfully with the false helden’ (PP B.19.373–4).

231–2  The poet is explaining why a God famed for mercy showed none to Lucifer; cf. ‘For God oweth not yif him [i.e. Lucifer] mercy That ther aftir wolde not cry’ (Cursor T 485–6).

233  the routhe was little: previous editors have assumed the reference is to Lucifer’s lack of remorse (cf. 231–2, 234), but that impenitence provides the reason why his punishment Forthy [therefore] provides ‘little occasion for sorrow on his account’ (see MED reuth(e 3(a)). For negative + reuth used in the sense of ‘no tears to be shed’, cf. ‘No ruthe were it to rug the and ryve the in ropes’ (York Plays XXX.391).

238  pryvyly: glossed ‘apart’ by A&W, ‘apart, specially’ by Anderson and ‘especially for him’ in MED. The last is attractive, but no parallels for such a sense are cited.

240  The notion that mankind was created to take the place of the banished angels was common. Cf. ‘Adam therfor was wroght than The tent ordir for to fullfill That Lucifer did for to spill’ (Cursor 514–16).

242  enpoysened: the same metaphor is applied to the apple (which brought death to mankind) in StE 295–6: ‘Adam, oure alder … ete of that appull That mony a plyghtles pepul has poysned for ever.’ For parted meaning ‘descended’, cf. departed applied to birth at 1074.

252–64  The idea that people before the Flood were more beautiful, and had no maysters (252) and no law except that of kynde [nature] (263), rests on the common association of this biblical period with the classical Golden Age (see e.g. Ovid, Metamorphoses I.88ff). Cf. ‘illa prima aetas saeculi gloriosior et excellentior fuit caeteris futuris aetatibus … homines illius primae aetatis nullam legem habuerunt, per quam Deum cognoscerent, nisi naturalem’ [this first age was more glorious and more excellent than the future ages … men of this first age had no law by which to know God other than natural law] (Philip of Harveng, col. 586–7), ‘Then was no lernyng of no law; Thei lyfyd in lust even at ther lyst’ (Metrical Paraphrase 277–8).

256  lengest lif in hem lent: on the longevity of the generations before Noah, see Genesis 5:3–32; for the collocations, cf. Pa 260 (‘That any lif myght be lent so long him withinne’).

259  On subjunctive were here, see n. to 209.

263  Living before the Old Law of Moses and the New Law of Christ, the antediluvians have only natural law to obey (cf. n. to 252–64). The law of kynde is the basic moral code ‘written in the hearts’ of all human beings, of whatever belief (Romans 2:14–15).

265–8  Genesis 6:5 refers only to malitia [wickedness]. The poet attributes the Flood more particularly to sexual practices ‘against nature’, as had others before him, who also referred explicitly to homosexuality. Anderson cites Higden, Polychronicon II, 230: ‘Usque ad septimem generationem filii Seth fuerunt boni; sed postmodum viri abusi sunt viris, et mulieres mulieribus’ [until the seventh generation the sons of Seth were good men; but after that, men practised abuses with men and women with women]. Cf. also Genesis and Exodus 531–8 and Cursor 1569–72 (‘Wommen as we hit fynde Went togider ayeynes kynde And men also the same wise As the deuel wolde deuyse’). This assumption can be traced back to the Revelationes Sancti Methodii (Twomey 1985), the apocryphal Book of Enoch (Lewis 1968: 21) and Romans 1:26–7, which refers to those God had punished in the past: God gave them up unto vile affections: for even their women did change the natural use into that which is against nature: And likewise also the men, leaving the natural use of the woman, burned in their lust one toward another; men with men working that which is unseemly, and receiving in themselves that recompense of their error which was meet.

268  wymmen with other (MS with other): the MS appears pointlessly to repeat 267b. Though Anderson suggests other could refer to the fende of the next line, the a-verse is plainly corrupt, since it lacks a first alliterative stave (for which with is an unlikely candidate). Since biblical exegesis regularly referred in this context to homosexuality among women as well as men (see previous n.), insertion of wymmen is the obvious solution.

269–72  … the sons of God [filii Dei] saw the daughters of men [filias hominum] that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose (Genesis 6:2). The ‘sons of God’ and the ‘daughters of men’ were commonly interpreted (as by Langland at PP B.9.128) as referring respectively to Seth’s offspring and Cain’s. This poet equates the ‘sons of God’ with the fallen angels. Cf. ‘ly enemys d’enfern venoient sovent coucher ovesqez femmes de sa generacion et engendroient diverse gentz monstres’ [the devils from hell came often to lie with women … and begat on them many monstrous races] (Mandeville, Livre 379). Mandeville’s source is Josephus (Antiquitates 32).

272–6  Expanded from Genesis 6:4: There were giants in the earth in those days; and also after that, when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare children to them, the same became mighty men which were of old, men of renown. The poet’s amplification is reminiscent of Avitus IV.18–20: ‘sed princeps sibi quisque fuit virtute nocendi; / nec meritis sed mole potens; qui fortior esset, / hic melior sibimet, sed se censore, placebat’ [but everyone thought himself a ruler on account of his power to inflict harm, and strong because of his prowess rather than his merit; whoever was stronger prided himself on being better].

272  See MED jape 2(b) and (c) for the sexual sense the word could have.

281–5  The lines are an amalgamation of Genesis 6:12, And God looked upon the earth, and, behold, it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth, and Genesis 6:6, And it repented the Lord that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him at his heart [Et tactus dolore cordis intrinsecus].

286–91  And the Lord said, I will destroy [Delebo] man whom I have created from the face of the earth; both man, and beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the air; for it repenteth me that I have made them (Genesis 6:7).

289  schal doun: omission of verbs of motion is frequent in ME, especially with the adverbs up and down; cf. ‘Doun shall the castell’ (Romaunt of the Rose 5868).

291b–292  The lines are based on a variant reading of the Vulgate: Et praecavens in futurum [And taking care for the future]. Originating in the Greek Septuagint (Lecklider 1997: 94–5), this variant occurs in numerous medieval MSS of the Vulgate after Genesis 6:7 (Vercellone) and also influenced other biblical poets. Cf. ‘Eschuïr vout des anqui en avant Pur sa justice, que mais nou feïssient’ [he wanted from now on, by executing his justice, to prevent them from doing it ever again] (Bible anonyme 919–20). kepe thus appears to have the sense ‘govern’, shading into ‘hold in check’ (MED kepen 8a, 14c, 16 and cf. 11c), rather than ‘observe’ (Anderson) or ‘take note’ (A&W), unless the statement is triply tautologous (wayte [watch out] and be ware [be aware] being very close in meaning).

293–7  But Noah found grace in the eyes of the Lord. These are the generations of Noah: Noah was a just man and perfect in his generations, and Noah walked with God (Genesis 6:8–9).

298–300  And Noah begat three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth (Genesis 6:10). The order in which the three sons are recorded is assumed by the poet to indicate the order of their births; cf. ‘The first was Sem, Cham was the tothir, And Japhet hight that yongest brother’ (Cursor C 1929–30).

299  The b-verse is suspect since it does not alliterate and ends in a stressed syllable.

301–8  And God said unto Noah, The end of all flesh is come before me [coram me]; for the earth is filled with violence through them; and, behold, I will destroy [disperdam] them with the earth (Genesis 6:13).

305  me wlates (cf. 1501): the application of the verb to divine displeasure has biblical precedent. Cf. because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue [evomere] thee out of my mouth (Rev. 3:16), rendered as follows in Ancrene Wisse 151: ‘thu makest me to wleatien ant Ich wulle speowe thee ut’. Cf. also Mannyng, Handlyng Synne 3539–40: ‘swyche men [backbiters] God almyghty hatys And with here foule synne hym wlatys’. The poet is thus exploiting existing linguistic associations between physical disgust and moral abhorrence.

307  The line renders disperdam eos (see n. to 301–8), the sense of which is sufficiently conveyed by strye all togeder. There is no evidence that strenkle [sprinkle, strew] can mean ‘vent’, and the verb does not usually denote a forceful action; its pertinence in context is not therefore clear. The sense of distresse is also arguable. Anderson glosses strenkle my distresse ‘put forth my power’. But distresse = ‘coercion, force’ is usually found following a preposition (cf. 1160), and would be unidiomatic with the possessive adjective, which indicates the sense here is ‘anguish, distress’. God presumably means that His distress will have effects that will not be simply local, but will be dispersed throughout the world to strye all togeder.

309–13  Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms [mansiunculas] shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch (Genesis 6:14).

312  cleme … with clay occurs in other contexts, with reference to e.g. pots and crocks: see MED clemen v 1(a); i.e. the expression and the procedure were familiar.

313  endentur refers elsewhere to a legal document cut along a zigzag or ‘indented’ line so that the two parts (one for each party to the contract) tallied exactly with each other. It here refers to the joins (between planks) which Noah is to caulk; cf. ‘Myche yren to the naylis of the yatis, and to endentyngis and ioyningis’ (Wycliffite Bible, 1 Paralipomenon 22:3).

314–17  And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of: The length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height of it thirty cubits (Genesis 6:15).

314  lome [container, vessel], used of a ship only in this MS (cf. 412, 443, 495; Pa 160), illustrates the lexical lateral thinking encouraged by the alliterative metre.

315  The line lacks its second alliterating stress. Perhaps cubites should be emended to elnes [ells]. Cf. Genesis and Exodus 563–5 (‘Thre hundred elne was it long … and l.ti elne wid, and xxxti heg’) and the gloss in Nicolas of Lyra’s Postilla (‘Hebraei autem loco cubitorum dicunt ulnarum’).

318–20  A window shalt thou make to the ark, and in a cubit shalt thou finish it above; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side thereof (Genesis 6:16).

318  openande (MS vpon): the detail was added to the Bible by many versifiers in anticipation of the later dispatch from this window of the raven and the dove (453: ‘Then waft he open his wyndow’; cf. Genesis 8:6). Cf. ‘[Make a] windou sperand wel on hei’ (Cursor C 1683).

321–2  The lines correspond to the conclusion of Genesis 6:16, which reads in the AV with lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it, though the Latin Vulgate does contain a reference to rooms (coenacula [dining or upper rooms], et tristega facies in ea), and is similarly understood (and expanded) to refer to accommodation for animals in the Towneley Plays 3.192–5: ‘Make in thi ship also Parloures oone or two, And houses of offyce mo For beestys that ther must be.’

322  bolkes (MS boskeȝ): Anderson suggests that boskes might be from bos = ‘cowshed’, and Gollancz and A&W emend to boskens (from a supposed diminutive of bos), but there is no dictionary support for these supposed forms. Menner and Vantuono give to boskes its normal (but contextually implausible) sense of ‘bushes’. Bolk (a variant of bulk: see Pa 292) is well attested in the required sense of ‘stall, shed’: cf. ‘That no man hold no swyn in hur bolkys ne in her stallys’ (Coventry Leet Book 27). Scribal error occasioned by confusion of l and long s thus seems likely.

323–6  And, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life [spiritus vitae], from under heaven; and every thing that is in the earth shall die (Genesis 6:17).

327–32  But with thee will I establish my covenant; and thou shalt come into the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sons’ wives with thee (Genesis 6:18).

327  Defective alliteration indicates that a word has dropped from the end of the a-verse (probably an f- adverb: e.g. frely).

328  in resoun has rengned: see MED regnen 4 (‘live, follow a way of life, persist in’).

333–8  The lines reduce and conflate two passages from Genesis: And of every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female. Of fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their kind, and of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind, two of every sort shall come unto thee, to keep them alive (Genesis 6:19–20); Of every clean [mundis] beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens, the male and his female: and of beasts that are not clean [immundis] by two, the male and his female. Of fowls also of the air by sevens, the male and the female; to keep seed alive upon the face of all the earth (Genesis 7:2–3).

334–5  clene: for the definition of ‘clean’ and ‘unclean’ animals in Jewish ritual, see Leviticus 11. horwed is from horwen [pollute, defile], and the cognate adjective hory is likewise used in connection with the ceremonially unclean in the earlier version of the Wycliffite Bible at Leviticus 22:6 (‘eny unclene whoos touchynge is hory [Latin sordidus]’).

339–40  And take thou unto thee of all food that is eaten, and thou shalt gather it to thee; and it shall be for food for thee, and for them (Genesis 6:21).

341–2  Thus did Noah; according to all that God commanded him, so did he (Genesis 6:22).

343–52  An expansion of Genesis 7:1: And the Lord said unto Noah, Come thou and all thy house into the ark; for thee have I seen righteous before me in this generation.

353–8  For yet seven days, and I will cause it to rain upon the earth forty days and forty nights; and every living substance that I have made will I destroy from off the face of the earth (Genesis 7:4).

354  routande: the verb was commonly used of storms; cf. ‘tempestes routynge’ at Book of Vices 71. ryg (from ON) is not elsewhere recorded in English before the seventeenth century (see OED sv rigg n^1).

359–60  And Noah did according unto all that the Lord commanded him (Genesis 7:5).

359  nye: MS niyȝ is usually emended to nyght, but it is explicable as a form of noye/nye. nye … begines would normally indicate ‘starts to inflict noye’ (see MED biginnen 5(a)), but the contrast with styntes [desists from] probably pushes the sense towards ‘takes up’.

361–9  And it came to pass after seven days, that the waters of the flood were upon the earth … the same day were all the fountains of the great deep [abyssi] broken up, and the windows of heaven [cataractae caeli] were opened. And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights (Genesis 7:10–12).

363  ryfe (MS ryse): Anderson translates bonkes con ryse as ‘the land rose up’ (under pressure from the springs below) and cites Cursor C 1767–8 (also based on Genesis 7:11: see previous note): ‘the see to ris, the erth to riue, / the springes cum ouer-all utedriue’. But those lines suggest that in Cleanness the scribe confused f with long s and miswrote ryfe as ryse.

364  Waltes out uch welle-hed: cf. ‘To-walten all these welle-hedes’ (428).

368  rayn-ryfte is usually explained as referring to cloud gaps through which rain could fall. But the verb To-rent could not be used of a gap formed by something already riven, and Anderson (who translates ‘rain-sluices’) is probably correct in seeing in rayn-ryfte a rendering of cataractae caeli in Genesis 7:11 (see n. to 361–9): he points out that ‘OED (s. Cataract, sb., sense 1) defines the biblical word as “the ‘floodgates’ of Heaven, viewed as keeping back the rain” ’. ryfte here (and in the similar lake-ryftes at 536) indicates a hollow or channel for water; the image is of rain as water contained in heavenly channels or floodgates that burst as the clouds cleave (367).

369  and then the flod rises: for the dramatic switch to the historic present in the b-verse, cf. ‘Then suppe behoved The coge of the colde water, and then the cry rises’ (Pa 151–2).

370–402  The lines are independent of the Vulgate. The poet is drawing on a long tradition of spectacular renditions of the Flood in versifications of the Bible (see Putter 1996). The set piece in Book IV of Avitus provides the closest analogue. Cf. also Cursor 1762–1800, Herman de Valenciennes 208–21.

370  Overwaltes: the verb elsewhere means ‘topples, overthrows’ (cf. G 314), but has obviously here a slightly different sense (‘overwhelms’) not otherwise recorded.

371  Cf. Pa 145 and n. to Pa 145–9.

377–95  With 379–80, 385–6 and 390–95, cf. ‘Ascendunt turres et celsa domorum Culmina praesentemque juvat vel tempore parvo Sic differe necem … It fragor in coelum sonitu collectus ab omni / quadrupedumque greges humana in morte cadentum / augent confusos permixta voce tumultus’ [they clamber up towers and the highest roofs of their houses, which serves briefly to defer present death … A clamour rises up to heaven made up of the cries of all, and the herds of four-footed animals who fall amid the human deaths increase the confused commotion with their added voices] (Avitus IV.474–87).

377  feng to the flyght: cf. ‘he fonges to the flyght’ (457).

381  Bot all was nedles her note: the same expression is used at Pa 220, where it similarly refers to fruitless efforts to evade the effects of a storm sent by God.

384  demmed [showed dark, darkened] is usually assumed to represent ‘dammed’ and is glossed ‘was filled up, overflowed’ by Anderson. But there is no evidence that the verb dam could be used in that intransitive sense; demme at Pe 223, which has also been assumed to represent dam, probably in fact means ‘grow dark’ (see n. to Pe 223). Floodwaters are described as dym at 472, and demme is an attested spelling of the verb dimme [grow dark], a spelling especially plausible in this MS, which contains several examples of the lowering of i to e (cf. MS swefte and sweng at Pe 354 and 575).

385  drye (MS dryȝe): Anderson glosses ‘secure’, taking the word to represent ME drie adj^2 ‘grave, lasting, unchanging’ (used at 74, 342, 344, 476) rather than drie adj^1 ‘dry’ (< OE dryge), which is elsewhere in the MS spelt dr(u)ye. But drie^2 does not occur with that sense, and, since representations of OE y in the MS vary (cf. MS huyde and hyde for ‘hide’, 682, 915), it seems preferable to assume here the contextually more probable sense of ‘dry’. The lack of concord between mountaynes and was is not uncommon in ME, especially when an intervening noun (here mor) acts to influence the verb form (cf. Pe 85–6 and n. to 86).

395  That amounted the mase: the sense could be ‘With the result that the tumult increased’ (Menner), since amounten (= increase) is not elsewhere transitive. But the sense ‘That increased the confusion’ finds some support in Avitus, where animal cries ‘augent confusos … tumultus’ [increase the confused commotion] (see n. to 377–95). Anderson glosses ‘that amounted to vanity’, but in the sense ‘amount to’ ME amounten is normally followed by not or noght.

397–402  The pathos of human beings saying their last farewells is paralleled in Sabie, Old Worldes Tragedie E2r: ‘There might you have seen how lovingly the mother With her sweet daughter kissed one the other … The dying sonne nowe at the latest gasp About his clasping fathers necke did claspe; And ready now to bid their last farewell Were snatched both with seas and billows fell.’

403–8  And the flood was forty days upon the earth … And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high hills, that were under the whole heaven, were covered. Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered. And all flesh died that moved upon the earth … All in whose nostrils was the breath of life [in quibus spiraculum vitae est], of all that was in the dry land, died. And every living substance was destroyed (Genesis 7:17–23).

407  The ON-derived verb mourkne [rot] occurs only here in ME, though MED records one instance of an apparently related noun mork [dung].

408  Except for one instance in which it is used to refer to a ‘vent’, spyrakle otherwise occurs in ME only in Trevisa, Properties I, 92, where, as here, it translates Latin spiraculum [breath]. in sprang is usually printed as one word, but Vulgate in quibus spiraculum vitae est (see n. to 403–8) suggests it is not necessary to posit an otherwise unattested verb ‘inspring’. For spring used of the stirring or thriving of life, as here, see MED springen 3 and 4. sprawlyng: the verb was used of the convulsive movements of men or animals in the throes of death: e.g. ‘he drow [the fish] into the drie place, and it began to spraule bifor hise feet’ (Wycliffite Bible, Tobit 6:4).

409–12  … and Noah only remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark (Genesis 7:23).

411  Him aghtsum: the construction is well attested and dates back, as Anderson points out, to OE: cf. Beowulf 3123 (‘eode eahta sum’ [went as one of a company of eight]).

413–24  are independent of the Bible. The poet deals with the same subject (a ship in peril in stormy seas) in Pa 137–64, and in doing so is taking up with gusto a common topos suited to the alliterative metre (Jacobs 1972). The two passages evince the same command of nautical jargon and the two poems share several items of vocabulary (gotes, waltered, dam, mast, bawelyne, Cable, ankres, Hurrok, rother).

416  in daunger: the phrase here combines its later sense with its earlier one (derived from daunger = power): the ship is in danger precisely because, lacking all the usual navigational aids (417–20), it is completely in the power of the flood, at the mercy of the winds and waves (421–2).

423  hit rolled on rounde: cf. ‘hit reled on rounde’ (Pa 147).

424  The idea of God ‘steering the ark’ may be based on Wisdom 14:6 (describing the ark in the Flood): quae manu tua erat gubernata [thy hand guiding the helm].

425–9  These computations combine the information on Noah’s age given at an earlier point in the Bible, just before the rain begins (at line 363 in the poem), with information that is given at the point of the story now reached: In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened (Genesis 7:11); And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days (Genesis 7:24).

430  ythes (MS yreȝ) is an emendation adopted by all editors except Vantuono. Scribal confusion between long r and þ is not uncommon.

431–2  The lines are based on biblical material found at the same point as that rendered in 407–8 (most of the intervening lines being independent of the Vulgate): And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven (Genesis 7:23, repeating almost verbatim 7:21).

433  roghly (MS roȝly) is treated in MED as a form of reuli, and ‘piteous, wretched’ does aptly describe the state of the ark at this stage. But ruly is always elsewhere adverbial in this MS, whereas adjectival roghly does occur (Pa 64).

434  joyst is puzzling. MED follows Emerson 1919, who explains it as past participle of joisen [be glad], but even in diminished sense (‘fortunately’), this would be inconsistent with the emphasis on the grim situation that is only alleviated when God intervenes (Bot: 435). A&W gloss ‘lodged’, but there is no evidence the word could have that sense. We have treated it as past participle of MED justen 3 (‘bring [things or people] closely together’), which occurs in collocation with join at DT 938 (‘Vnioynis the iaumys [dragon’s jaws] that iuste were togedur’). ‘Closely united’ would yield appropriate sense, as would Anderson’s gloss (based on the assumption that the word represents adverbial juste) of ‘closely, tightly’. The spelling is anomalous with regard to either of these proposed derivations. Anderson’s explanation, that just- could occur with oi/oy spellings in OF, is not supported by attested forms.

435–42  And God remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that was with him in the ark: and God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters asswaged [imminutae sunt aquae]. The fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were stopped [clausi sunt fontes abyssi … ], and the rain from heaven was restrained [prohibitae sunt pluviae de caelo]. And the waters returned from off the earth continually [Reversaeque sunt aquae de terra euntes et redeuntes]: and after the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated [et coeperunt minui per centum quinquaginta dies] (Genesis 8:1–3).

444  For weather in this collocation having its sense of ‘bad weather’, cf. ‘So the wedour and the wynd on the water metyn That alle hurled on an hepe … Lete the wedour and the wynde worche as hem lyked’ (SJ 63–6).

445–8  And the ark rested [Requievitque] in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat [super montes Armeniae] (Genesis 8:4). The poet’s additions with regard to geographical nomenclature derive from Mandeville, which he knew in the original Anglo-Norman (see n. to 1015–48) and which refers to a ‘hill called Ararat [montaigne qe ad a noun Ararath], but the Jews call it Thanez, where Noah’s ark came to a halt’ (Livre 292). Some editors emend Mararach to Ararach but Mararach is confirmed by alliteration and supported by variants (e.g. Maroth) in the MS tradition of Mandeville.

446  rasse: see n. to G 1570.

449–52  And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month: in the tenth month, on the first day of the month, were the tops of the mountains seen (Genesis 8:5).

453–68  There is no condemnation of the raven in the Bible, which simply reads And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made: And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth (Genesis 8:6–7). Perpetuating a misunderstanding of the Hebrew in the Greek Septuagint, the Vulgate includes the words et non revertebatur, which led commentators to suppose that the raven was faithless, having found dead bodies to feed on (Lewis 1968: 39). This assumption then entered popular tradition. Cf. ‘Ales ut extensis nitidum petit aera pinnis, / adspiciens plenis stipata cadavera terris, / carnibus incumbens et mox oblita reuerti / rectorem placidum communi in sede reliquit’ [when the bird had soared into the bright sky with outspread wings, seeing the corpses spread out plentifully on the shores, it alighted on the flesh and, promptly forgetting to return, abandoned his kind master in the dwelling shared by all] (Avitus IV.565–8). The incorporation of this apocryphal material allows the poet to use the raven as another instance in which moral turpitude is associated with ‘filth of the flesh’ (cf. foule flesch at 462).

454–6  message [messenger] … rebel … corbel untrue: the word rebel (which serves to align the raven with Lucifer: see 210–12) was one of deep opprobrium and carried none of the romantic charge it can have today, the disobedience to one’s sovereign or master it betokened being seen as treacherously disloyal in origin and anarchic in tendency. The story of Noah’s disloyal raven (corbel untrue) led to its becoming a byword for a faithless and negligent messenger: cf. Cursor 1886–92 and its source, Bible anonyme 1060–2 (‘Cilz i ala mais ne scot revenir. Encor dit on: cilz est de méz corbon Que on envoie et ne vient en maison’ [he went off but failed to go back. And still it is said: the one who is sent out and does not return home is the raven among messengers]).

456  colored as the cole: a conventional simile (see Whiting C324).

461  smoltes: see n. to smylt at 226.

463  yederly foryete yisterday: cf. G 1485.

464  We follow most previous editors in emending MS kyst to chyst, the failure of alliteration indicating that the scribe substituted the ON-derived k- version of the noun (which is always elsewhere the form in which the word occurs in this MS) for its OE-derived ch- equivalent. (Similar variation for metrical purposes between kirk and chirche occurs in PP.) On kyst/chyst as a term for the ark, see footgloss to 310.

466  fodes [creatures], mete [food]: fodes referred strictly and originally to beings nourished by food – a fact that gives it a peculiar relevance to context.

468  The raven is also cursed by Noah in the York play of Noah (IX.231–2).

469–80  Also he sent forth a dove from him, to see if the waters were abated from off the face of the ground; But the dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto him into the ark, for the waters were on the face of the whole earth: then he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him into the ark (Genesis 8:8–9).

470  blessed: see n. to G 1296.

473  to bot [to the boat]: A&W followed Menner in interpreting MS bot as a form (unattested elsewhere) of the verb boden and translate the line ‘Bring a message to announce bliss to us all’. Morris and Gollancz take bot to represent ‘boot’ [remedy]. We assume (with Anderson) that bot here means ‘boat’: when bring bodword is followed by to, the preposition regularly prefaces the destination (‘to the sale’, WA 48; ‘to the byschop’, StE 105, WA 1581; ‘to the bold king’, DT 8314).

481–92  And he stayed yet other seven days; and again he sent forth the dove out of the ark; And the dove came in to him in the evening; and, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf pluckt off: so Noah knew that the waters were abated from off the earth (Genesis 8:10–11). The poet omits the next verse, which records that Noah a third time sent out the dove, which returned not again unto him any more. For he has followed the tradition of anthropomorphizing the raven and the dove into contrasting faithless and faithful servants, and thus has no place for this indication that the dove had simply animal reasons for returning to the ark (because she could find no other perch) and that, like the raven, she failed to return on finding dry land.

483  skyrmes: the verb referred to ‘skirmishing’ in fencing or combat, though there are isolated instances of its occurrence in other senses (there are skirmand shrieks at WA 5283 and lightning which ‘skirmyt in the skewes’ at DT 12500); context is the only guide to its sense here in Cleanness. skowtes represents much the earliest instance of the verb scout (from French escouter [listen out for]); it occurs nowhere else in ME (though the noun scowt-wache does; cf. 838) and is not recorded again until the later sixteenth century. For the idiom under skue [through the air], cf. CT V.503 (‘Til I [the falcon] koude flee ful hye under the sky’).

491  Then was there joy in that gyn: cf. ‘Hit was a joyles gyn’ (Pa 146). jumpred: the noun is recorded nowhere else, but the verb [jumperen = jumble] is. Anderson and A&W therefore construe jumpred as participial adjective used substantivally (‘those jumbled together’) and dryed as having its normal sense of ‘suffered’. We interpret jumpred as a noun and dryed as meaning ‘persisted (unabated)’ – a meaning not specifically recognized in MED, but consistent with some of the usages recorded sv drien v^2 2(b); MED posits the nonce-meaning ‘exist’ (drien v^2 2(c)).

493–6  And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the earth: and Noah removed the covering of the ark, and looked, and, behold, the face of the ground was dry. And in the second month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month, was the earth dried (Genesis 8:13–14).

498  the Tulk that tyned hem thereinne: cf. and the Lord shut him in (Genesis 7:16).

499–504  And God spake unto Noah, saying, Go forth of the ark … And Noah went forth, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons’ wives with him: Every beast, every creeping thing, and every fowl, and whatsoever creepeth upon the earth, after their kinds, went forth out of the ark (Genesis 8:15–16, 18–19).

499  Cf. Pa 63 and see p. xvii.

505–8  And Noah builded an altar unto the Lord; and took of every clean beast, and of every clean fowl, and offered burnt offerings on the altar (Genesis 8:20).

505  odde: an interesting rationalization. The animals are preserved in pairs to save the ‘seed’ of all species (Genesis 7:3), yet the ‘clean’ beasts are also specifically said to be preserved in sevens (see 334 and Genesis 7:2): hence this deduction that there was a ‘spare’ of each clean species which Noah could use for sacrifice without detriment to the reproductive purposes for which the beasts had been spared.

509–20  And the Lord smelled a sweet savour; and the Lord said in his heart [the Vulgate has simply ait [said]], I will not again curse the ground any more for man’s sake; for the imagination of man’s heart is evil from his youth [adolescentia sua]; neither will I again smite any more every thing living, as I have done (Genesis 8:21).

511  with that ilke is assumed by Anderson and A&W to mean ‘with that same man (i.e. Noah)’. But in the poem and in the Vulgate, it is the smell of the sacrifice that immediately prompts God’s words, and with that ilke thus means ‘thereupon’ (i.e. ‘on smelling the sacrifice’): see MED ilke 2(b), e.g. ‘he with that ilke feng to wenden heowes’ (Seinte Iuliene 33). On the poet’s sympathetic response to the Old Testament ritual of sacrifice and the sensuous appeal of its savour, see n. to Pa 333–6.

514  muckel mayne (MS mayny) molde: mayny appears to be an error for or a form of the adjective main(e) [great]: see Emerson 1919. Gollancz and Anderson print the adjective and noun as a compound, since maegen often formed the first element of a compound in OE. But mayne occurs elsewhere in collocation with muckel (‘Of mony & of mekill-quat mayn giftis’: WA 3905), and Layamon 7630 is syntactically and metrically close to the present line: ‘Aenne muchelne mæin clubbe he bar an his rugge.’ A&W (following Morris and Menner) emend to mayny on molde (‘company of people on earth’), but this obscures the point made by God in the Bible, which is that He will not curse the ground [terrae] any more for man’s sake (Genesis 8:21).

517  barnage [youth], which consists of a French suffix added to a Germanic root (barn [child]), may well be the poet’s own coinage, for it occurs nowhere else. It corresponds to Vulgate adolescentia.

519  schortly is another indication that the Deity is seen as having been betrayed by His disgust into the sin of wrath (see n. to 197–204), and into pronouncing those hasty (as opposed to considered) sentences which those in power were supposed to avoid; cf. ‘he, allas! by hasti Iugement, Withoute respite or avisement, Shortly hath dempte that she shal be ded’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 4.6693–5).

521–7  While the earth remaineth [Cunctis diebus terrae], seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and night shall not cease. And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said unto them, Be fruitful [Crescite], and multiply, and replenish the earth (Genesis 8:22–9:1).

525  somer, ne the sadde wynter: cf. ‘As wele in sesoun of somere as in the sad wintre’ (WA 3021).

527  renne restles (Genesis 8:22: non requiescent): cf. ‘The tyme …resteles [French sans repos] travayleth ay’ (Romaunt of the Rose 369–70).

528  This differs from the Bible, where it is the humans who are blessed (9:1) and to whom (as earlier to Adam) dominion over all beasts is bitaght: into your hand are they delivered [traditi sunt: 9:2].

529–40  Lines 529–33 correspond to the biblical verse in which the different animals that are to be subject to human rule are listed: And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every fowl of the air, upon all that moveth upon the earth, and upon all the fishes of the sea; into your hands are they delivered (Genesis 9:2). In Cleanness, the different animals are characterized by the different destinations to which they move, a theme elaborated upon in an independent addition to the biblical material in 533–39. This produces a climax to the story very different from the anthropocentric one of the Vulgate – and one which is, remarkably, without the rainbow, which figures not at all in the present retelling of the story of the Flood. Man’s dominion over the earth (540), rather than the beasts, figures in one final line, which acts rather to produce a parallel between the animals and the humans who there likewise find their natural place in the scheme of things.

529  skaylyng and skylnade: MS skylly skynalde/skyualde has defied convincing explanation. The least unsatisfactory solution is that of MED, which treats skylly as an adjective (from skill = reason, cause) meaning ‘wise, skilful’, and follows Gollancz in emending skynalde to skylnade (< ON skylnaðr [separation]), though there is no other evidence that the word existed in ME. Since the line plainly concerns dispersal, we have retained Gollancz’s emendation and introduced a further one that normalizes a-verse metre by means of a form derived from a recorded verb of largely northern currency (see Kaiser 1937: 86).

536  lake-ryftes [pits or caves in hollows or crevices]: lake here is MED lak(e n^1 3(a) [pit, lion’s cave], not 1(a) [expanse of water], or 2(a) [river], under which lake rift erroneously figures, glossed ‘ravine worn by water’. Lacus is the regular term in biblical Latin for a lion’s den (e.g. in lacum leonum: Daniel 6:7). lyounes and lebardes form a standard collocation in alliterative verse (Oakden 1935: 290).

543  cherisched: the word is used of favour extended by a lord or host to his subjects or guests: see 128 and n. to G 946.

544  His thewes: unconvincingly explained as ‘the virtues which He had established’ (A&W) and ‘His ordinances’ (Menner). ‘His good disposition, His goodwill, grace’ (Anderson) is the natural sense of the phrase: the poet is repeating his earlier claim that ‘filth of the flesh’ deprives God Himself, in His response to it, of His customary ‘fre thewes’ (203).

549–52  The lines are problematic, and have been variously glossed and punctuated, according to interpretation of that sittes unclene: Anderson construes ‘which remains uncleansed’; Gollancz as ‘which befits foully’; A&W as ‘[he who] will sit down unclean’. Our footgloss assumes a changed and elided construction of a type not uncommon in ME, our interpretation of that sittes unclene being broadly similar to Gollancz’s.

553–4  Menner glosses 553 ‘In order that I shall appear in those bright dwellings’, but is unhappy with the omission of a subject for schewe, and of an indirect object for behoves (554). Anderson and Vantuono interpret me as an ethic dative (and the line as meaning ‘For those who shall appear … ’), but the ethic dative (on which see footgloss to Pa 108) is unlikely here: it characteristically occurs at moments of narrative action rather than in the context of deliberative reasoning. We assume, with A&W, that me is the well-attested reduced form of the impersonal pronoun man/men.

554–6  On the beryl, see Pe 1011 and n. The pearl as a symbol of purity is the leading idea of that poem; with C 556 cf. in particular Pe 726 (‘Withoute mote or mascle of sulpande synne’) and 843 (‘mote ne mascle’).

555  This instance of seme figures in MED as an otherwise unattested extension of the sense ‘gully, ditch, gutter’ (sem(e n^1 (d)) into ‘crack or flaw in a gem’. But the contrast with sounde suggests it is simply a metaphorical application of sem(e 1(e), ‘bodily gash, slash, or scar’.

557  SITHEN: the four-line-deep initial capital marks the transition to the second major exemplum (the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah) and thus to the second part of the poem. On the rubrication of the poem, see n. to 125.

564  knit a covenaunt: cf. ‘all the covenauntes that we knit’ (G 1642).

574  The venym and the vilany: cf. ‘her vilany and venym’ (Pa 71).

576  The reference is to the Beatitude paraphrased at 27–30.

577  as helle that stynkes: the same simile occurs at Pa 275.

581–90  Based on Psalm 93/94:8–11: Understand, ye brutish [insipientes] among the people: and ye fools [stulti], when will ye be wise [aliquando sapite]? He that planted the ear, shall he not hear? he that formed the eye, shall he not see? … The Lord knoweth the thoughts of man, that they are vanity. The same verse is paraphrased in Pa 121–4. savour (581) has obviously been prompted by insipientes and sapite and reproduces the double meaning of Latin sapere (‘taste’ and ‘understand’), and sumtyme (582) corresponds directly to aliquando.

582  The adverb babel occurs only here. MED compares Latin babulus [fool] and glosses ‘as a fool’. But it is probably related to AN bable, ME babel (n^3), babelen, babelinge, all of which are from French babiller and refer to idle or indistinct talk, so the sense is probably more precisely ‘as a babbling fool’.

583  stare, which occurs only here in the sense of ‘sight’, exemplifies the inventive use of proximate senses for alliterative purposes.

586  lysten as a noun occurs only here.

601–5  And the Lord appeared unto him in the plains of Mamre: and he sat in the tent door [in ostio tabernaculi sui] in the heat of the day [in ipso fervore diei] (Genesis 18:1).

601  OLD: the large initial O in the MS marks the beginning of the second major exemplum (the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah) that forms the basis of the second part of the poem; cf. 249, where the beginning of the parallel story of the Flood in the first part of the poem had been similarly marked. On the MS layout, see n. to 125. Abraham’s age is given as ninety-nine in the immediately preceding chapter of Genesis (17:24). in erde [on the earth, in the world] is construed by Anderson as having not its common loose sense, but as meaning ‘in his country’, on the grounds that the Vulgate reads in convalle Mambre. But erde in that sense only ever occurs with a possessive, and the poet was following the Vetus Latina reading, which refers to an oak rather than a location (a vale) in Mamre (see next n.).

602  under an oke grene: the Vetus Latina, the older Latin text of the Bible, reads ad ilicem Mambre [at the oak of Mamre] instead of in convalle Mambre [in the plains of Mamre]. That reading persisted as a variant in some MSS of the Vulgate (Vercellone), and ‘Abraham’s oak’ entered popular tradition, figuring in works such as Mandeville’s, which tells us it is still standing on Mount Mamre, and was always in leaf until Christ’s crucifixion (Livre 177).

606–12  And he lift up his eyes and looked, and, lo, three men stood by him: and when he saw them, he ran to meet them from the tent door, and bowed himself toward the ground. And said, My Lord [Domine] … (Genesis 18:2–3).

606  On the use of thrynne [three] specifically and exclusively of three things that form a tripartite unity of some kind, see n. to 1727.

612  onhede was used of the unity constituted by the Trinity (MED onhed(e 1(b)), as well as of mathematical and other kinds of unity. It thus emphasizes what is merely implied in the Vulgate, where Abraham addresses the trio in the singular (Domine). Since the Old Testament was read as prefiguring Christian truths, this was often taken to confirm the doctrine of the Trinity. Other paraphrasers tended to be heavier-handed in underlining these Trinitarian implications: cf. Metrical Paraphrase 573–6 (‘Tokyn of the trinite To abraham ther was tone. All yf he saw ther thre, All he honerde os one’), Cursor 2703–12.

613–16  And said, My Lord, if now I have found favour in thy sight, pass not away, I pray thee, from thy servant (Genesis 18:3).

617–22  Let a little water, I pray you, be fetched, and wash your feet, and rest yourselves under the tree: And I will fetch a morsel of bread, and comfort ye your hearts; after that ye shall pass on: for therefore are ye come to your servant. And they said, So do, as thou hast said (Genesis 18:4–5).

617–20  In the previous quatrain, the poet had (to emphasize how Abraham greets the trio of men in onhede: 612) followed the Vulgate in using singular thou forms of the second-person pronoun. He now uses the plural ye forms (as the Vulgate now uses vestr- forms).

618  your fete were waschen: the passive construction suggests that the poet’s text of the Vulgate contained, not the standard lavate pedes vestros [wash your feet], but the common variant laventur pedes vestri (Vercellone), which also influenced other biblical poets: cf. ‘Et vostre pié soient lavé’ (Malkaraume, Bible 220).

620  MED assigns to banne here the otherwise unattested sense of ‘banish (care) from’. But the primary sense of the verb was ‘summon troops’, and it appears to be here simply a metaphorical application of such recorded senses as ‘assemble forces’, ‘gather arms’, ‘man or make ready a castle’, and to mean ‘fortify’ (corresponding to et confortate cor vestrum at Genesis 18:5). The often-adopted emendation to baume (‘give balm to’ in some extended sense) is unnecessary and unpersuasive.

623–8  And Abraham hastened into the tent [tabernaculum] unto Sarah, and said, Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth [subcinericios panes] (Genesis 18:6).

626  Under askes renders Vulgate subcinericios (sub [under] + cinis [ash]).

627  sumwhat fat: cf. the Wycliffite translation of Luke 15:23 (And bring hither the fatted calf [vitulum saginatum]): ‘brynge ye a fat calf’ (2nd version; 1st version: ‘a calf mad fat’).

629–44  An expansion of Genesis 18:7–8: And Abraham ran unto the herd, and fetcht a calf tender and good, and gave it unto a young man; and he hasted to dress it [et coxit illum]. And he took butter, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them; and he stood by them under the tree, and they did eat.

635  therve is the poet’s own addition, and shows his informed interest in Old Testament rituals, which he was very ready to exploit for the purposes of local ‘colour’ (see n. to 511): Exodus 29:2 and Leviticus 2:4 specify that any bread offered to God ‘shall be unleavened cakes’. He would have been reminded of this fact by a later detail in his story, for the Bible represents Lot as being similarly careful to serve unleavened bread to his divine guests (Genesis 19:3).

642  and his fest praysed: cf. Gawain’s polite praise of the ad hoc meal prepared in his honour: ‘The freke calde hit a fest ful frely and ofte’ (G 894).

643  with armes up folden: interpreted by Menner as meaning ‘with arms folded’, by Anderson as ‘with arms uplifted (in prayer)’, and by A&W as ‘with arms extended’. MED sv arm n 3(c) assigns to armes the sense of ‘sleeves’ (not otherwise recorded before the eighteenth century), but glosses the phrase ‘with arms raised or extended’ sv upfolden. Abraham’s arms are not free to be folded or lifted in prayer, for he is acting as a sewer (639) – an attendant who usually actually waited at table – and so Mynystred mete (644). He is thus presumably holding up food from the kneeling posture in which those who served at table are often illustrated.

645–60  The poet omits Genesis 18:9, in which the guests ask Abraham where Sarah is, and Abraham answers, ‘Behold, in the tent’, and proceeds to an elaboration of Genesis 18:10–12: And he said, I will certainly return unto thee according to the time of life [Revertens veniam ad te tempore isto, vita comite [while life accompanies you]]; and, lo, Sarah thy wife shall have a son. And Sarah heard it in the tent door, which was behind him. Now Abraham and Sarah were old and well stricken in age; and it ceased to be with Sarah after the manner of women. Therefore Sarah laughed within herself, saying, After I am waxed old shall I have pleasure, my lord being old also?

647  The I of the speaker and the thay of the narrator reflect similar shifts between singular and plural person in the Vulgate. See notes to 612 and 617–20. In the phrase here away (treated as a compound by some editors and MED) away has the etymological sense ‘on one’s way, along’ (MED awei 4). I schal eft here away, rendering Revertens veniam, thus means ‘I shall come here on my way again’. Cf. ‘Thou passes nevyr away here’ (Avowing 647).

648  ere thy lyves lyght lethe upon erthe: cf. ‘the ay-lastande life that lethe shalle never’ (StE 347).

649–52  This material (an addition by the poet) is from a general memory of the story of Abraham, with whom God had made a covenant, promising that his descendants should possess the land of Canaan (Genesis 12:1–7), and (Genesis 17:20–21) that it should be the son promised to Sarah (Isaac) who would be Abrahames ayre (650), not Ishmael (his son by Sarah’s handmaid Hagar).

654  sothly is sometimes emended to sotyly [furtively], in view of Vulgate Quae risit occulte (Genesis 18:12). But to herself adequately conveys the assumed privateness of the scorn, and suggests the poet was following the variant reading risit in semetipsa, recorded in Vercellone.

655  The line, equating to the Vulgate ( … voluptati operam dabo), presents a number of problems. We follow most previous editors in emending MS tonne (of which no sense can be made) to teme; cf. ‘Witt sinndenn off swillc elde nu þatt witt ne mughenn taemenn’ (Ormulum 202). tykle has been variously interpreted: as meaning ‘uncertain’ (MED tikel adj^1 (c)), or, in view of the Vulgate equivalent, as having some reference to sexual excitement: i.e. for tykle = ‘through being wanton’ (Emerson 1919: 505 and cf. MED tikel adj^1 (b), ‘lascivious’) or ‘because of sexual pleasure’ (as in MED, where the line is cited as showing that otherwise unattested sense of the noun tikel [tingling sensation]). Whether the line is interpreted as an exclamation or a rhetorical question depends largely on how tykle is interpreted.

659  bileved: MS byeue or byene. A&W emend to bydene, but that word does not mean ‘continuously’, as they gloss it, and their emendation involves some re-interpretation of the syntax: fayled … before; ho barayn … tyme. Anderson emends to had bene, but participial ‘been’ could not yield the unstressed syllable required at the end of an alliterative line.

660  Menner notes the close parallel with Peter Comestor’s retelling of the story in Historia Scholastica (col. 1099): ‘Ad haec, etiam, ipsa sterilis erat’ [for up to now she had been sterile].

661–2  And the Lord said unto Abraham, Wherefore did Sarah laugh, saying, Shall I of a surety bear a child, which am old? (Genesis 18:13). The addition there He sete and the imperative Se remind us that Sarah (who is behind the door) has been seen from a position from which no human could see her.

663–6  Is any thing too hard for the Lord? At the time appointed I will return unto thee, according to the time of life, and Sarah shall have a son (Genesis 18:14).

664  the vaunt: MS the avaunt could produce regular b-verse metre only if the final -e of the could be apocopated (th’avaunt); but we find no evidence that the poet availed himself of this option in his alliterative verse; the single instance where spelling might suggest it (‘For when þacces of anguych’: Pa 325) is a scribal error, as the vowel alliteration shows.

667–70  Then Sarah denied, saying, I laughed not; for she was afraid. And he said, Nay; but thou didst laugh (Genesis 18:15).

671–80  And the men rose up from thence, and looked toward Sodom: and Abraham went with them to bring them on the way [deducens eos] (Genesis 18:16).

678  conveye: the ‘conveying’ of his guests (escorting them on their way and/or setting them on to the right path for their next destination: cf. 676 and see n. to G 1971–2) was the last duty of a host, and the poet has throughout emphasized Abraham’s punctiliousness in that role.

681–8  And the Lord said, Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which I do; Seeing that Abraham shall surely become a great and mighty nation, and all the nations of the earth shall be blessed in him? For I know him, that he will command his children and his household after him, and they shall keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and judgment; that the Lord may bring upon Abraham that which he hath spoken of him (Genesis 18:17–19).

684  chef childeryn fader: Abraham was the first and greatest of the patriarchs (literally ‘chief fathers’). The epithet recalls Genesis 17:5: thy name shall be Abraham; for a father of many nations [patrem multarum gentium] have I made thee.

685  MED records no other comparable metaphorical use of flete in its sense of ‘overflow’.

689–92  And the Lord said, Because the cry of Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and because their sin is very grievous; I will go down now, and see whether they have done altogether according to the cry of it, which is come unto me; and if not, I will know (Genesis 18:20–21).

690  gares me to wrathe: the poet’s point that uncleanness provokes God to what would, in humans, be the sin of wrath (see nn. to 197–204, 519) is here reinforced by God’s own ‘admission’ (which has no parallel in the Vulgate).

693–712  These lines are an addition to the Vulgate, and include a description of heterosexual love remarkable for its beauty, power and frankness (the poem being in fact, as a treatise on cleanness, remarkable in its total lack of interest in chastity as such). The terms of art (compast, craft, kenned, dight, portrayed) serve to present sexual deviance as a desecration of sacred art in a way that prepares for the third exemplum (the desecration of the temple vessels, which Solomon had needed all his high syence to compas: 1445–55). See pp. 91–2.

700  play of paramores: for the alliterative collocation, cf. e.g. William 1412, 2987.

706  stille stollen: cf. ‘With stille stollen countenaunce that stalworth to plese’ (G 1659); on stollen in amorous contexts, see n. to that line.

711  smod occurs only here. MED compares ModE dialect smud, smod [dirty mark], Middle Dutch smoddich and Middle German smudden.

713–20  The poet here rejoins the Vulgate, though the material he has added means that the immediate occasion for Abraham’s plea is, in the poem, what he has just heard God say, whereas in the Bible it is the fact that the men apparently prepare to proceed to Sodom without further conversation: And the men turned their faces from thence, and went toward Sodom: but Abraham stood yet before the Lord. And Abraham drew near, and said, Wilt thou also destroy the righteous with the wicked? (Genesis 18:22–3).

713  all his mod chaunged: i.e. changed for the worse; cf. Pa 368 and n.

721–8  Peradventure there be fifty righteous within the city: wilt thou also destroy and not spare the place for the fifty righteous that are therein? That be far from thee [Absit a te] to do after this manner, to slay the righteous with the wicked: and that the righteous should be as the wicked, that be far from thee [non est hoc tuum]: Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right? (Genesis 18:24–5).

728  so gaynly a God: cf. ‘my gaynlyche God’ (Pa 83).

729–32  And the Lord said, If I find in Sodom fifty righteous within the city, then I will spare all the place for their sakes (Genesis 18:26).

731  forgyve all the gylt thurgh my grace one: cf. ‘He [the King] will forgiffe yow this gilt of his grace one’ (WW 135).

732  smolt: MED records this verb as occurring only here and at 461 and DT 910. See n. to smylt at 226. The adverb smothely similarly occurs in ME only here and at G 407, where it also collocates with smyten (‘And thou me smothely has smyten’); the sense appears to be ‘without hitches, impediments or complications’.

733–6  And Abraham answered and said, Behold now, I have taken upon me to speak unto the Lord, which am but dust and ashes [cum sim pulvis et cinis] (Genesis 18:27).

733  boner is a shortened form of debonere; debonerte is attributed to God at Pa 418.

735  tan up has been supplied, since both sense and metre indicate something has dropped; cf. ‘Uch tulk mon do as he is tan, tas to non ille’ (G 1811). The Vulgate reads Quia semel coepi, loquar ad Dominum meum. Anderson leaves the MS unemended; A&W supply towched.

737–40  Peradventure there shall lack five of the fifty righteous: wilt thou destroy all the city for lack of five? And he said, If I find there forty and five, I will not destroy it (Genesis 18:28).

740  withholde my hand fro (MS for) hortyng on lede: MS for could be interpreted as meaning ‘to prevent’ on the analogy of G 1334 (‘Lystily for lausyng the lere of the knotte’), but in the latter case there is no competing idiom to raise expectation of from, whereas withholde = ‘hold back, restrain’ is regularly construed with from (see MED withholden v 1(a)). See Pa 439 and G 1863 for similar instances of scribal for for fro.

741–4  And he spake unto him yet again, and said, Peradventure there shall be forty found there. And he said, I will not do it for forty’s sake (Genesis 18:29).

743  thagh forty forfete not: not has been supplied. Menner implausibly glosses forfete as ‘be without sin’, and Anderson follows MED, which (sv forfeten 4) glosses forfete here ‘be lost, undone (not necessarily by guilt)’, a sense borne by the verb at MA 1155 (‘We mon be forfetede, in faith, and flemyde for ever’); but it would in Cleanness be more than forty who would simply ‘be lost’ regardless of guilt or innocence, and the context of contrast between the innocent and the guilty would surely lead an audience to assume that the verb must apply to the latter, since its normal meaning is ‘transgress’. It seems simplest, therefore, to presume scribal omission of a negative.

744  voyde away my vengaunce (cf. ‘Devoyde now thy vengaunce’: Pa 284): the verb is regularly applied to the banishing of emotions (fear, wrath, etc): see MED voiden v 5(d). For the construction with away, cf. ‘Sche was thanne ioyful in alle wordly persecucyouns, voidynge awey al dreede’ (Orcherd of Syon 56).

745–56  Expanded from Genesis 18:30: And he said unto him, Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak: Peradventure there shall thirty be found there. And he said, I will not do it, if I find thirty there.

745  highly: MS loȝly does not alliterate; we follow Menner’s emendation (cf. G 773). Anderson retains the MS reading, suggesting b-verse alliteration on Him, but alliteration on pronouns occurs only in the absence of an open-class word or when rhetorical stress is contextually justified.

746  saviour: the epithet was, of course, regularly applied to God the Son, but Abraham is a pre-Christian and here bestows it with reference, presumably, to God’s present willingness to save the sinful cities. It has, however, the effect of an unconscious prophecy of a future event that will confirm the applicability of the word to God. Cf. Jonah’s unconscious allusion to Christ at Pa 96.

747  usles (MS vsle) so blake: the emendation is required by metre (since the final unstressed syllable in which an alliterative line must end indicates blake is plural); the line is plainly a variant form of the formula found at 736b, ‘that mul am and askes’, a direct translation of the equivalent phrase in the Vulgate, which has, however, no equivalent for this second occurrence of the conceit.

749–50  are based on material transferred from Genesis 18:31, where they form the preface to Abraham’s next plea (see n. to 757–60).

755  in space of my thewes has been variously interpreted. Our gloss is based on MED, which assigns it to a sense of space (‘course, custom’: space n 13) for which it cites also CT I.175–6 (‘[The Monk] leet olde thynges pace And heeld after the newe world the space’).

757–60  And he said, Behold now, I have taken it upon me to speak unto the Lord: Peradventure there shall be twenty found there. And he said, I will not destroy it for twenty’s sake (Genesis 18:31).

761–5  And he said, Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak yet but this once [loquar adhuc semel]: Peradventure ten shall be found there. And he said, I will not destroy it for ten’s sake (Cf. Genesis 18:32).

768  conveyen … with cast of his iye: the idiom occurs in French and in Scots English, where it is especially associated with women looking lingeringly after lovers (‘[Yseut] o lez euz le convoie’: Béroul 2930; cf. Ipomedon 4975, Machaut 1130) or sons (see Douglas, Aeneid VIII.ix.115, where ‘And did convoy or follow wyth thar sight’ renders ‘oculisque sequuntur’). The metaphor is that of a host ‘seeing off’ a parting guest (see MED conveyen 1(a)), and the context in Cleanness activates that social sense of the word (cf. 678).

769–76  The Bible has only And the Lord went his way, as soon as he had left communing with Abraham: and Abraham returned unto his place (Genesis 18:33). But Abraham’s plea for Lot is found in other biblical versifications, e.g. Genesis and Exodus 1039–40 and Herman de Valenciennes 343–4 (‘Cil merci li cria Que dant Lot ne perisse, et il li otria’). In Cleanness, God does not reply to a plea that is called out behind Him as He walks on – details which imply an ulterior motive in the previous pleas which Abraham could not reveal before God’s face, motives God is nevertheless well aware of, as He had been of Sarah’s private scorn, choosing on both occasions, however, not to enter into dialogue about these small duplicities (cf. 669–70) which He yet makes it clear He has registered.

772  brother: Lot is termed Abraham’s frater in Genesis 14:14–16, but, as Isidore points out, ‘Surely Lot was not Abraham’s brother, but the son of his brother Aram’ (IX.vi.10). However, the Latin word could, like English brother, refer to any kinsman. That brother is here the equivalent of frater in this more general sense, and not a misunderstanding of the Latin word, is proved by 924, where Abraham is specifically said to be Lot’s em [uncle], a word erroneously ‘corrected’ by a second hand to brother, obviously inauthentic (since it does not alliterate) and suggesting a reader who did not know the Vulgate as well as the poet did and who had read brother at 772 in its stricter sense.

776  As thy mercy may malt: the same collocation occurs with reference to God in PP B.17.227–31, where the Holy Ghost is described as melting the power of the Father and Son into mercy: He ‘melteth hire myght into mercy … So grace of the Holy Gooste the greet myght of the Trinite Melteth to mercy’.

779  longing [grief] is associated in this MS especially with anxiety about friends or relatives: see n. to Pe 244. Singular won is replaced by plural wones (with singular sense) only for metrical reasons, the usage being virtually confined to line end: see n. to G 1051, and cf. n. to C 209.

781–98  An expansion of Genesis 19:1: And there came two angels to Sodom at even; and Lot sat in the gate of Sodom: and Lot seeing them rose up to meet them; and he bowed himself with his face toward the ground.

781  HIS: the new section coincides with a new chapter (19) in the Vulgate. We follow Gollancz in emending MS sondes to sonde. Anderson and Vantuono retain the MS reading, which, however, is called into question both by the singular verb (was) and by the sense ‘message’ (not ‘messengers’) required by context.

782  twayne occurs in place of two only for metrical reasons in this MS: it provides linking alliteration on -n at G 962, and is otherwise confined to line ending, where it ensures the required line-final unstressed syllable.

786  Lot’s richness (cf. 812, 878) was legendary – cf. ‘Thei [Abraham and Lot] wex so rych that ther catell Couerd the cuntre fer and nere’ (Metrical Paraphrase 423–4) – and was based on Genesis 13:5–6: And Lot also, which went with Abram, had flocks, and herds, and tents. And the land was not able to bear them, that they might dwell together: for their substance was great.

789–96  The description of the angels (which is independent of the Vulgate) rationalizes the Sodomites’ attraction to them and has parallels elsewhere in biblical paraphrases, e.g. Metrical Paraphrase 557–61, and Josephus, Antiquitates 149 (‘Sodomitae vero respicientes iuvenculos nimio vultus decore praecipuos … ad vim et iniuriam eorum pulchritudinis sunt conversi’ [the Sodomites who saw the exceedingly handsome young men … went there to violate and harm their beauty]).

790  rollande: MED records no other instance of the word being used of hair.

791  brere [dog rose] often formed an option for alliterative indication of the rosy hue that was a conventional element of beauty: cf. ‘With rode red so blosme on brere’ (King of Tars 14).

793  Wlonk white was her wede: cf. 19–20.

794  Cf. G 1761 (‘fautles of her fetures and of so fyne hues’), which provides the only other occurrence in ME of the word faultles(se).

795  aucly: Gollancz mistakenly reads MS autly as aucly, which, however, gives good sense, and MED and most editors make the emendation. The letters c and t, often almost identical in medieval scripts, were easily confused by scribes.

797  ros … radly: the collocation is a favourite with the poet: cf. 671; Pa 65, 89, 351, 378; G 367, 1735.

799–808  And he said, Behold now, my lords, turn in, I pray you, into your servant’s house, and tarry all night, and wash your feet, and ye shall rise up early, and go on your ways. And they said, Nay; but we will abide in the street all night (Genesis 19:2).

799  he says has been supplied. It is not the custom of the poet to omit the inquit formula, and supplying it makes for more typical a-verse metre, with a long dip between the stresses on soberly and says. Cf. Pe 256 (and see also G 2051).

801  knaves kote (Vulgate domum pueri vestri): Lot is being decidedly self-depreciating in representing his house – ‘ryal and rich, so was the renkes selven’ (786, cf. 812) – as the kote [hut, peasant’s small house] of a knave [low-ranking menial].

805  Cf. ‘And he nay that he nolde negh in no wyse’ (G 1836). Nay as a verb (from French noiier/neier) is well attested, but only in this MS can the past tense figure as nay (rather than nayde/nayed: cf. 65).

807  logge thereoute = ‘spend the night in the open’; cf. ‘herbered … thereoute’ at G 2481. The next line, however, gives point to the paradox formed by the strict sense of the two words.

809–32  The lines correspond to Genesis 19:3 (which, however, the poet has much expanded and somewhat altered): And he pressed upon them greatly; and they turned in unto him, and entered into his house; and he made them a feast, and did bake unleavened bread, and they did eat.

810  granted to go and gruched no lenger: the collocation of contrasting grant and gruch occurs elsewhere: cf. Troilus III.642–3, DT 8373 (‘That the Grekes hym grauntid, grucchet thai noght’).

812  arayed: here not ‘adorned’ (Anderson and A&W), but ‘appointed, provided with amenities such as well-stocked kitchens’: cf. ‘Hem lakked no vitaille that myghte hem plese. So well arrayed hous as ther was oon Aurelius … saugh nevere noon’ (CT V.1186–8).

819  threfte: MS þrefte has been assumed to be a form of þerf [unleavened] (cf. 635), on the basis of Genesis 19:3, which refers to unleavened bread served to the heavenly guests. But the poet has replaced that detail with a different episode concerning the salt which is given to the angels in defiance of a ban by Lot on any salt or sour ingredient (820), not specifically in the bread (to which the epithet therf would apply), but in whatever is served (what thing so ye make). Moreover, MED records no other form of therf in -t or with metathesis of er; threfte is, on the other hand, a recorded form of the adjective thrifti, and a form phonologically plausible in this MS (see nn. to 384 and G 1769). Used in this context in the sense of ‘well made, suitable, proper’ (MED thrifti (d)), that adjective is here both formally and semantically more plausible than therf.

821–8  Attempts to give some moral logic to the transformation of Lot’s wife into a pillar of salt had early led to Jewish stories involving her and salt at the meal served to the angels: cf. the gloss on Genesis 19:26 in Nicolas of Lyra’s Postilla: ‘Dicunt autem hebraei quod hoc fuit quia nocte precedenti peccaverat in sale: ut sic poena corresponderet peccato’ [and the Jews say it was due to the fact that she had acted wrongly with the salt the night before, so that the punishment might correspond with the sin]. None of those stories (on which see Emerson 1915) involve disobedience to a prohibition by Lot, which must have been either a later modification the poet encountered somewhere or his own rationalization of a gloss such as Nicolas’s.

821  We follow Anderson and A&W in taking wroth as past tense of wrythen [turn, twist] (cf. G 1200), rather than a form of wroght, as MED assumes, since all its other examples of wroth = ‘wroght’ come from East Anglian texts. hit wroth to dispite is evidently a variant (prompted by alliterative needs) of the expression (cited by Anderson) nimmen to despit [take amiss], which can appear with a different verb and/or preposition (receyven for despit, taken in despit): see MED despit 4(a).

827  skelt hem in scorne: skelten is recorded only in this poem (see 1186, 1206, 1554) and at StE 278. On those other occasions it is an intransitive verb of motion. Its precise sense here is unclear. The b-verse (that wel her skylle knewen) indicates that the deception is as transparent to the angels as was Sarah’s surreptitious laughter to God (661–70).

831  til thay waschen hade: hand washing took place both before the meal (see G 72, 887) and (as here) after it: cf. ‘Then bryng in the water in all wyse before the lorde as they dede byfore mete’ (Fifteenth-Century Courtesy Book 14). The ceremony played an important part in that protocol governing meals which was central to notions of courtesy.

832  Dining tables consisted of tables [boards] resting on trestes [trestles]. They were not permanently in position, but were assembled specifically for meals (see G 884, 1648) and disassembled afterwards.

833–9  But before they lay down, the men of the city, even the men of Sodom, compassed the house round, both old and young, all the people from every quarter (Genesis 19:4).

839  kene klubbes: for kene (obviously in the sense of ‘formidable, destructive’ rather than ‘sharp’) applied to a club, cf. ‘he caughte hym a clubb … He walde hafe kyllede the kynge with his kene wapen’ (MA 1105–6).

840–44  And they called unto Lot, and said unto him, Where are the men which came in to thee this night? bring them out unto us, that we may know them (Genesis 19:5).

845–8  These lines have no equivalent in the Bible.

845  sputen: not past tense ‘uttered’ (A&W) but present tense ‘dispute’. The Sodomites are arguing a case, claiming a right to the young men on the grounds of custom (assyse, 844, costoum, 851), which often had legal status in the Middle Ages.

846  yestande sorwe: yeast occurs nowhere else as a verb. Alliterative requirements apparently prompted this graphic variation on the frothande fylthe of 1721. As Gollancz suggests, sorwe here and at Pa 275 may well bear a sense influenced by ON saurr [dirt]: i.e. ‘nasty matter, muckiness’.

847  wynd and the weder (cf. 444): a traditional collocation; see Oakden 1935: 310.

848  brych: usually interpreted as having the sense ‘breach, sin, iniquity’, but the context clearly requires some noun for disgusting matter that would be consistent with fylthe, yestande and stynkes (845–7). Although ‘vomit’ is not recorded as a sense of the word breach, cognate words do occur with such or similar reference: cf. OE bræc [phlegm, mucus, catarrh] and the ME verbs braken and brakelen [vomit] and Pa 340. Whatever the sense of brych, upbraides almost certainly has the sense (not otherwise recorded before the sixteenth century) ‘eruct, vomit’: see OED upbraid 6 and upbraiding 3.

849–58  The Bible has only And Lot went out at the door unto them, and shut the door [ostium] after him (Genesis 19:6).

849  glyfte … gloped: both verbs are associated with reactions to what is alarmingly or distressingly unexpected; cf. Arthur on discovering the body of Gawain in Morte Arthure: ‘Than gliftis the gud kynge and glopyns in herte’ (3949).

855  wonded for no wothe: for is not in the MS, but the verb in this sense is not elsewhere transitive and is regularly construed with for: cf. ‘For wothe that thou ne wonde’ (G 488), ‘I schuld not wonde For wo’ (Pe 153–4).

859–64  Based on Genesis 19:7 (And said, I pray you, brethren, do not so wickedly), a verse similarly expanded in Histoire ancienne 152: ‘Loth qui bien conoissoit lor malaventures les comensa a chastoier [cf. chaste: 860] e a dire qu’il laissassent ester lor folie e fussent prodome e chaste’ [Lot who knew their wicked deeds began to rebuke them and to tell them that they should leave their folly and be respectable men and chaste].

865–72  Behold now, I have two daughters which have not known man [virum]; let me, I pray you, bring them out unto you, and do ye to them as is good in your eyes: only unto these men do nothing (Genesis 19:8). Although Lot’s offer of his two daughters made some medieval and many modern commentators uncomfortable (A&W feel obliged to say that the poet may not endorse it), Lot’s words are referred to with approbation at 859–60, and the added material concerning his daughters’ attractions and the pleasures of sex with women (868–72) in fact echoes God’s own eulogy of the joys of heterosexual intercourse at 697–708. Biblical poems offer parallels: ‘Virginitas in flore tumet, jam dedita messi, / digna cupido viris, tulerit quam vestra voluptas’ [their virginity has flowered into bloom; it is ready for the harvest and an object worthy of desire for men. Let your passion take it] (Carmen de Sodoma 53–4).

867  maydenes unmard: the collocation was common; cf. ‘a mayde unmarred, that never man touched’ (SJ 105).

869  to manne: because the noun is elsewhere spelled man or mon, Anderson assumes a verb and glosses ‘be manned, be mastered’. But this involves stretching the normal ME sense of the verb (‘to provide with men, to garrison’, etc), and the spelling is easily explicable: obsolescent -e for dative case often occurs in this MS at line ending in order to ensure the line-final unstressed syllable.

871  tayt occurs with a variety of very dissimilar and somewhat elusive meanings; the context here suggests a sense similar to that in which it is used in Sir Gawain of the carcases of ‘ful tayt bestes’ (1377), i.e. ‘tidy in body, well grown’.

873–80  And they said, Stand back. And they said again, This one fellow came in to sojourn, and he will needs be a judge: now will we deal worse with thee, than with them. And they pressed sore upon the man, even Lot, and came near to break the door (Genesis 19:9).

875–6  The Vulgate, which differs a little from the AV, has Ingressus es, inquiunt, ut advena [you have come here, they say, as a stranger]. Genesis 13:12 describes how Lot settles in Sodom after leaving his home country with Abraham (Genesis 12:1–5).

879  umbe his eres: Anderson seems correct in assuming the same sense as in the modern expression ‘the house fell about his ears’, i.e. ‘close around him’, even though the idiom is not otherwise recorded before the seventeenth century.

881–4  But the men put forth their hand, and pulled Lot into the house to them, and shut to the door (Genesis 19:10).

882  him: Anderson retains MS hem, assuming it to refer to Lot and the Sodomites; but the same scribal error occurs at 915.

883  heryed: MS horyed does not mean ‘hurried’ (Anderson and A&W), a verb which is post-medieval, but ‘pulled, drew’: see MED herien^2 3(b), and cf. Pa 178, where the same collocation of heryed and hent occurs. For the spelling with o, cf. Cursor G 1446, horud (var. heried, harid, harwede). The Vulgate has et introduxerunt ad se Lot.

884  stone-hard: the simile hard as stone was common (Whiting S763), but the phrase stone-hard occurs elsewhere (Whiting S763a) only in the sense ‘obdurate, merciless’. The poet has combined the sense of the former with the form of the latter.

885–8  And they smote the men that were at the door of the house with blindness, both small and great: so that they wearied themselves to find the door (Genesis 19:11).

885  blw a buffet: glossed in MED (sv buffet) as ‘blew a blast of trumpets’, and (sv blouen) as ‘struck a blow’, which assumes an otherwise unattested sense of blouen, and by Anderson and A&W as ‘blew a blast (of wind)’, which assumes a sense of buffet not otherwise recorded in ME or in OF. Vulgate percusserunt would suggest that buffet has its normal sense of ‘blow = hit’. However, since the blow is magical, the poet has coupled it with a verb that reflects his assumption that the blow was delivered in a way that supernatural beings were popularly supposed to use when visiting blindness on humans: cf. ‘And [the fairy Tryamour] blew on her swych a breth That never eft myght sche se’ (Sir Launfal 1007–8).

886  blynde as Bayard: the association between Bayard (a popular nickname for a workhorse) with blindness and unruliness was proverbial (cf. Whiting B71). The unheroic register of the simile is exploited also in Chaucer’s Troilus (I.218) and Gower’s Confessio Amantis (VI.1280–2); with the present line cf. ‘Bot al blustyrne furth unblest as bayard the blynd’ (Audelay 44/952; cf. PP B.5.514).

887  lysoun is not attested elsewhere, and, since the b-verse is unmetrical (having two long dips), may be a scribal error. Emendation of any lysoun to a lysour (‘strip, border or shred of cloth’, used here in the sense of ‘outside edge’ or perhaps ‘shred, trace’) would be one possibility; an ynlate [entrance], corresponding to Vulgate ostium, would be another.

888  nyteled occurs only here. Anderson cites Old English Homilies 73, ‘Nutelnesse leteth the mannes shrifte the ne wot nevre hwanne he sinegeth’, where nutelnesse clearly means ‘ignorance’ (cf. Old English Homilies 71, where the same word translates Latin ignorancia) and is speculatively derived in OED from ne + witol [knowing]. Whether nyteled represents a cognate verb, and if so what its sense is in the present context, is not clear: ‘went without knowing where, stumbled about’?

889–92  The lines have no equivalent in the Vulgate. The dramatic irony (and the collocation of rest and reche) finds a parallel in the poet’s comment at 1765–6 on Belshazzar, who is likewise unaware that the present night will be his last: ‘Baltazar to his bed with blisse was kayred: Reche the rest as him lyst, he ros never thereafter.’

890  rotheled: the verb (a separate one from that represented by rotheled at 59) occurs only here. MED compares ModE dialectal rodeling [helpless, tottering] and Middle Dutch roden [wander, roam].

893–945  And the men said unto Lot, Hast thou here any besides? son-in-law, and thy sons, and thy daughters, and whatsoever thou hast in the city, bring them out of this place: For we will destroy this place, because the cry of them is waxen great before the face of the Lord; and the Lord has sent us to destroy it. And Lot went out, and spake unto his sons in law, which married his daughters, and said, Up, get you out of this place; for the Lord will destroy this city. But he seemed as one that mocked unto his sons in law. And when the morning arose, then the angels hastened Lot, saying, Arise, take thy wife, and thy two daughters, which are here; lest thou be consumed in the iniquity of the city. And while he lingered, the men laid hold upon his hand, and upon the hand of his wife, and upon the hand of his two daughters; the Lord being merciful unto him: and they brought him forth, and set him without the city. And it came to pass, when they had brought them forth abroad, that he said [dicentes], Escape for thy life; look not behind thee, neither stay thou in all the plain; escape to the mountain, lest thou be consumed. And Lot said unto them, Oh, not so, my Lord: Behold now, thy servant hath found grace in thy sight, and thou hast magnified thy mercy, which thou hast shewed unto me in saving my life; and I cannot escape to the mountain, lest some evil take me, and I die. Behold now, this city is near to flee unto, and it is a little one: Oh, let me escape thither, (is it not a little one?) and my soul shall live. And he said unto him, See, I have accepted thee concerning this thing also, that I will not overthrow this city, for the which thou hast spoken. Haste thee, escape thither; for I cannot do any thing till thou be come thither. Therefore the name of the city was called Zoar (Genesis 19:12–22). The poet has made additions and omissions and has reorganized the material. He has, in particular, compressed into one the three separate exhortations of the angels.

893  RUDDON (along with rothun at 1009) occurs only in this text. It is probably related to ME ruden [become red]; cf. the cognate rudede at G 1695 and rudnyng at Pa 139, likewise used of, respectively, dawn and the sky.

895  ruthen: the verb occurs only in Cleanness (here and at 1208) and Sir Gawain (1558).

896  glopnedly: the expressive verb glopen (see 849 and G 2461) is well attested in northern texts, but the adverb occurs only here.

900  that thou thy lif save (MS huve): the Vulgate has Salva animam tuam (Genesis 19:17).

903  before your face: i.e. ‘ahead’; cf. ‘forthwyth my face’ [before my mind’s eye] (304).

907  tyne this toun: cf. ‘If thou tynes that toun’ (775). traythly [grievously] occurs only here and at 1137. It appears to be from ON tregða [reluctance, difficulty], perhaps influenced by ME trei [affliction].

913–18  A significant departure from Genesis 19:18–19 (And Lot said unto them, Oh, not so, my Lord … I cannot escape to the mountain, lest some evil take me, and I die). That there is no hiding from God is a recurrent theme in both Patience and Cleanness (see 581–90 and n.). The alteration also avoids a potential contradiction: Zoar (Segor: 926), to which Lot flees, is represented by the poet (though not by the Bible) as a mountain resort (see n. to 927).

914  hit me felle: MS I me fele has not been convincingly explained. A&W assume MED felen v^2 [hide] and see the line as meaning ‘if I were to conceal myself as far as I could flee on foot’, which gives puzzling sense, especially in view of 915. Anderson assumes felen v^3 (a) [advance], but the two citations in MED for that sense are suspect (see Smithers’s n. to Havelok 67).

915–17  How schuld I hyde me … To crepe: where an auxiliary verb like schuld was followed by two infinitives, the second was preceded by to: cf. Pe 1072–3.

915  MS hem for Him is the same error as also occurs at 882 and 889, and MS kynned seems to be an error for kynded [kindled], since the verb kinnen [conceive or bear a child] is nowhere else recorded in the extended sense ‘arouse, awake’; kinden was a rarer equivalent of MED kindelen^1, which could be used metaphorically of the kindling of wrath, etc, and the kindling of a fire of wrath (cf. 916) is precisely what present context requires.

919  The freke (i.e. one of the angels): the Vulgate contains a similar shift from plural speakers (dicentes, Genesis 19:15; cf. ‘Thay comaunded’: 898) to a singular one (Dixitque ad eum, Genesis 19:21), though the biblical equivalent to lines 919–20 is actually spoken by Lot in the Vulgate (see Genesis 29:19, cited in n. to 893–945).

924  em: MS eme has been wrongly ‘corrected’ by a second hand to the non-alliterating brother; see nn. to 772, 1015.

927  on a rounde hille: the Bible does not say that Segor is on a hill; on the contrary, the implication of Lot’s words from Genesis 19:19 (I cannot escape to the mountain) and of Genesis 19:30 (And Lot went up out of Zoar [Ascenditque Lot de Segor], and dwelt in the mountain) seems to be that Zoar is low-lying. But the topography assumed by the poet has parallels elsewhere: cf. Metrical Paraphrase 615 (‘a hyll syd, that sogor hyght’) and Mandeville, Bodley Version 63 (‘Segor was sauid at the preyer of Loth, for hit stod upon an hey hil’).

940  cities athel fyve: i.e. Segor and the four cities listed in 956–8 (Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboim).

942  Prechande hem the peril: with the use of preche here, cf. ‘Thus preched he them by processe playn qwat care suld come’ (Metrical Paraphrase 5005).

942–3  The absence of inverted commas in medieval script meant that the boundaries between direct and indirect speech were more fluid, and the one could slip easily into the other; cf. 898–9.

943  taken in the tech: cf. ‘tan in tech of a faute’ (G 2488).

944  bowe now by bote: MS bowe now bi bot has been variously explained. Anderson’s ‘go quickly’ is based on OF a bot, de bot, not recorded in English; nor did the alliterative metre permit alliteration on the same word in the same part of speech in the same sense (cf. bowes in the b-verse). bowe in the a-verse would therefore appear to mean ‘obey’. A&W translate ‘obey according to the commandment’, but bowe = ‘obey’ is elsewhere regularly followed by to, and bode is nowhere recorded in the form bot: contrast ‘bowed to his bode’ at Pa 56. We therefore follow Menner in assuming bote = ‘boot’ [salvation, safety], though the phrase by bote is not attested.

945  kayren hem con: efforts to explain MS kayre ne con have been unpersuasive, as periphrastic con cannot normally occur with a negative. Reflexive forms of kayre, on the other hand, are well attested, and the verse as emended would restore to con the ingressive and intensifying force which it often has and which is appropriate here. For an a-verse similar in metrical-grammatical shape, cf. ‘And he conveyen Him con’ (768).

946  The sun was risen upon the earth when Lot entered into Zoar (Genesis 19:23). The compound heven-glem occurs only here; cf. day-glem (Pe 1094), which is also a nonce word.

947–78  As with the Flood (see 370–402 and n.), the poet has considerably expanded the account of the cataclysm that occurs in the Bible, which has only Then the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out of heaven; And he overthrew those cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and that which grew upon the ground (Genesis 19:24–5).

948–50  With this personification of the ‘wroth’ and ‘wrestling’ winds, compare the winds God likewise calles upon at Pa 131–2 and 141, and see n. to Pa 132–6; cf. also G 525 (‘Wroth wynd of the welkyn wrasteles with the sunne’). According to Ovid’s Metamorphoses I.52–68, the winds, innately strifeful, were separated to the four different quarters of the globe, from which, flytande [arguing, contending], they here depart. Cf. Metamorphoses XI.489–90: ‘the warring winds From every quarter hurl their huge attack’ [omnique e parte feroces / bella gerunt venti].

948  waken wederes so wylde: cf. ‘Bot wylde wederes of the worlde wakened thereoute’ (G 2000).

951  Cloudes clustered bitwene: cf. ‘Mony clustered cloude’ (367). torres: probably ‘towering heaps of cloud’ (see n. to Pe 875).

952  The alliterating term thunder-thrast [thunderbolt] occurs also at WA 554: ‘Thonere-thrastis ware thra, thristid the welkyn.’ Thunder and lightning were assumed to be caused by violent gusts of wind (cf. 948–50) tearing their way through thick clouds (Isidore XIII.viii).

953  rueled [?fell fast]: the verb (apparently from OF roeler [roll]) occurs only here. On ridlande, another word apparently from OF and occurring only in this MS, see n. to Pa 254.

954  soufre replaces the expected snow to which, in the context of weather, the term flake (then as now) elsewhere always refers.

957  Gorde is from girden, a verb often used of knights or armies charging or moving to attack persons or regions (MED girden v^2 3(a)); the verb semi-personifies the brimstone storm as actively targeting the city, as does the metaphor of the hunt at 961.

958  Abdama and Syboym – these cities all foure: cf. 940 and n. The names of these other cities are given in Genesis 14:2 and Deuteronomy 29:23 and provide further evidence of a poet who knew the Bible well enough to bring other passages to bear upon the one he was currently translating.

959  birolled occurs only here, and presumably picks up rueled (953). rosted and brenned form a striking apparent contradiction with rayn, and show a poet keenly responsive to the acidly sulphurous nature of this particular storm (954).

961–3  Both the storm from above and the splitting earth below are personified to suggest that the cities are the prey of intentional forces rather than the casualties of a natural catastrophe. With the metaphor of the houndes of heven used of the storm may be compared the notion of ‘Gabriel’s raches [hounds]’, a pack of dogs which were believed to fly through the sky, foreboding imminent disaster (see Gollancz and Catholicon Anglicum 147). The opening up of the earth is presented as a personified Hell bursting open his confining gates (with barres … he braste up cf. ‘brestes up the yates’ at 1263) to seize the prey he hears the hounds pursuing; Hell as a character would have been familiar to the poet’s audience from the dialogue between Satan and a personified Infernus in the Gospel of Nicodemus (192–5), which Langland draws on in PP B.18.265: ‘Than sikede Sathan, and seide to Helle … ’

966  The simile comparing the disintegration of the cliffs with the fragmentation of a book is startlingly original. The collocation of lause (regularized from MS lauce, which must represent the verb lausen [loosen], not lancen [spring]: see n. to G 526) and leves occurs less unpredictably at G 526 (‘The leves lausen fro the lynde’).

967  blende: usually read as past tense of blenden [mingle] and glossed ‘spread’, but no comparable usage is recorded of that verb. We have taken it as past of blinnen [cease]; though the verb does not occur elsewhere spelled with e, lowering of i to e is not uncommon in this MS (see n. to 384), and blende would appear to be a variant of the recorded past tense form blind(e).

969–72  The lines recall the panic and terror occasioned by the Flood at 373ff. Both passages are independent of the Vulgate.

971–2  With yomerly yarm of yellyng, cf. ‘Yauland yamerly with many loude yell’ (Awntyrs 86); and with clatered the cloudes (a collocation which occurs in descriptions of storms: see Oakden 1935: 275), cf. e.g. ‘Cloudes … clatird unfaire’ (WA 555); existing collocations have, however, here been combined to distinctive effect, as these cloudes clater [resound] with the echo of the yellyng.

976  Trynande aye a high trot: the verb is from the word-hoard of alliterative poetry, as is the expression itself, which could be adapted to alliterative needs: cf. ‘we trinet a trot’ (Pistel of Susan 225), ‘Flyngande on a faste trott’ (MA 2757).

977  luly-white (proverbial: see Whiting L279) … lefly: cf ‘Lovelich and lilie-whit’ (Pistel of Susan 16).

979–84  But his wife looked back from behind him, and she became a pillar of salt (Genesis 19:26).

981  over her lyfte schulder: as Bateson 1923 notes, looking over the left shoulder is a common folkloric motif that heralds grief; cf. ‘She looked over her left shoulder, And tears did blind her ee. But she looked over her right shoulder, And a blythe sight saw she’ (Lord William, stanza 15). In ‘Louerd asse thou ard on God’, God sarcastically asks Satan to ‘Loke ovir thine luft sculdere’ (33) before plunging him into Hell. The left side in general had negative connotations (cf. G 2487–8).

984  and so ho yet standes: cf. Wisdom 10:7: ‘and a disbelieving soul hath a memorial there, a pillar of salt still standing’. The continued existence of this salt pillar is reported by many earlier writers (see n. to 999–1000), including Mandeville (Livre 227) and Josephus, who claims to have seen it with his own eyes (Antiquitates 150).

985  samen-feres: the expression occurs only here.

987–8  This thanksgiving is not in the Vulgate, but cf. Pa 237–40 (‘There was lovyng on loft … ’). StE 349 (‘Then wos lovyng oure Lord wyth loves uphalden’) indicates that loves is plural of MED love n^3 [palm, hand], not lof n^1 [praise].

990–91  that little toun: i.e. Segor, which is referred to as a small town at Genesis 19:20 (and whose name, on the basis of the same verse, was usually assumed to mean ‘littleness’): est civitas haec juxta … parva [the city, ‘small’, is near by] … numquid non modica est [is it not ‘little’]? The poet had evidently read somewhere that the inhabitants of the town fled from it in terror and died in the very catastrophe they were attempting to escape (though the town itself was saved for Lot’s sake: cf. 921–2 and see n. to 1015), or himself assumed that to be the case (since God has promised to save the town, not the citizens, who were as guilty as those of the other four cities). He emphasizes in the following lines (992–3) that nothing escaped the catastrophe except the town itself and the three persons that it now contained (Lot and his two daughters).

991  malscrande: the verb outside this MS means ‘to wander aimlessly’ or ‘to bewilder’. But here and at Pa 255, where Jonah sits in the whale ‘malskred in drede’, it seems to have a much stronger meaning, referring to the ‘confounding’ effects of some terrifyingly out-of-the-ordinary phenomenon.

992  that sat on a lawe: see n. to 927.

993 The a-verse lacks a second alliterating word; Gollancz supplies lent after thereinne.

996  mistrauthe: this characterization of the disobedience of Lot’s wife aligns her with Satan, who forsoke his Soverayn (210), Adam inobedyent (237) and the lapsed Jews later founden untrue in their fayth (1161) – who form a subset of unfaithful servants whom God punishes with harshness, but not with the uncontrollable rage that only filth can arouse in Him (197–204).

997–9  See n. to 821–8.

999–1000  Cf. ‘In a salt stan men seis hir stand That bestes likes o that land’ (Cursor 2855–6). The motif was a common one, and can be found also in e.g. Prudentius 749–53, and cf. Malkaraume, Bible 475–7: ‘Et sa fanme … les bestes de cel leu Leschent tant com li mons durra’ [and his wife … is licked by the animals of that place for as long as the world will last]. The pillar was a tourist attraction for pilgrims, who found Lot’s wife standing, miraculously undiminished ‘ab animalibus lingendo [by the licking of the animals], in ipso statu, in quo fuit [in exactly the same shape as she was originally]’ (Itinera Hierosolymitana 169).

1001–12  And Abraham gat up early in the morning to the place where he stood before the Lord: And he looked toward Sodom and Gomorrah, and toward all the land of the plain, and beheld, and, lo, the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of a furnace (Genesis 19:27–8).

1007  aparaunt to Paradise: Anderson points out that aparaunt (wrongly glossed ‘heir apparent’ in MED) in fact derives from OF s’aparer [be comparable with]. The poet is remembering Genesis 13:10, where the site of Sodom and Gomorrah is said to be even as the garden of the Lord [sicut paradisus Domini]. The verb planted may have been suggested by Genesis 2:8, Plantaverat autem Dominus Deus paradisum voluptatis [the Lord God planted a garden of delight].

1009  rothun occurs only here. Anderson and MED relate it to ON roðmi [redness] and Anderson represents the word as rothum (the MS has the bar representing a nasal over u). It may or may not be related to ruddon at 893, where context and relation to other rud- words clearly indicate the sense ‘redness’ (see n. to 893), a meaning that is not especially obvious here.

1013–1156  These remaining lines of section II of the poem are independent of Genesis 19.

1015–48  Similar descriptions of the Dead Sea and the properties of the fruit growing near it can be found both in biblical versifications (Carmen de Sodoma 182–225, Cursor 2861–90) and in encyclopaedic works (e.g. Isidore XIII.xix, Trevisa, Properties I, 660–61). The ultimate source is the Bible: the whole land thereof is brimstone, and salt, and burning … it is not sown, nor beareth, nor any grass groweth therein, like the overthrow of Sodom, and Gomorrah (Deuteronomy 29:23); … the fire that descended out of heaven on Pentapolis [the five cities]. To whose wickedness a smoking fire still witnesseth, and plants bearing fair fruit that cometh not to ripeness (Wisdom 10:6–7). A more proximate source is Josephus, who describes the unnatural qualities of the Dead Sea in Wars of the Jews IV.viii.4. The poet used this description at the least indirectly through the French insular version of Mandeville’s Travels, which is certainly his major source here. Specific parallels between Cleanness and Mandeville are indicated in the notes below. More broadly, both texts make the same general moral point illustrated by the same particulars: the present landscape is an enduring memorial to the past sin of Sodomy, and thus the land is barren; the sea stinks and behaves unnaturally; and the fruit, while looking appealing from the outside, is corrupt inside.

1015  fyve has been erased by a second scribe in the MS and replaced with faure (see n. to 924 for a similar mistaken ‘correction’). It was common to speak of the destruction of all five cities of the plain (cf. 940), for, even though Segor was not at this point destroyed (as the poet reminds us at 992; cf. 922), God did destroy it later through an earthquake (thus Peter Comestor, col. 1101, and Bacon I, 337–8) after Lot had fled from it. Especially relevant is Mandeville, Livre 227, the poet’s probable source for the Dead Sea description: ‘En cel mer fondirent [cf. foundered: 1014] les V citez par irour [var. vengeaunce; cf. vengaunce: 1013] de Dieu’ [in that sea the five cities were engulfed through God’s anger].

1018  stynkande stanc: cf. ‘Thar thaa five cities war won to be [cf. C 1015] / es noght now bot a stinkand see’ (Cursor 2861–2), ‘autres [appelent cel mer] le flum puaunt, qar le eawe est orde et puante’ [others call that sea the stinking stream, because the water is foul and stinking] (Mandeville, Livre 227).

1019  smelle (MS synne, retained by Anderson and Vantuono): ‘The scribe probably miswrote synne because he had just written it in the line before. The poet elsewhere usually alliterates sm only with itself, and not with simple s … Cf. 461’ (Menner).

1022  bitter as the galle: proverbial. See Whiting G8.

1023  Cf. ‘Na livand thing mai tharin duell’ (Cursor 2864). This is in apparent contradiction with 1031–2. The poet was probably combining two different traditions.

1024–6  Cf. ‘et qy metteroit fer dedeinz il noeroit par dessure. Et qy metteroit une plume dedeinz, elle iroit au founs [cf. to founs: 1026]. Et ces sont choses contre nature’ [if you put any iron in it will float to the top. And if you put a feather in, it will sink to the bottom. And these are things against nature] (Mandeville, Livre 226).

1029–32  Cf. ‘ne homme ne beste qe ad en luy vie ne poroit morir en cel mer, et ceo ad esté prové mointe foiz qe home jectoit dedeinz gentz qe avoient deservy mort et demorroient III jours ou IIII, mes ils ne poaient morir, qar elle ne retient nulle chose qu ait en luy vie’ [neither living man nor beast could die in that sea, and that has been proved on the many occasions when people deserving death have been thrown therein and stayed there for three or four days; yet they could not die, because it absorbs nothing that has life in it] (Mandeville, Livre 226).

1031  losyng: glossed ‘perdition’ in MED, but the word is not elsewhere used in that sense. Since lose and be lost were often used to mean ‘perish’ (see losen v^2 4b and 6; cf. G 675), it looks as if the poet is pointing to the living death here involved, in which losyng [being lost from life and the world] is, for once, not synonymous with suffering deth (1032).

1034  corsyes is an improvised or at least rare shortened form (of corrosies), not otherwise recorded in MED, used to create wordplay with corsed (1033).

1035  alum and alkaran: cf. ‘Entour celle mer croist moult d’alun et d’alketran [var. alkoran, alkaram]’ (Mandeville, Livre 225).

1037–8  Cf. ‘et jecte fors del eawe une chose qe homme appelle aspalt, aussy grosses pieces come un chival’ [and out of that water is thrown something called asphalt, in pieces as large as a horse] (Mandeville, Livre 226). Josephus (Antiquities IV.viii.4) also refers to ‘black globs of bitumen … in their shape and size resembling decapitated bulls’, and to the trade in these deposits of asphalt (not mentioned by Mandeville): ‘The labourers on the lake row up to these and haul them into their boats … It is useful … also for the healing of the body, forming an ingredient in many medicines.’ This trade is also mentioned in Carmen de Sodoma 150–52, which refers to the substance as being greasy (pingue: cf. wax-lokes [?wax-like lumps], a term not otherwise recorded in ME) and as forming a skin of scum or foam (spumisque cutis: cf. spumande), and asphalt is similarly defined in the medical treatise Cyrurgie of Guy de Chauliac as ‘hardened scume [Sloane MS: ‘fome indured’] that is founden in the Dede See … it heleth ulcers’ (618).

1041  kynde has been supplied (following Gollancz). The b-verse in the MS (of traytoures) is unmetrical.

1044  apple-garnade occurs only here, apple being a translation, for alliterative purposes, of pome in pome-garnade.

1047  brused: not ‘bruised’ (< OE brysan), as Anderson and A&W gloss the word, but ‘broken, smashed’ (< OF brisier, bruisier, AN bruser). Cf. ‘si croissent arbes delez qe portent pommes très beles et de bele color a regarder et toutes maures par semblant, mes qy les brisera [var. brusera] ou trenchera par my, il ne trovera dedeinz qe cendres’ [and trees grow nearby carrying very beautiful apples fine to behold and looking all ripe, but if anyone breaks them or slices them in two, he will only find ashes therein] (Mandeville, Buke 226).

1057  compas [circumference, bounded area] and clene [perfectly wrought] apply punningly to both the rose as flower and Rose as literary work. This aesthetic sense of clene is prominent in this last third of the poem, in which it is especially applied to the artistic beauty of the temple vessels defiled by Belshazzar (1287, 1382, 1455, 1458).

1059–67  The passage from Roman de la rose here alluded to is that in which Ami [Friend] advises the lover to recommend himself to the lady by adopting her own likes and dislikes, as these are evident in the demeanour of Bel Accueil [that aspect of her disposed to give ‘Fair Welcome’]: ‘De bel acueill vous prenez garde, Par quel semblant il vous regarde [take note of Bel Accueil, and with what expression he looks at you: 7721–22; cf. C 1059–60] … Conformez vous a sa maniere [conform yourself to his manner: 7724; cf. C 1067] … De lui ensuivre vous penez [take pains to follow him in demeanour: 7730; cf. C 1062] … Briement, faites en quelque place Quanque vous pensez que li place. S’ainsi le faites, n’en doutez, Ja n’en serez ariers boutez [briefly, do in every place whatever you think is pleasing to him. If you do this, do not fear: you will certainly never be rebuffed: 7791–94; cf. C 1060–64].’ This amorous policy is here wittily applied to the ‘wooing’ of God by ‘conformity’ (1067) to His nature. For a similar application of the same axiom of courtly love to moral-spiritual imitation of (or ‘likeness’ (1064) to) a virtuous model, cf. ‘If we these ladies wolde lovy in lyknyng of thewes’ (Pa 30).

1065  drury: used in courtly and romantic contexts of ‘love’. The expression dele drury occurs also of Morgan’s affair with Merlin in Sir Gawain: ‘ho has dalt drury ful dere sumtyme With that conable clerk’ (2449–50). The application to God of this and other expressions of romantic love was not uncommon.

1068  polysed: also used in Sir Gawain to indicate moral ‘cleanness’: ‘I holde thee polysed of that plyght and pured as clene …’ [I consider you cleansed of that guilt, and purified as cleanly …] (2393). The perle as an image of purity and perfection (here and at 1117–32) is also reminiscent of Pearl.

1072  The general physical and moral senses of clene established by the poem are here supplemented by the specific sense (‘chaste’) in which the adjective was used of maidens and virgins (MED clene 2(b)) and perhaps also (in view of the imagery of 1071) by the related sense ‘entire, unimpaired’ (cf. clene 6(a)).

1075–6  bos could refer to either a manger or a stall, as could the Latin praesepe of which it is found as a gloss (Promptorium Parvulorum 41). Here the sense must be ‘manger’, since the stall is mentioned in the next line, and the passage traces in enlarging circles the cleansing effects of Christ on His environment: from the Virgin’s womb (1072), to the crib and stall (1075–6), to the world itself (1099–1101). This gradual enlargement of perspective is paralleled by the comparisons of the bos [manger] to a bour [chamber in a mansion] and the schepon [cattle shed] to a house. schroude is probably past participle of shroud in its sense of ‘drape, decorate’ (MED shrouden 2), although shroude house is understood as a compound by A&W (following Anderson, who cites a nonce OE scrudelshus [vestry]) and glossed ‘vestry, sanctuary’.

1081–8  The details surrounding the nativity scene – the singing of the angels around the crib, and the adoration of the ox and the ass – ultimately derive from the apocryphal Gospels and from the influence of Isaiah 1:3. For a ME analogue which mentions these and other details (e.g. Mary’s clean and painless birth) see Three Kings of Cologne 52–4.

1093–1101  The paradoxical relation between 1093 and 1090, and between 1091–2 and Christ’s ‘touching’ of the unclean sick, is explained by 1099 and 1101 (cf. 1092): God is still (as in the earlier parts of the poem) a deity unable to tolerate uncleanness in His vicinity, but in His Messianic manifestation He transmutes dirt to, rather than expelling it from, His cleanness.

1093–6  Cf. Christ’s healing of the sick in Matthew 8–9 (and Luke 7), where the list begins with a leprosus (cf. lepre: 1094) and contains two instances (8:6, 9:2) of the paralyticus [man with palsy; cf. parlatyk: 1095]; the lome and the blynde (1094) also occur (9:27–31, Luke 7:22), together with two cases of the dede (1096) raised to life (Matthew 9:18, Luke 7:12–15). For the healing of a man with dropsy (vir … hydropicus; cf. ydropike: 1096), see Luke 14:2–3.

1095  Poysened has no parallel in the canonical Gospels; but Christ promised to His faithful that no deadly drink or serpent would harm them (Mark 16:18), an immunity which is referred to elsewhere (Sidrak B 729–37, John Evangelist 220–32) and which evidently could be extended to the ability to cure the effects of venom: ‘venum he [St John] drank without wath; The poysoned m[e]n he raised rath That war dede of suche a drink’ (Cursor 21055–7). pined in fires perhaps represents Peter’s febricitans [feverish] mother-in-law (Matthew 8:14), who is cured by Christ, though fire as a medical term normally referred to inflammatory and/or skin conditions.

1096  Drye obviously suggested itself as an alliterating opposite of the biblical ydropike, the two denoting diseases caused by respective deficiency and surplus of fluid (medieval diagnostics were based on the four bodily humours and the four elementary qualities of hot, cold, moist, dry).

1105–8  When the resurrected Christ appeared on the road to Emmaus to two of His disciples, He was recognized by them only when He later broke the bread at table (cognoverunt eum in fractione panis: Luke 24:35). As Menner notes, a passage in Towneley Play 28 (Thomas of India) suggests a distinctive ‘cleanness of break’ was deduced to have prompted the identification: ‘Ihesu, Goddys son of heven At soper satt betweyn, Ther bred he brake as even As it cutt had beyn’ (465–8).

1108  toles of Tolouse: confusion with Toledo (famous for its blades) is, as Gollancz suggests, a possibility; cf. Guy of Warwick (2) 84, where Toledo in the French text figures as Tholouse in the English. But knives and razors were also among the specialities of the metal industry that flourished in Toulouse in the late fourteenth century (when Toulouse also became famous for its trade in luxury fabrics: tolouse figures at G 77 as the name of a choice cloth). See Breeze 1996.

1109  curious had a range of meanings – relating to elaborate care, niceness and skill – very different from those it has today; in view of the previous quatrain, the primary sense here is probably ‘neatly exact’ (MED curious 1b). The alliterative and syntactic association with clene again anticipates the aesthetic application to fine craftsmanship both words have when used of the magnificent vessels (as e.g. at 1452–5).

1111  souly appears only in this poem (here and at 168). It seems to have been borrowed from French souillié [soiled, dirty].

1111–16  There occurs here the first acknowledgement that spotlessness is not actually achievable by any (naturally flawed) mortal; and the wording of the Beatitude adopted as the text for the poem’s theme (27–8) is here recalled (1112) in an interrogative mode that contrasts with the hitherto imperative stance taken up in the sections of exposition framing the various Old Testament narratives (e.g. 33, 165, 554). There also now occurs the first indication of a method of divine purgation which does not involve obliteration or expulsion of the human source of pollution. The change in perspective is associated with a transition to the salvific logic of the New Testament and to the salvific purification available through the sacraments (specifically, confession and penance) of the Church of Christ.

1114  molde [earth, soil] was in verse often a synonym for ‘world’, especially in the tag upon mold(e) (see e.g. 708, 1656). In the present context, however, the semantic correspondence with fenny and myre (1113–14) makes the literal sense revelant: the point is that a ‘muddy’ state in this ‘earth-ly’ life is inevitable.

1117  praysed is pris: the glosses proposed by A&W (‘highly valued’) and Anderson (‘deemed precious’) make weak sense in context. pris here means ‘the best, the paragon’ (MED pris n^1 7); cf. C 1614 and ‘Smaragdus is pris of alle grene stones’ (Trevisa, Properties II, 871).

1124  while ho in pece lastes: MS pyese has sometimes been emended to pryse, and the clause explained as ‘while she/it remains in esteem’ (contrasting with uncheryst at 1125). But it is a recorded form of piece (cf. MS pyece at Pe 192 and pyse at 229), which could mean ‘length of time’ (MED pece 7(d)); cf. ‘The wer [war] lasted sa long a pece … ’ (Cursor 7063) and AN en piece (‘for a long time’); and we understand the clause to mean ‘for as long as she lasts’.

1127  wasch her with worschip, in wyne: the antiseptic and cleansing qualities of wine were well known, for there are references to the use of it for cleaning wounds. In recommending it for cleaning pearls, the poet seems to be consulting, not lapidary tradition (in which the detail does not figure), but practical experience: alcohol has been used in modern times to restore the lustre of pearls (Emerson 1919: 511; Kunz and Stevenson 1908: 396). The alliteration with worschip implies that the use of a cleaning agent more expensive than water is also more respectfully appreciative of the special beauty and worth of the pearl.

1131  polyce: see n. to 1068. The expression ‘at the priest’ implies that the confessor (and the penance he assigns) is being offered, with some wit, as useful buffing material for spiritual ‘shine’.

1134  parchemen schaven: to prepare parchment (made from the skin of sheep or calves) for writing, it had to be stretched and all impurities had to be scraped off. A&W cite an extended comparison, in a twelfth-century sermon, between a good conscience and well-pumiced parchment.

1137  traythly: see n. to 907.

1141  lastes hit likkes has been variously interpreted. likkes is rendered ‘tastes’ by both Anderson and A&W, with hit (= the soul) as subject and lastes as object. But -s frequently occurs as a present plural inflexion in this corpus, and the soul appears here to be regarded as the prized object of a defilement or rapine (1142) that would cause anger and distress to its owner. The clause has here been understood to mean ‘vices lick it’: the image is designed to elicit the same reaction of angry disgust as would be provoked when a vessel dedicated to one’s use is made unfit for that use by being licked or drunk from by some obviously unhygienic creature.

1144  This theological principle (that the defiled is worse than the uncleansed) occurs in canon law, and is at one point invoked by Andreas Capellanus: ‘the punishment is all the keener if abuse disfigures the use of something sacred than if we follow an abuse which is customary’ (De Amore 151; see also Kelly 1975: 256).

1145–52  The image of the soul purified through shrift as a ‘vessel’ consecrated to God both leads into, and gives a more general applicability to, the third Old Testament exemplum: Belshazzar’s desecration of the temple vessels. See pp. 88–9.

1145–6  The image of the soul as God’s ‘vessel’ (on which see Morse 1971 and 1978) has its biblical origin in a text also referred to (for very different purposes) by Chaucer’s Wife of Bath (CT III.95–104): But in a great house there are not only vessels of gold and of silver, but also of wood and of earth … If a man therefore purge himself … he shall be a vessel unto honour, sanctified, and meet for the master’s use (2 Timothy 2:20–21).

1154–6  The stark antithesis between the pious purity of Noah, Abraham and Lot, on the one hand, and the debauched communities around them, on the other, is now replaced by one between two kinds of sinner: the redeemable Nebuchadnezzar, who, despite his faults, can both awaken and show esteem (1313–20, 1643ff, 1701–8), and his unredeemably gross son Belshazzar (who fails to cherisch the vessels: 1154; cf. 1125).

1157–60  Daniel was one among the Jewish gentryse who were brought prisoner to Babylon after the sack of Jerusalem, an event referred to at the beginning of his Book (1:1–3) and in one of his visions (9:12–8). But the full story of the siege and conquest itself, to which the poem proceeds, was known to the poet, not from Daniel, but from elsewhere in the Bible: 2 Kings 24–5, 2 Chronicles 36, Jeremiah 52. These events are included in the poem, not only because the destruction of human habitations for sinful uncleanness (1173–6, 1225–32) is of obvious relevance, but also because the structural principle of contrast (between the preserved and the destroyed) is observed in this last part of the poem primarily in relation to the deeds and fates of Nebuchadnezzar (the sacker of Jerusalem and the temple) and Belshazzar.

1157  dialokes elsewhere refers to a specific literary form, a dialogue, which would not accurately describe the Book of Daniel, which consists of six chapters recounting, in the third person, Daniel’s life under three successive kings of Babylon (Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar and Darius), followed by six chapters written largely in the first person, describing the prophetic dreams he experienced over that period. Possibly the use of the word ‘dialogues’ with reference to the sacred and hagiographical tales in the Dialogues of Gregory the Great (see MED dialog (a)) prompted a general sense of ‘record of historically true stories, chronicles, accounts’.

1161  On the moral and religious degeneracy of the Jews prior to the sack of Jerusalem, see 2 Kings 24:9, 19; 2 Chronicles 36:15–16; Daniel 9:5–12.

1163  halwed for His (cf. 1139–48): following the poet’s warning against moral pollution of souls consecrated to God, the fate of the Jews forms a subsidiary and introductory exemplum – an exemplum in fact more strictly pertinent than the story of Belshazzar, whose acts relate only to the sacrilegious abuse of consecrated vessels (1145–52), not to the moral-spiritual backsliding that abuse was introduced to illustrate (for there is no sense in which Belshazzar was ever ‘saghtled and sakred’ to God (1139), as were the Jews, whom He had halwed for His).

1165–8  The Bible also interprets the conquest of the Jews and the sack of Jerusalem as a punishment for the transgressions of the Jews against their faith and its laws (2 Kings 24:2–3; 2 Chronicles 36:16–17; Daniel 9:11–12) – transgressions continued so long that they wakened His wrath (donec ascenderet furor Domini: 2 Chronicles 36:16).

1169  Zedechyas: Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar’s uncle, had been installed as a puppet king of Jerusalem by his nephew, after the previous conquest of Jerusalem by the latter (2 Kings 24:17–18). He then rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24:20), though in this poem it is his breach of allegiance to his divine lord (1172) that precipitates his punishment at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar; for Zedekiah (1173–6), like his predecessors on the Jewish throne, ‘did that which was evil in the eyes of the Lord’ (Jeremiah 52:2; cf. 2 Kings 24:19, 2 Chronicles 36:12).

1173–6  abominaciones, let lyght by, Forthy and wakened are expressions prompted by the wording of 2 Chronicles 36:14–17, of which these lines are a paraphrase: following Zedekiah’s example, the leading Jews transgressed very much after all the abominations [abominationes] of the heathen, and attached very little weight to [parvipendebant] the rebukes delivered by the spokesmen of God; and Therefore he brought upon them [Adduxit enim super eos] the king of the Chaldees [Nebuchadnezzar]. In the poem (in which the equivalent verbs and pronouns are singular and relate to Zedekiah alone), the issue is personalized – to create a triad of kings punished, by loss of their kingdoms, for forgetting the overlord under whom they held them (1162, 1172): Zedekiah (1227–8), Nebuchadnezzar (1701–8), Belshazzar (1797–1802).

1176  Nabugo de nozar: this French-looking form in which Nebuchadnezzar’s name is always represented in the MS (see n. to 1226) not only makes it clear how the name fits into the metre, where it provides two alliterating staves on n and thus a complete a-verse in itself (1176, 1218, etc), or a b-verse (1651), and permits shortening to Nabugo to allow for inclusion of other matter in the a-verse (1226, 1233), but also (at 1312) enables that name to span the two half lines (providing the second stave of the a-verse and the head stave of the b-verse) in a way no other spelling could easily convey.

1177–80  The Vulgate merely states that in the ninth year of Zedekiah’s reign Nebuchadnezzar and his forces laid siege to [circumdederunt] Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:1). The added details visualize Nebuchadnezzar’s campaign in a manner that shows familiarity with biblical geography and nomenclature. Nebuchadnezzar would have proceeded west from Babylon (south of modern Baghdad) to Palastyn (1177), the name of the general area between the Mediterranean and the river Jordan, where his target is Israel (1179) and, more specifically, Jerusalem, the chief city of the Jews, situated in the province of Judee (1180). Israel and Judah were, at this period, technically two separate kingdoms, in the north and south respectively of Palestine. But the term Israel was also used in the Vulgate as an inclusive term (for the Jewish nation as a whole) in which the formally separate kingdom of Judah could be comprehended (e.g. Daniel 1:3, 6), and the word is so used by this poet both here and at 1293–4 (though he always correctly sites Jerusalem specifically in Judah: cf. Pe 922, 937).

1181–92  An elaboration of and pitched against it; and they built forts against it round about (2 Kings 25:1, Jeremiah 52:4). The military details add liveliness and naturalize the biblical events into the traditions of alliterative verse – in which battles generally and sieges in particular, both modern and ancient (in poems such as SJ and DT), are a favoured topos, and in which realistic details on arms and tactics (cf. 1187, 1190) are often to be found.

1183  Jerusalem is likewise pictured in SJ as a well-fortified city hard to conquer: ‘And this toured toun is tenful to wynne’ (868).

1187  on basteles wyse indicates that each moveable siege-tower or berfray (which contained men and arms and was moved as close as possible to the walls) resembled in appearance and protective function a bastel or defensive turret projecting from a wall or tower of a city or castle-fort (cf. G 799). The use of the term bastel for a siege-engine itself (sometimes assumed to be the case here) seems to have been a later development which probably arose from such comparisons as the poet here makes.

1190  The brutage or ‘brattice’ was a defensive parapet erected in times of siege as a timber extension to the upper wall (Warner 1968: 17).

1192  two yere: the siege lasted, according to the Vulgate, from the ninth to the eleventh year of the reign of Zedekiah (2 Kings 25:1–2, Jeremiah 52:4–5).

1193–1200  An elaboration of the famine [fames] prevailed in the city, and there was no bread for the people of the land (2 Kings 25:3; cf. Jeremiah 52:6).

1201–4  and all the men of war fled by night by the way of the gate between two walls, which is by the king’s garden … and the king went by the way toward the plain (2 Kings 25:4; cf. Jeremiah 52:7).

1201–2  Medieval political theory required the king always to take, and act on, counsel on any important point (cf. G 361–6).

1205–11  Unparalleled in the Vulgate. Stylistically characteristic is the energy and expressiveness imparted by three unusual verbs. atwappe (1205) occurs only here and at G 1167 (‘What wylde [beast] so atwaped wyes that schotten’); the verb, whose sense is plainly ‘escape from’, seems to be derived from wap [blow in gusts, whirl]. lulted (1207) is much the earliest occurrence of the verb lilt and here refers to horn or trumpet blasts that ‘sounded out forcibly and shrilly’, as in Douglas’s Aeneid, where, with reference to the grisly horn-blast sent out by the Fury, ‘Tartaream intendit vocem’ is rendered ‘A feyndlych hellis voce scho liltis schill’ (VII.viii.88). ruthed (1208) is a verb (probably of Norse derivation) that occurs only in this corpus of poems, always in the context of a hurried arousal from bed (cf. 895, G 1558).

1212–16  And the army of the Chaldees pursued after the king, and overtook him in the plains of Jericho: and all his army were scattered from him (2 Kings 25:5; cf. Jeremiah 52:8).

1215  Caldee: so spelled only at 1316 in the MS (which elsewhere gives Calde), but metre consistently requires a trisyllabic word.

1217–20  So they took the king, and brought him up to the king of Babylon to Riblah; and they gave judgment upon him (2 Kings 25:6; cf. Jeremiah 52:9).

1220–24  And the king of Babylon slew the sons of Zedekiah before his eyes: he slew also the princes of Judah in Riblah. Then he put out the eyes of Zedekiah; and the king of Babylon bound him in chains, and carried him to Babylon, and put him in prison till the day of his death (Jeremiah 52:10–11; cf. 2 Kings 25:7).

1222  holkked [dug] out: a close equivalent of effodit [dug out] at 2 Kings 25:7 (eruit in Jeremiah 52:11).

1225–32  Unparalleled in the Vulgate. See n. to 1163.

1226  Nabugo: ‘Nebuchadnezzar’s name is always written as a French name in the MS (Nabugo de noȝar), and here Nabugo is evidently thought of as a forename’ (Anderson). Menner notes that Nabugod occurs twice in Gower’s Miroir de l’omme (1887, 10338). The name also occurs in Gower’s Vox Clamantis (VII.5). See also n. to 1176.

1231–2  India and Turkey were the lands which would have mustered the most numerous and formidable forces: Trevisa repeats ‘wonders’ of the ‘might and multitude’ of Ynde (Properties II, 770), and the armies of Torkye (which often referred to Asia Minor as a whole: see MED Turki(e (a)) were associated, from crusading experience, with especial ferocity and savagery. Both Anderson and A&W take her as referring to the hypothesized belligerents; but the contextual emphasis plainly indicates the sense to be that, had God remained frende (1229) to the Jews, their harm would have been small even under attack from the combined forces of the most powerful nations of Asia.

1234  tyrved: an emendation (first suggested by Gollancz) for MS tuyred (of which no convincing sense has been made). The meaning ‘overturned, brought to ground’ (MED terven (a)) is appropriate.

1235–8  And in the fifth month … came Nebuzar-adan, captain of the guard [princeps exercitus; princeps militiae], a servant of the king of Babylon, unto Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:8; Jeremiah 52:12).

1239–44  The Vulgate has nothing equivalent.

1245–52  Elaborating 2 Chronicles 36:17: Therefore he brought upon them the king of the Chaldees, who slew their young men with the sword in the house of their sanctuary, and had no compassion upon young man or maiden, old man, or him that stooped for age.

1248  Bathed … blod … brayn spylled: the phrasing and alliterative collocations are common in accounts of slaughter: cf. CT I.2006; Otuel and Roland 1646 (‘Thay schedde here brayn and blode’); WA 1542, MS A (‘Spedely with spry[n]galdis spilt thaire braynes’).

1253–60  And them that escaped from the sword carried he [Nebuchadnezzar] away to Babylon; where they were servants to him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia (2 Chronicles 36:20).

1253  For the collocation of swallow (= devour, destroy: MED swolwen 2(d)) with sword, cf. 1268.

1254–5  The rebel Hubert de Burgh was led naked, shackled to a horse, to the Tower of London, in the reign of Henry II (Warner 1968: 47). And in Chrétien’s Erec, a naked prisoner with his feet bound under the horse’s belly is interpreted by the beholder as a deliberate humiliation of the captive to the status of a criminal (4359–61).

1257  sitte in servage and syt: sitte retains here the associations the verb had in OE with helpless misery and despair (Deor 28; Wife’s Lament 37, 47). Since the captives are not to lead a sedentary life (1258–9), the verb must carry here the same contextual sense, and contrasts with ‘sat in her sale’ (1260), where sat means ‘sat in state’ (MED sitten 3a).

1258  werkes: for the contextual sense ‘menial tasks’, cf. 136.

1264–8  Based on 2 Chronicles 36:17, quoted in n. to 1245–52.

1264  at a slyp: the noun occurs only here and in Promptorium Parvulorum 459, where it refers to the edge of a garment. It appears to be cognate with German slippen [slash, cleave] and Middle Dutch slip [(1) edge of garment; (2) incision]. The phrase presumably means ‘at a stroke, with a swipe’.

1265  Pulden … by the polle: the soldiers are, it seems, roughly forcing the heads of the priests into a position from which they can be severed from the body. plat of her hedes: cf. ‘With the swerd … his heved of he plette’ (Havelok 2626–7).

1267  hem kyllen: MS hokyllen is taken by Gollancz and subsequent editors to be an early example of hockle [cut up stubble], here used metaphorically of the ‘mowing down’ of maidens. But that verb is not otherwise recorded before 1746. It seems preferable to assume that the abbreviation for a nasal has been at some point missed from hom (a MS variant of hem [them]) kyllen.

1268  swayf [force, momentum] is likewise used of the rushing downward impetus of a sword-swing at WA 929. On swolwed, cf. 1253 and n.

1269–84  And all the vessels [vasa] of the house of God, great and small, and the treasures [thesauros] of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king, and of his princes; all these he brought to Babylon (2 Chronicles 36:18). Details of the relykes plundered, however, have been added from other parts of the Bible to give the vessels the richly focal presence they enjoy in the present retelling (cf. 1151–6).

1271  The brazen pillars are the subject of lengthy description in 1 Kings 7:15–21, 2 Kings 25:16–17, 2 Chronicles 3:15–17, 4:12–15 and Jeremiah 52:21–3, where they are said to have been carved with decorative ‘network and pomegranates’. No gold is mentioned in any account of these pillars, which are consistently declared to be wholly of brass [aerea].

1272–5  Candles were not used in the Old Testament East, and the candelstik was in fact a lampstand which bore lamps formed out of wicks floating in oil. This branched lampstand – commissioned by Moses according to specifications received from God Himself – is described in detail at Exodus 25:31–6 and 37:17–22. It was set opposite the altar and the Ark of the Covenant (Exodus 21–4), and, by God’s command, ‘the lamps upon the pure candlestick before the Lord’ were to ‘burn continually’ (Leviticus 24:2, 4).

1274  there selcouth was ofte: the Ark of the Covenant (housed in the sancta sanctorum) figures as a mystic taboo and talisman in Old Testament history: the descent of a cloud of glory (and spontaneous fire from heaven for the sacrifice) accompanied its installation in the temple (1 Kings 8:3–13, 2 Chronicles 5:13); the waters of the Jordan divided before it to give it passage (Joshua 4:18); instant ruin and destruction attended anyone other than the high priest who touched it (1 Samuel 4, 6); consulted in times of crisis (Judges 20:27–8), it brought protection to God’s people (1 Samuel 4:3), a jinx upon the Philistines who captured it (1 Samuel 4–6) and ruin to Israel’s enemies, whose idols (Dagon) and city walls (Jericho) fell flat before it (1 Samuel 5:3, Joshua 6).

1275–7  Neither the golden band surmounting the altar table nor the gredirne placed under it is specifically mentioned in the accounts of Nebuzardan’s plunder of the vessels in 2 Kings 25, 2 Chronicles 25 and Jeremiah 52. But both occur in the delivering and execution of God’s directions for the vessels: he … made a crown of gold to it round about (Exodus 37:2; cf. 30:3); And thou shalt make for it a grate of network of brass; and … put it under the compass of the altar beneath (Exodus 27:4–5; cf. 35:16).

1277–80  Cups, basins and bowls of various kinds, vyoles [Vulgate phialae: shallow drinking vessels], together with the bases of the pillars of brass (described in detail at 1 Kings 7:27–37), are all listed among the temple appurtenances plundered by Nebuzardan in 2 Kings 25:13, 15 and Jeremiah 52:17, 19. Both these passages, and those dealing with the manufacture of the vessels, stress the metals brass, silver and gold, but make no mention of jewels or vertuous stones: an interest in jewellery, and a mental picture of the precious stones which in the poet’s own day often adorned the more sumptuous vessels for secular and sacred use, seem to have dictated this detail.

1283  See 2 Chronicles 36:18 (quoted in n. to 1269–84). The term gazafylace for the offering box of the temple passed into ME from the biblical gazophylacium (Mark 12:41).

1284  Both ornementes and anournamentes (1290) were terms regularly used specifically of church (or temple) vessels: see MED ournement 3(a) and enournement 1(b). hamppred: in all other instances of this verb, the sense is ‘(literally or figuratively) beset’; the meaning ‘put into a crate or container’ would therefore appear to be a direct coinage from the noun hamper [receptacle, container], an item which could certainly be used for vessels: cf. ‘1 hamper pro vasis Argent’ (cited in MED sv hamper n 1(a)).

1285  in a sped while is not recorded elsewhere; sped could be a past participle (Gollancz), but seems more likely to be a noun used attributively or as the first element of a compound.

1286–90  The construction of the temple and the reconstruction of its appointments by Salomon are described in 1 Kings 7 and 2 Chronicles 4. The vessels were his own personal work (1 Kings 7:48–51, 2 Chronicles 4:19–5:1). He was known as the greatest and wisest of the Jewish kings, and, in the Middle Ages, as a ‘magician’ (one advanced in arts such as medicine). This poet records him chiefly as an artificer, a creator of intricately perfect designs that are at the same time expressive of moral-spiritual worth: in Cleanness (here and at 1453–5) as the fabricator of the holy vessels, and in Sir Gawain as the deviser of the pentangle that forms Gawain’s armorial device (G 625–30). sad, in mony a sad yere (1286), acts partly as a metaphorical and partly as a transferred epithet, suggesting both the weighted fullness indicated when the word is used of inanimates and the serious gravity it denoted as applied to animates; these were long years filled with tasks to which sober attention was given.

1290  anournamentes: see n. to 1284.

1291–2  And he burnt the house of the Lord, and the king’s house, and all the houses of Jerusalem, and every great man’s house burnt he with fire. And all the army of the Chaldees, that were with the captain of the guard [= Nebuzardan], brake down the walls of Jerusalem round about (2 Kings 25:9–10; cf. Jeremiah 52:13–14, 2 Chronicles 36:19).

1294–5  Nebuzardan’s extension of his activities beyond Jerusalem does not figure in the Vulgate; cf. the addition at 1177–9, which also points to the larger political and geographical unit whose fate is necessarily intertwined with that of its capital city.

1294  hyrnes [corners, i.e. furthest parts]: the MS reads hyrne (for which Anderson offers the unattested gloss ‘hinterland’); emendation to hyrnes regularizes both the sense and the metre of the b-verse, which requires a double dip.

1296–1303  The biblical Nebuzardan ‘brought/carried … to Babylon’ the plundered vessels (2 Chronicles 36:18, Jeremiah 52:17) and ‘carried away captive’ numerous inhabitants of Jerusalem, some of whom were slain (Jeremiah 52:27, 30); many of the well-born were taken into captivity. The Book of Daniel begins with Nebuchadnezzar’s instruction that from this number some well-favoured, intelligent and educated boys should be selected to serve before the king; among these were Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael and Azariah (Daniel 1:3–6). The poem has again given its own emphasis to the status once enjoyed by the captives (1299–1303), as at 1257–60.

1297  Presented him the presoneres: for this semi-technical sense of present [commit, hand over] with reference to prisoners, cf. 1217 and Otuel 834 (‘Thei … thoute presente Charles the king With Clarel, that thei hadden inome [taken]’). For in pray meaning ‘as captives’, cf. ‘the devyll takyth in prei and turmentyth … corsyd men’ (Yonge 183).

1302  Daniel … devine noble: Daniel had understanding in all visions and dreams (Daniel 1:17). His own oracular dreams, and his interpretation both of the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar and of the portentous words mysteriously inscribed on the wall during Belshazzar’s feast, form the main substance of the Book of Daniel.

1304–38  See pp. 89–90 on the sympathetic treatment of Nebuchadnezzar here, which is due to his role as a foil to Belshazzar, introduced as an unworthy inheritor of the glory bequeathed him by such a noble father (1337–8). The lines owe little to the Book of Daniel, in which the sacker of Jerusalem is, naturally, not represented in an attractive light; but even the defeat of the Jewish nation is here briefly seen from Nebuchadnezzar’s own point of view (1304–8), as his heart swells with pride in his achievements.

1309  juelrye: the earliest recorded occurrence of this French-derived word.

1312  On Nebuchadnezzar’s name here, see n. to 1176.

1313–20  Nebuchadnezzar’s reverential treatment of the vessels owes practically nothing to the Bible, which simply declares that ‘he brought the vessels into the treasure house of his god’ (Daniel 1:2). That they played any part in instilling into him a sense of the supreme deity they served, or that he had any appreciative awe which curbed him from vandalism or desecration of this sacred artwork, is in fact counter-indicated: in an earlier attack on Jerusalem he cut in pieces all the vessels of gold … in the temple of the Lord (2 Kings 24:13).

1318–20  The events hereafter that will show Nebuchadnezzar’s awe of the vessels to have been prudent are the disasters that befall Belshazzar following his own irreverent treatment of them (1529ff): a contrast announced as the main theme of this narrative (1149–56). For work as the wise used of self-preserving prudence, cf. Medea’s advice to Jason to abandon his perilous quest (‘Wirkes as a wise man and your wille chaunge’: DT 576); and for have right similarly used of actions that are in the best interests of the agent, cf. ‘thei have right to go, for the abidinge here for hem is not goode’ (said of knights deserting a battle: Merlin 409).

1325–8  Daniel’s pronouncements on his own God come mainly in the course of his expositions to Nebuchadnezzar of the meanings of two cryptic dreams of the king’s (Daniel 2 and 4). His interpretation of the first does include the point that all Nebuchadnezzar’s godes (the blessings listed in 1321–4) are enjoyed by the grace of God: Thou, O king, art a king of kings: for the God of heaven hath given thee a kingdom, power, and strength, and glory. And wheresoever the children of men dwell, the beasts of the field and the fowls of the heaven hath he given into thine hand, and hath made thee ruler over them all (Daniel 2:37–8). The samples (incidents or stories expounded to teach a lesson) are presumably Daniel’s allegorical interpretation of the dreams themselves as prophecies of God’s will with regard to the fate of Nebuchadnezzar and his kingdom. Nebuchadnezzar is won to profess Daniel’s God at several points (e.g. 2:47, 4:3, 37).

1329–32  Nebuchadnezzar’s death is not recorded in the Book of Daniel.

1333–60  This characterization of Belshazzar (like that of Nebuchadnezzar) is largely independent of the Bible, which relates of him only the story of his ill-fated feast (Daniel 5). Daniel’s exposition of the writing on the wall does include a reference to the worship of idols (Daniel 5:23) described at 1341–8.

1335–6  Trevisa gives an account of the huge proportions and material construction of the city which made it virtually impregnable to attack (Properties II, 738).

1340–48  The lines are based on Daniel 5:23 (see n. to 1333–60): and thou hast praised the gods of silver, and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which see not, nor hear, nor know: and the God in whose hand thy breath is … hast thou not glorified.

1341–4  The association between idols and devils (1341) was common. Idols were thought to be entered and inhabited by devils in order to mislead and pervert mankind: Destruction of Troy refers to ‘fyndes That entrid into ymagis ever for dissayet’ (4289–90; cf. 4350–51 and Paradise Lost I.373–5). The emphasis on the crude materiality of the images (tre, stokkes, stones), and on their man-made origins (1341–2), is an implicit refutation of their divinity: ‘for thyng that we seen alle That it is stoon – that men may wel espyen – That ilke stoon a god thow wolt it calle’ (CT VIII.499–501). false (1341) probably combines the sense of ‘spurious’ with ‘contrary to the Christian revelation’ (MED fals adj 7); and stout (1343) puns Belshazzar’s intended meaning, ‘fine, excellent’, against the sense applicable to the material of which the gods are made, ‘solid, sturdy’ (MED stout(e adj 4 and 5).

1345–6  clepes after helpe: for the expression in the context of a prayer, cf. ‘the goddess alle After whos helpe now I clepe and calle’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 4.6831–2). On reden him right, see n. to G 373–4.

1347  gruchen him his grace: the collocation was common; cf. ‘Hit shal be gright hym that grace in his grete nede’ (DT 7071).

1348  Pagans are often represented as smashing their idols in spite (after disappointments). Cf. Chanson de Roland 2588 (‘A granz bastuns le batent e defruisent’ [with great clubs they smash him into pieces]); for ME examples, see e.g. Guy of Warwick 3705–16, where the images are similarly dismantled with ‘staves gret’ by an angry sultan, and Sowdone of Babylone 2504–10. The brutish stupidity of the poet’s Belshazzar is reflected in his use of a klubbe, a weapon characteristically used by the uncouth (churls and giants).

1351–6  Belshazzar’s concubinae are alluded to in the Vulgate account of his feast (Daniel 5:2–3, 23), but without any of the moral opprobrium that is here attached to the fact of their existence. They are part of this Belshazzar’s tendency to idolize misschapen thinges (1355), because a glitzy surface blinds him to moral deformity: the only other example cited in MED sv misshapen (d) (‘immoral, sinful’) is one in which the underlying analogy with physical deformity is very evident: our soul, formed in the likeness of God, was ‘mysshape by synne’ (Myroure of Oure Ladye 98).

1352  mony a lemman … that ladies were called: lemman occurs as a poetic word for ‘sweetheart, lover’, and is applied to Christ at Pe 796 and passim. But outside poetic contexts, it had acquired a somewhat coarse register, and the sarcastic contrast between lemman and lady (repeated at 1370) occurs also in Chaucer’s Manciple’s Tale (CT IX.218–20), where it points up a piece of social snobbery in linguistic usage: a churl has a lemman (‘bit on the side’), a ‘gentle’-man has a lady (‘mistress’). The sarcasm in Cleanness is based on a slightly different logic: the contrast between the lemman and the wyf (1351) points scathingly to the inapplicability of the denomination ladies to women who, not being married to Belshazzar, could not claim the equivalent of his own status as a lord. Cf. 1423 and n.

1357–1424  An elaborate expansion of one simple statement in the Bible: Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords, and drank wine before the thousand (Daniel 5:1).

1358  vouche an avayment: the formal and legal register of both avayment [information (to a court, etc), announcement, statement] and vouche [declare formally; cf. Pa 165] is here used ironically: Belshazzar is putting his vayne glory ‘on the record’, testifying to its authenticity.

1377–92  Babylon succeeded Nineveh (see Pa 353–4) as the foremost city of Assyria and was famous as one of the greatest cities of the ancient world. Descriptions of it had passed from Greek and Roman authorities into medieval texts (Lecklider 1997: 198–9). Various dimensions are given for the massive walls (1381–4), the incredible ‘hogenes and strengthe’ of which made it hard to believe that ‘so strong a cite myghte be take’ (Trevisa, Properties II, 744): see Herodotus, Histories 81; Honorius, De Imagine Mundi col. 125; Orosius 42. Pinnae [pinnacles or battlements] on the walls (1382) are referred to by Orosius, and towers projecting upward from them (1383) in Quintus Curtius (V.i). The location of the city (1378–80), ‘set in a fayr pleyne’ (Mandeville, Bodley Version 33), can also be traced back through the flat plain and natura loci laetissima of Orosius to the ‘wide plain’ of Herodotus. Babylon was surrounded by the Euphrates (which ran through it) and a network of canals and, though the precisely numbered seven grete wateres (1380) are not paralleled in other authorities, ‘the rivers of Babylon’, the city that dwelled ‘upon many waters’, were familiar from the Bible (Psalm 137:1, Jeremiah 51:13). The large ground area of the walled city (1377, 1387) occurs in nearly all the accounts; its square form (1386), ‘disposede as a castelle with walles yliche long and square’ (Trevisa, drawing on Orosius), also goes back to Herodotus. The similarities between Babylon in Cleanness, Castle Hautdesert in Sir Gawain, and the castle of heaven in Pearl are due to the fact that all three are visualized as ‘chateaux’, walled communities centred on a castle court; cf. Trevisa’s statement (Properties II, 744) that Babylon was constructed as a castle in that the equilateral walls of its circumscribing boundary or poursent (C 1385, Pe 1035) formed a perfect sware (C 1386, Pe 1023–4). The heavenly Jerusalem is not required to be defensible (Pe 1065–8); but the city/castle fortresses of Babylon and Hautdesert contain not only the magnificence of the central palace and halle within (C 1388–92, G 794–802), and of pinnacled or Troched towers (C 1383, G 795), but also the sturdy and defensible walls provided with abataylment (G 790) or carneles (C 1382, G 801) and with structures from which missiles could be directed at attacking forces (G 791–2). The splendid palace within the walls (1388–92) is referred to by Josephus (citing Berosus): Nebuchadnezzar had added a new palace to that of his father, ‘to describe the vast height and immense riches of which, it would perhaps be too much for me to attempt’ (Antiquities X.xi). The measure given of the length of the hall – a bay sufficient for horses to gallop along (1392) – is possibly a reflex of the measure of the thickness of the walls given by Herodotus and in several subsequent accounts: the summits were broad enough for a four-horsed chariot to drive between the two rows of houses of defence constructed upon them. The omission of this exotic detail, together with those of the famous pensile gardens and the peculiar bituminous material of which the walls had been made – all of which figure prominently in other accounts of the city – makes for a metropolis that is less of a curiosity and more of a medieval archetype of combined sturdiness and splendour, as befits the city’s role in Cleanness: Belshazzar takes pride and confidence in and from its redoubtableness (1335–6), but, more importantly, it forms in every sense the boast of Nebuchadnezzar (1663–8). The prominence given to it as an architectural achievement is consistent with the emphasis in this part of the poem on art and craftsmanship and on Nebuchadnezzar’s responsive relation to it.

1380  Umbe-sweyed … with seven grete wateres: sweie, though it figures as a general verb of motion in alliterative verse (cf. Pa 72), is used specifically of moving water at Pa 236; Umbesweyed here thus presumably means ‘surrounded by flowing currents’.

1381  wruxled occurs only here and at G 2191 (‘the wye [man] wruxled in grene’). The two instances seem to represent an otherwise unattested weakened sense [?set up or out, ?arrange] of wrixle [alter, interchange].

1383  Towers set at frequent intervals in the encircling wall were a feature of imposing and well-defended cities from ancient to medieval times: Constantinople had towers at sixty yards from one another (Koch 1978: 84). Babylon, according to Diodorus Siculus, ‘had a wall with great towers set at frequent intervals, the wall being three hundred and sixty stades [c. forty miles] in circumference’ (II, vii), and Quintus Curtius refers to towers rising ten feet higher than a wall fifty cubits high (V.i). twenty spere lenthe might refer to the intervals or to the height of the towers (cf. waves mounting up ‘fyve speire lenght’ at DT 3697), though it is usually understood in the former sense. On Troched [?pinnacled] see n. to G 795.

1384  Previous editors have assumed palle to be a spelling of ME pale. A&W gloss the line ‘And (other towers) more closely crowded around the outside with wooden platforms placed at right angles’. However, neither the spelling palle nor the sense ‘wooden platforms’ is recorded for ME pale. Wooden hoarding or platforms (termed bretage) were in any case temporary structures built when a castle was under siege (cf. the brutage at C 1190), which Babylon is not. It is more probable that palle refers to the cloth-hangings with which medieval cities were decorated at great feasts (for examples see MED sv pal 3(b)).

1391  the halle to hit mede is usually understood to mean that the hall was proportionate in size and splendour to its architectural context, though MS med is obscure and unmetrical and requires emendation. (The emendation to mad (Menner) is also unmetrical; the participial form used at line ending is maked.) We assume med is an error for mede (< OE gemede [agreeable, proportionate]) otherwise found only at William 604: ‘thow hast warsched [cured, comforted] me wel with thi mede wordes’.

1392  bay (< OF baie [an opening]) referred to the open space, set off by columns or posts, at ground level of a building; the term also indicated, in phrases like ‘a house of three bays’, how many rooms or vertical divisions a building had at floor level. The meaning here is presumably that the undivided room or ‘bay’ of the great hall was of a length sufficient for a galloping pace to be reached in its courtyard – with the implication, perhaps, that horseback races or jousts could be held there.

1396  Stepe stared stones of his stoute throne: rendered by A&W (following Gollancz) ‘ascended the stone [lit. stones arranged as steps] of his massive throne’. But among other objections to this reading is the strong alliterative connection – inside and outside this oeuvre – between stones [gems], the adjective stepe [bright] and the verb stare [shine brightly]: see e.g. G 1818 (‘a starande stone stondande alofte’), Pe 113–16 (‘ … stones stepe, As stremande sternes … Staren in welkyn’).

1397ff  The occasion of a royal feast here calls forth much the same topoi as are used of Arthur’s New Year feast in G 109–29 – though they have been adapted to suggest a somewhat more baroque and blaring quality to the feast of this godless Eastern extrovert.

1398–1400  The dais at Camelot is occupied by Arthur, his queen, a bishop and his nephews; the side tables are occupied by other of the knights (G 109–15). Belshazzar’s queen (who is not present: see 1586–90) has been ousted by his concubines and, Belshazzar having reserved the dais for them and for himself (1399–1400), the barouns must all sit at the side tables (1398), leaving the knightes (who ranked beneath barons) to be scattered round the hall floor (1397) in the ad hoc way usually reserved for humble or charity-fed guests (cf. PP B.12.195–204).

1402–4  The first course is similarly ushered in by crakkyng from trumpets hung with gleaming pennants in G 116–17. For the alliterative collocation between Sturne, strake and steven, cf. ‘Steryn [bold men] stevyn up strake, strakid thaire trumpis’ (WA 1509). strake was a verb used of hunting or military signals given on wind instruments (cf. G 1364, 1923), and both it and the adjective sturne [grim, fierce] are elsewhere used of trumpets in martial rather than festive circumstances: there is an aggressive quality to the blares which usher in Belshazzar’s feast.

1403  wrasten out crakkes: MS wrasten crakkes gives a b-verse without a long dip. Wrest as used of forcing or throwing out sound seems commonly to have been construed with adverbial out: cf. e.g. ‘the nightyngale Wrestes out her notes musycall’ (Lyfe of Ioseph 388).

1406  sewes [stews, sauces] and sylveren vessels likewise figure in collocation in the royal feast at Camelot (G 124).

1407–8  The reference is to ornamental paper coverings used at table – here taking the form of miniature cut-out buildings (logges): cf. ‘bake-metes and dissh-metes … peynted and castelled with papir’ (CT X.445); see also G 801–2 and n. OF peint/point a [painted over with, decorated with], adduced by Anderson, accounts satisfactorily for poynted of golde. But the architectural sense of Lyfte (as used of constructing or raising buildings: cf. G 12), obviously relevant to logges, is perhaps continued in poynted in the sense of MED pointen v^1 1(d) (‘mortar, fill in gaps and seams’), to give ‘Buildings erected over them … with gold acting as mortar-pointing’.

1409–11  The decorative scheme on the vessels is three-tiered: baboynes (gargoyles or grotesques, not necessarily simian) above separated from bestes anunder by Fowles [birds] in foliage bitwene. The ornamental motifs and the medium (enamel) are those favoured at this period: cf. ‘ii pelves [basins] de argento … enamelata in medio cum babewyns’ in Lincoln Cathedral Inventory 11 (cf. Campbell 1991: 157–8); ‘Ymagry … Of bestes and babery’ (DT 1561–2); and the recurrent references to designs of ‘animals or birds in foliage’ in Theophilus (20, 31, 105, 109, 111, 126, 130, 137, 141). The poet’s enthusiasm for decorative work, and for jewellery and metalwork in particular, perhaps explains this anticipation of the finery of the temple vessels (described at 1456–88), the splendour of which represents everything Belshazzar is morally and aesthetically insensitive to; but the profligate king’s own tableware (not in the Vulgate) is probably not an entirely independent embellishment, since it is referred to by Josephus: ‘and there were a great many vessels of silver, such as were made for royal entertainments’ (Antiquities X.xi).

1412–16  There is no parallel at Camelot for the waiters on horseback (1412). And, though Arthur’s royal feast does include ‘nakryne noyse with the noble pipes’ (G 118), there is more percussion at Belshazzar’s. The expressive phrase bougounes busch is made up of two otherwise unrecorded words: bougounes (tentatively glossed ‘drumsticks’ and referred to OF boujoun [rod, stick] in MED) has no discernible cognates in ME; and busch [beat, strike], though well attested as a verb, occurs as a noun only here. The unfamiliar vocabulary suggests a gothically lavish quality to this Eastern feast as compared with its Western counterpart in Sir Gawain.

1416  For thikke applied to drumbeats in close succession, cf. ‘thei betyn hir basyns with thikke strokes’ (Chaucer, Boece 4.m5.23).

1420–36  Elaborating Daniel 5:2: Belshazzar, whiles he tasted the wine, commanded to bring the golden and silver vessels which his father Nebuchadnezzar had taken out of the temple which was in Jerusalem; that the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, might drink therein.

1420–22  The verbs warmed and breythed are not metaphorical, but semi-technical, referring to the supposed effects of wine: it increased bodily heat and induced a sense of well-being (1420; cf. Trevisa, Properties II, 1078); and its quality of ‘fumosity’ caused vapour to rise up from the stomach to the head (see MED fumosite 2(b) and OED fumosity 2 and fume n 4).

1423  wenches could be used without derogatory implications to distinguish ‘servants’ from mistresses or ‘unmarried girls’ from wives (cf. 974, 1250); but it is here used in the opprobrious sense which it carried (especially with a possessive adjective: cf. 1716) when used to distinguish respectable from unrespectable women (cf. ‘I am a gentil woman and no wench’: CT IV.2202) and so to denote a married or unmarried woman who becomes someone’s lover and is thus in disparagement ‘cleped his wenche or his lemman’ (CT IX.220). Cf. 1352 and n.

1425  Cf. Achilles, speaking of the Greek expedition to Troy: ‘And we in dotage full depe drevyn by faith’ (DT 9749).

1429  For vessel as a collective singular, cf. WA 3828 and Mandeville, Bodley Version 129 (‘all here coppis ben of … precious stonys, for vessel of syluyr they preise not for they welyn of hem neythir etyn ne drynkyn’).

1430–32  The representation of Nebuchadnezzar’s capture of the vessels as an act of noble and gentyle prowess, performed by the chivalric deeds of his knightes, is consistent with the distinctive perspective in this poem – from which Nebuchadnezzar is seen as a conqueror-king whose royal glory and splendour and patrician pride contrast with the gross loutishness of his son (1321–56) and whose forcible abduction of the vessels angered God less than Belshazzar’s ‘unclean’ contempt for them (1149–56). The verb conquer referred to the act of ‘acquiring’ (rather than ‘defeating’) by ‘fair fight’, its grammatical object being what is acquired (not the opponent) in battle (here the vessel that his fader … Conquerd); the word had thus more positive force than it has today and is consistent with the heroic note that is here struck.

1432  Judee, Jerusalem: see n. to 1177–80.

1434–6  ladies, cortaysly, bounte, thewes: the vocabulary of courtaysye satirizes Belshazzar’s distorted notion of courtliness – and contrasts with the serious use of chivalric terms (in the previous quatrain) with respect to his father. Belshazzar is representing his tasteless gesture as a regally lavish act in honour of his favourites: his sacrilege is thus given an immediate ‘motive’ (to upgrade his mistresses to ladies [noblewomen] by degrading the sacred vessels) that is not found in the Vulgate, but which is consistent with previous indications of his vulgarly gaudy sense of worth (see 1343–4, 1351–5 and n. to 1351–6).

1434  lape was generally used of animals drinking or of humans drinking like animals. In alliterative usage, however, a word often lost its more precise associations and figured merely as a synonym in what was probably recognized as a ‘poeticism’ characteristic of that verse form; cf. n. to Pa 278.

1437–55  An elaborately vivid expansion of Daniel 5:3: Then they brought the golden vessels that were taken out of the temple of the house of God which was at Jerusalem.

1440  The poet is imagining the preparations for the coming conversion of the temple vessels into drinking vessels in terms of the hall furniture of his own day, when wine was poured out into vessels placed on a side table or cupborde covered with a white cloth (Woolgar 1999: 148–9, 165).

1441  jueles: for the sense ‘precious objects or artefacts’, cf. ‘For thou [Belshazzar] were served of the vesselles That of hys temple were iuelles’ (Mannyng, Handlyng Synne 9423–4).

1445–8  And thou shalt sanctify them, that they may be most holy (Exodus 30:29; cf. 40:9–11); And three times in a year did Solomon offer burnt offerings and peace offerings upon the altar which he built unto the Lord, and he burnt incense upon the altar that was before the Lord (1 Kings 9:25). The Judaic temple and rites were understood to be the precursive ancestors of the Christian church, the Old Testament sacrifices foreshadowing the sacrament of the Eucharist, which was seen as a propitiatory sacrefyce by Christ of Himself (see e.g. Mirk 154). The vocabulary here – blessed, bischopes (the term was used of an Old Testament high priest as well as of a Christian prelate: see MED bishop 3), anoynted, sacrefyce – exploits the terminology shared with Christianity to present Belshazzar’s act as effectively the equivalent of the defilement of the Mass vessels (cf. 15–16).

1449  to serve Satanas the blake: the vessels are represented as now serving the devil rather than the Lord (1448), for they are used to serve the purposes of lechery and drunkenness (which, as deadly sins, were seen as ‘doing sacrifice to the devil’: CT VI.468–71, 480–82) in a man who uses the occasion to belaud the pagan idols (1522; cf. 1341) who were identified with the devil (see MED sv devel 3 and n. to 1341–4).

1453–5  Cf. 1285–90 (and see n. to 1286–90).

1453  seven yere and a sythe more: the poet has computed the time more accurately than had the Bible itself (So was he seven years in building it: 1 Kings 6:38); for Solomon began the temple in the fourth year of his reign in the second month (1 Kings 6:1) and completed it in the eleventh year in the eighth month (1 Kings 6:38).

1456–7  bassynes … and eweres of sute: basins and ewers were used for the ceremonial hand-washing before meals and are often coupled; cf. ‘Euer when he clepithe, wayte redy and entende, basoun and ewere, and on your shuldur a towelle’ (Book of Nurture 936–7).

1456–88  This second account of the vessels is also an addition to the Vulgate (where they are not described in the course of the stories which the poem is following). The first (1269–80) had been based on details given in earlier parts of the Vulgate – i.e. at God’s original commissioning of them (Exodus 30:37–8) and at Solomon’s refurbishment of the temple he builds (1 Kings 7). The poet here supplements that itemization with a description, based not on the Vulgate, but on ‘Harrods best’ in fourteenth-century tableware, which could be very sumptuous indeed, and was certainly reported as being so at the tables of potentates of legendary wealth (see n. to 1465); the vessels here are executed in a style differing only in degree of elaboration from that of Belshazzar’s own royal plate: enamel work (1411, 1457), lids with architectural designs (1407, 1458–63) and the decorative motif of birds in foliage (1410, 1464–72).

1458–63  Ornamental cups were often very elaborate, and much ingenuity, cost and skill went into the lids of those that were Covered. See plate 12 of Cherry’s Goldsmiths and the description in Floris and Blancheflour of a cup on the body of which is depicted the abduction of Helen by Paris, while ‘on the covercle above Purtraide was ther bother love’ (169–70). A lidded cup with battlemented indentation is mentioned in a York will from 1444 (cited MED sv batilment): ‘Unam peciam [cup] coopertam cum batelment deauratam’. The present cup-lids, designed to resemble casteles, include batelment, turrets with pinnacles rising behind and above the crenellation (1461–3) and banteles (1459) beneath it. banteles occur in ME only here and in Pearl, where the reference is to the stepped foundation-tiers of the New Jerusalem (992, 1017). The reference on both occasions is to a projecting tier of masonry supporting some structure above – at the bottom of the wall in Pearl, at the top in Cleanness. In the latter case, bantel work supports a battlemented summit which would thus project out over the wall. Enbaned (1459) – a word recorded only here and at G 790 (‘Enbaned under the abataylment’) – clearly refers to a castle provided with such a machicolated parapet. On the probable Provençal origin of the word, and of other terms of castle architecture in English and French (brattice, crenel, machicolation), see, respectively, Skeat 1903–6: 359–60 and Anderson.

1460  The aesthetics of castle architecture likewise prompt the adjective ferly at Pe 1084 and the adverb ferlyly at G 796. ferlyly as an adjective occurs only here; the reduplication of the -ly suffix is a speciality of the Gawain poet, who uses it to create a long dip where metre requires it (Duggan 1994).

1462  fylyoles occurs only here and in a similar passage from G 794–800: ‘And innermore he behelde that halle ful highe, Towres telded bitwene … Fayre fylyoles that fyed and ferlyly longe …mony pinacle paynted.’ The word appears to be related to OF fillole [column, turret]. On both occasions the reference is to elegantly long towers, more for show than defence and rising from within and behind the battlemented wall.

1464–72  It is unlikely that the poet is still describing the castle-lidded cups (though editors seem to assume so), or indeed any one class of item, as opposed to a decorative style dominant among the vessels (as 1473–4 implies) other than the following vials and goblets (1475–6) and the preceding lidded cups (1458–63), which have comparably elaborate, but separately treated, ornamentation.

1465  papejayes: for the popularity of birds-and-foliage as an ornamental design, see n. to 1409–11. Parrots were often used as decorative motifs (see MED sv papejai(e (b)); and jewelled fruit (1467–72) occurs also in the golden vines, with grapes fashioned from gems, which are found elsewhere (Evans 1952: 33) and which figure in accounts of Eastern courts of legendary magnificence, such as the palace of Porrus in Wars of Alexander (3794ff) and the court of the Great Chan in Mandeville (Livre 373–4). For the appreciative interest in the birds-in-foliage design, cf. the birds amid flowers embroidered upon Gawain’s helmet strap (‘papejayes paynted pervyng [periwinkle] bitwene … ’: G 611–12).

1466  pomegarnades (MS pomgarnades): the emendation is indicated by b-verse metre and is justified etymologically (< OF pome grenate). Pomegranates are frequently referred to in the Vulgate as a decorative motif figuring on the fixtures, fittings and vestments of the temple (Exodus 28:33–4, 1 Kings 7:18, 2 Chronicles 3:16, Jeremiah 52:22–3); but the detail has here been absorbed into a bejewelled intricacy of the imagined birds-in-foliage design which is independent of the Vulgate but represents fourteenth-century state-of-the-art goldsmithery.

1469–72  For the list of jewels, cf. Pe 994–1020; in both cases, the jewel-telling (for which the biblical source text provides the occasion in Pearl, but not in Cleanness) typifies the medium provided in each poem by art in general, and goldsmithery in particular, for the articulation of divine refinement and excellence.

1469–70  safyres and sardiners are frequently found in alliterative collocation: see MED sv sardine(e and sardoine(e. Alabaundarynes are described in lapidaries as red stones similar in appearance to the sardonyx.

1471  and clere rubies: rubies is trisyllabic: cf. ‘with rebies grete’ (SJ 1254b), where the metrical requirement for a long dip similarly indicates a trisyllable. In the present b-verse, French stress, on the second syllable of rubies, is also required.

1472  Peritotes: Gollancz defends MS penitotes by comparing attested variation between periwinkle and pennywinkle; that variation is not comparable, however, since it is due to the influence of two distinct etymons (OE winewincle and perwince): see OED headnote sv periwinkle^1 and periwinkle^2. The MS reading is thus more likely to be a scribal error than an authentic spelling. Peridots also occur in the list of jewels that adorn the table of the Great Chan in the MS tradition of Mandeville (Livre 374, MS Lo6). pynkardines (which occurs nowhere else in ME) has been explained as a corruption of French perre carnadine [carnelian], or as somehow associated with pintadine, a word which appears post-medievally in various Romance languages, and refers in French to a nacreous stone (see Menner).

1473  trayled and trifled a-traverce: the noun trail was used of an ornamental spray on vestments, vessels, etc; trayled thus means ‘provided with decorative sprays’ (such as the bejewelled foliage clusters of 1467–8). In Sir Gawain, trifles figure in the head cloths of the older woman (960), and embroidered trifles in the array of the Green Knight (165), the decorative sense of the word perhaps being influenced by the use of trefoil (in AN also trifel, trefle) as an ornamental device: cf. ‘Trifeled and traversed with trueloves bitwene’ (Awntyrs 510) and, again in collocation with travers, ‘Trefolyte and traverste with trewloves’ (Awntyrs 354).

1474  bekyr and bolle: Menner’s emendation of MS bekyrande þe bolde.

1476  fyoles (vyoles at 1280): the word is found as the equivalent of both Latin ampullae and French petites flascones (see MED sv fiole). The description has proceeded from the larger items (basins and ewers: 1456–7), through the spectacularly decorated drinking vessels (1458–75), to the small fyoles, on which the prevailing design is elegantly downsized from birds in tree-boughs to butterflies amid flowers; butterflies were often used as decorative motifs (cf. the embroidered butterflies of G 166).

1478  by acost is the solution to MS biacost proposed by Anderson, who glosses ‘alongside’ and refers the phrase to OF par a costé. Though not entirely satisfactory, this suggestion is preferable to that adopted by most other editors of ‘by a cost (= contrivance)’: there seems no reason why the candlestick in particular (rather than the altar, for instance) should require special porterage arrangements.

1479–80  the pyleres (as opposed to hit bases) must be those referred to at 1271 and 1278 as among the temple furnishings pillaged from Jerusalem along with the vessels. hit bases, however, suggest the bases are not those referred to at 1278 or the ten bases Solomon had made for the lavers (1 Kings 7:27–37), but belong to some stand provided for the lampstand. Neither term can refer to any integral part of the lampstand, which did not have pillars, but six branches projecting from a central shaft, which is several times said to have been made all of pure gold, and with regard to which no mention ever occurs in the Vulgate of pillars, brass or base.

1481–8  On the accounts of the lampstand in Exodus, see 1272–5 and n. It was made ex auro puro (cf. (all) of (brende) golde: 1481, 1488). The boghes (1481) and lampes (1485) correspond with the calami [branches] and lucernae of the Vulgate. But the decorative design of the lampstand has been elaborately reworked and updated. The bowls made like unto almonds, with a knop and a flower – set on the arms of the menorah (Exodus 25:33–5, 37:19–22) – provide an ornamental motif both suggesting and suggested by the tree-like structure of the candelabrum; the device has been extended in the poem to produce a closer verbal and visual link between the boghes [arms, boughs] of the candelabrum (1481) and the forms of the Braunches (1482) superimposed upon them by art and reinforced by the birds seated on these boughs/branches. This birds-in-foliage design provides a decorative link with other items in the treasury (cf. 1464–72), but the motif is elaborated to justify the climactic place given to the candelstik (1478): these birds are represented with splayed wings (1484), so that the glinting kaleidoscope of the many different hues (1483) of precious metals creates the impression of waving movement (1484) in their outspread feathers. The Vulgate lamp bowls or scyphi now contain updated lighting, the morteres of wax (bowls containing wax candles) at 1487 being (like the serges of 1489) an anachronism: in the Old Testament East, lamplight came from wicks floating in oil (cf. ‘Of seed of the rape … is oyle ymade that is nedefulle in many use and nameliche [especially] in lampis and morteres of candelstikes in domo domini [the House of the Lord] in the temple of Ierusalem’: Trevisa, Properties II, 1034). The morteres are here merked with their own distinctive decorative motif (1487–8): that of grotesques or beasts (seen as a fashionable design on tableware at 1409). The candelstik, specifically said to be lit (lemed: 1486), thus appears as a summation of state-of-the-art decorative skills.

1483  The a-verse lacks an alliterative stave. Some such adjective before kyndes as curious, clear, coloured, quoynt [elegant] – which have all been suggested – would regularize the metre. But Of mony kyndes … of fele kyn looks suspiciously like anticipation of content, and the original a-verse may well have been quite different.

1485  of the launces (MS of þe): a noun beginning with l- has plainly been omitted by the scribe. launces (cf. Pe 978) was an early suggestion adopted by Menner; Gollancz opted for lefsel (cf. Pa 448) and A&W for lyndes (cf. G 526).

1490  truly to stande: ‘to be in position as in its true place’ (cf. Tree and Twelve Frutes 53/19, cited in MED sv treuli 9(d): ‘Vertu … whan it comith in to the soule … comith as in to his owne naturel place where he sitteth ful trewly and acordith well with the soule’). The meaning ‘faithfully to remain loyal’ (in which sense the words stand and true are often collocated: see MED sv stonden 24(a) and (b)) is, however, also appropriate in the context of the semi-personification of the candelabrum (1489). The phrase contributes to a series – trauthe, truly, sothefaste (1490–91) – in which authenticity, fidelity, veracity and rightness are all by turns involved.

1490–91  The candelabrum is here (as at 1273–4) associated with the mystic solemnity of the sancta sanctorum, whose entrance it illuminated: it was placed so as to shine over against the veiled-off entrance to the holy of holies (Exodus 40:24–5, 1 Kings 7:49, 2 Chronicles 4:20).

1491–2  The Ark of the Covenant, a special medium for the divine word or speche, was kept in the sancta sanctorum, normally entered only by the high priest (Hebrews 9:7). God might, however, speak to special prophetes from or in the vicinity of the ark – either spontaneously, as in the case of Samuel (1 Samuel 3:3–6), or in answer to a prayer addressed to the ‘oracle’ of the ark, as in the case of Joshua (Joshua 7:6–10). The common collocation of speak/speech and special sometimes implies confidential discussion with trusted persons: cf. DT 11374 and (in reference to a council of the Greeks summoned by Agamemnon) 8830 (‘Thus he spake for his spede his specials unto’; cf. Barbour, Bruce V.501).

1494–6  The lines announce the exemplification in literal terms promised at 1149–56 of the warning issued at 1133–48 against metaphorical defilement of a soul sanctified to God by shrift. Specific lexical parallels occur in the case of displeses/Displesed (1136, 1494) and defowle/fouled (1147, 1495).

1494  strange (MS stronge): the requirement of a final unstressed syllable indicates that the MS reading represents ‘strange’ rather than ‘strong’, which is how some editors have interpreted the word. With the spelling, cf. MS stronge (= strange) at G 1028 and Death and Liffe 39. For strange meaning ‘outside the bounds of normality’ and used in pejorative sense, cf. 861.

1497  in His sacrefyce … anoynted: here again the Old Testament sacrifices are seen as the sacramental equivalent of sanctification by holy unction (cf. with bestene blod … anoynted at 1446).

1498  Thurgh the somones of Himself: God Himself had given to Moses the precise specifications for the tabernacle, its vessels, the sacrifices, etc (Exodus 25–31).

1500  be: the subjunctive mood is normal after Til, even though the reference is to an actual, not a hypothetical, event (cf. CT I.4400). There is no reference in Daniel 5 to the drunken state which the poet attributes (cf. 1421) to Belshazzar, but cf. Jeremiah’s prophecy of the fall of Babylon: In their heat I will make their feasts, and I will make them drunken, that they may rejoice, and sleep a perpetual sleep, and not wake, saith the Lord (51:39, repeated almost verbatim at 51:57), a passage which may also have suggested the comment at 1766.

1501  wlates [feels sick, turns at His stomach]: see n. to 305.

1502  The rather odd expression porvayes a mynde [?comes to a decision; ?prearranges a plan] may be the result of the deployment of a collocation between play and porvay that already existed in the poet’s metrical repertoire (cf. Pa 36).

1503–4  wonder could often refer to what was grimly or alarmingly, rather than excitingly, out of the ordinary, and carries those negative associations here (cf. G 16). God’s reaction to uncleanness here lacks the haste previously declared to distinguish the punishments visited – in haste of His ire (200, 599–600) – upon ‘filth of the flesh’ from those meted out (in mesure and with calm deliberation: 215, 247) to other sins. The grimly unhurried execution of His will here is of the latter kind (cf. 213–15); though it now marks, not a forbearing God, but an offended deity stage-managing a dramatic portent that will shock the miscreants out of their oblivious complacency. The warnyng is not such a one as to give Belshazzar a chance to mend his ways by alerting him to possible consequences, but a pre-announcement (see MED warning 1b) of a penalty already incurred (1721–40).

1505–20  These lines are based on Daniel 5:3: and the king, and his princes, his wives, and his concubines, drank in them [the vessels]. The poet has responded to this confluence of holy vessels and drink-filled revelry by creating a scene of riotous splendour, full of glitter, sound and movement: the stampede for the cups, the bell-like ring of rich metal as Belshazzar’s molls cast off the lids with carefree merriment and the wassail cry announcing the sportive effort to drain the cups.

1508–12  For the collocation of Weye and wyne, cf. 1420, G 1403, and for that of bolles and birlen, cf. ‘In bolus birlutte thay the wyne’ (Avowing 730). The vocabulary is that of a conventional topos: scenes of drinking in hall are common in medieval verse, from the stately festivities of Beowulf onwards; the serving of drink from wunderfatum [splendid vessels: Beowulf 1162] is, however, usually a ceremonious affair, not the unseemly competitive scramble it here becomes.

1512  uch man for his mayster maches alone: macche was used most commonly in contexts either amorous (‘to mate’) or antagonistic (‘to be the opponent of’). The basic sense (‘to form one side of a paired relationship’) figures in this oeuvre in socioeconomic application: at Pa 99, where it refers to a conveyer–traveller contract; and here, where it refers to servee–server (or mayster and man) roles – in which the servers enter into no corporate relationship with the assembled company, each man [servant] ‘matching up’ only with his own mayster as servee.

1514  rok: as Menner observes, the meaning ‘citadel, fortified castle’ was common for French roche/roque and Latin rocca, and that appears to be the sense here, though in ME the usage is recorded elsewhere only in the Wycliffite Bible, where it translates Latin arx (1 Maccabees 3:45, 4:2). Anderson, following Morris and Gollancz, glosses the word ‘crowd’ and refers it to ruke [heap, pile], which appears in this sense and spelled with o at DT 7149, but it is there used in a dismissive sense, ‘the common rabble’, which would be inappropriate here after riche. The repetition of that adjective from 1513b, however, is uncharacteristic, and renders the a-verse at 1514 suspect.

1518  And then are dressed: the a-verse lacks an alliterative stave. Various reconstructions to provide one (e.g. drinkes, dere, etc) are possible and have been suggested.

1521–8  They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of stone (Daniel 5:4).

1521  likked … lykores swete: cf. ‘[Drones in a beehive] lurken and licken the liquor that is swete’ (Mum and the Sothsegger 984). The verb is associated with sensuality by this poet (cf. 1000, G 968), and it here links this literal action in the exemplum with the figurative warning in the moralitas which precedes it (‘Then eft lastes hit likkes … ’: 1141).

1523  stokkes and stones: the slight alteration to the Vulgate wording (see n. to 1521–8) recurs at 1720, both instances reiterating the stokkes and stones of 1343 (added to the Vulgate) and making for a consistently scornful emphasis.

1525  gaules has not been convincingly explained. The most attractive interpretation is that of Anderson, who suggests derivation from OE gal/gagol [wanton], a word used in OE of both lasciviousness and drunkenness (which would give it contextual relevance here), and one which survived into ME as an adjective (gal, gol) and as an abstract noun (galnes, golship).

1525, 1528  nevenen and foryeten stand in antithesis: the former was used of pious ‘calling upon the Lord’ (cf. 410) and the latter of want of mindful prayer to God (MED foryeten 2(a)); cf. ‘forgeyttes hym noyghte, / bot nevyn hym in your nede’ (Metrical Paraphrase 3129–30).

1526  Belfagor and Belyal and Belssabub are heathen deities or devils (the two were considered interchangeable: see n. to 1341–4) mentioned in the Bible, though not in Daniel 5 (which tells the story of Belshazzar’s feast): Baal-peor, rendered Belphagor in the Wycliffite translation, in Numbers 25:3, when the Israelites defect to his worship (a fact recalled at Psalm 106:28 and Hosea 9:10); Belial in the recurrent designation of the infidels as ‘sons/children/men of Belial’ (an expression used of e.g. the Sodomites at Judges 19:22); and Beelzebub, ‘the prince of the devils’, at Matthew 12:24 (Mark 3:22, Luke 11:15).

1529–49  In the same hour came forth fingers of a man’s hand, and wrote over against the candlestick upon the plaster of the wall of the king’s palace; and the king saw the part of the hand that wrote. Then the king’s countenance was changed, and his thoughts troubled him, so that the joints of his loins were loosed, and his knees smote one against another (Daniel 5:5–6). The ghostly phenomenon has in the poem been quite precisely visualized – as an eerie transposition of (now obsolete) processes of writing whereby letters were incised into parchment or wax tablets: ‘we ben wont … by a swift poyntel to fycchen lettres … in the pleynesse of the table of wex or in parchemyn’ (Chaucer, Boece 5.m4.19). The playn wowe (1531) here provides a surface similarly ‘playn as parchemen schaven’ (1134), on which a poyntel (1533) as usual scratches in lettres (1536) with a digging action and scraping sound evoked by the verbs Pared (1536), graven, rasped and scraped (1544–6). The comparison between writing and ploughing (1547) was one which had suggested itself to other medieval writers (Solomon 1997: 94) – for writing by incising was slow and laborious, a fact here drawn on to create painfully drawn-out action: parallel variation spreads the one act across three verbs (wrytes … Pared … portrayed) at 1534–6, and the process continues while Belshazzar watches mesmerized (1544–6).

1531  palayce pryncipal: the phrase, recapitulated as ‘this mansion rial’, occurs also in Lydgate, Life of Our Lady 2.529–30, and in Cleanness it similarly renders Vulgate aulae regiae [royal palace]. Latin principalis does occur in this sense (‘relating to a prince, imperial’) elsewhere in the Vulgate (e.g. Esther 2:18).

1532  An expansion of Vulgate contra candelabrum. The detail acquires extra significance and solemnity in the poem, in which climactic pride of place has been given to the candelstik among the assembled treasures (see n. to 1481–8). Its sacred but shamefully disregarded role of illuminating the entrance to the divine presence in the sancta sanctorum is thus now seen to be grimly reasserted by a God now reasserting His own disregarded (1528) presence.

1533  apered a paume with poyntel in fyngres translates apparuerunt digiti, quasi manus hominis scribentis (Daniel 5:5; see n. to 1529–49). paume is here used of the hand itself (cf. PP B.17.142, 174), as Latin palma, and the cognate OE folma, could be.

1534  ModE cannot convey the ambiguity of reference in he. He or she could be used in ME to refer back to things (originally, to nouns of respectively masculine or feminine grammatical gender) as well as to persons; he here thus stands poised between the disembodied paume (1533) that is its antecedent and the assumed but invisible person to whom it belongs.

1538–43  For the vivid rendering of psychological impact or shock, largely through Germanic vocabulary, cf. Pe 171–9 and G 2369–72. The thickened alliteration here (1539–40, 1543) contributes to the effect. For the effects of loss of muscle tone implied in the Bible (see n. to 1529–49), the poet has substituted a sudden convulsive cramp (Belshazzar’s knees going into spasm rather than knocking), the result of a shock that is metaphorically expressed as a heavy blow, a strong stroke that strayned [crushed, squashed] his joints, the verb being used in the sense it bore when used of the compressing effect on a weaker substance caused by the heavy impact of a stronger (as an anvil is strained by the hammer, or grass by the tread of cattle: see MED streinen v^1 5(b)). For cluchches (1541) used of muscular spasm, cf. ‘he fel ded … That nevere so moche … he ones quycched, Ne his lymes ones clecched’ (Laud Troy Book 8918–20).

1538  On dase, and its association with paralysis from shock, see n. to Pe 1085.

1539  Cf. ‘All falowis his face & his flesche trimblis’ (WA 5434).

1541–92  The quatrains as marked in the MS (by two slanting lines in the left margin: see p. xxxii) in this passage run one line out from sense divisions; we have re-arranged so as to restore agreement between the two.

1542  plattyng: glossed as ‘wringing’ in MED and referred to platen v^3 [to plait]. But the verbal noun here is surely from platen v^1 [to strike] and designates beating rather than wringing of hands: cf. ‘Men mighten seen there hondes wrynge, Palmes beten …’ (Kyng Alisaunder 2795–6). The often-adopted emendation of MS lerns (lers with nasal contraction over r) to leres [cheeks, face] produces poor sense, avoided only by the more radical emendation by A&W of displayes his lerns to dispyses his leres [mistreats his cheeks].

1543  ryth that rores: ryth is the only recorded survival into ME of OE hrither [bullock, steer], hrith- in compounds. Human cries are also compared with those of a bull that rores [bellows, roars] at Troilus IV.239–41 and Havelok 2439.

1545  runische: see n. to G 304. The adjective is ultimately from OE run = ‘rune’ – a character from the (pre-Christian) alphabet used for carving – which developed the meaning ‘secret, mystery’. Something of the original sense of the word seems to be preserved here, as at StE 52, where it also refers to an undecipherable inscription (‘Bot roynysche were the resones that ther [on the tomb] on row stoden’).

1546  scrof (possibly related to ‘scurf’) is recorded nowhere else, and context is the only clue to its meaning (?rough, ?sharp).

1547  Cf. ‘my cultir to kerve … the forewis’ (PP A.7.96). For the comparison with writing, see n. to 1529–49.

1550–85  The king cried aloud to bring in the astrologers, the Chaldeans, and the soothsayers. And the king spake, and said to the wise men of Babylon, Whosoever shall read this writing, and shew me the interpretation thereof, shall be clothed with scarlet, and have a chain of gold about his neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom. Then came in all the king’s wise men: but they could not read the writing, nor make known to the king the interpretation thereof. Then was king Belshazzar greatly troubled, and his countenance was changed in him, and his lords were astonied (Daniel 5:7–9). The poet has rendered this sequence twice (producing a version similar to that found in Josephus, Antiquities X.xi, where Belshazzar’s offer of rewards is similarly inserted between efforts at decipherment made by two groups of magicians): Belshazzar’s search for interpreters widens (1551, 1559), his promise (1564–73) is made in response to the failure of those first summoned, and his agitation (1558) at the lack of results from the first consultation (1555–7) becomes more frenziedly violent at the similar blank drawn from the second trawl (1580–85).

1553  frayes my flesch: cf. ‘Than was he fraid in his flesche’ (WA 3586). The expression refers to the bodily effects of fear; cf. 975.

1556  For the collocation of lore and langage in this context, cf. ‘versis in variant lettirs, Sum in Latens lare, sum langage of Grece’ (WA 5777–8).

1558  brayde ner wode: the idiom breyde wod = ‘go mad’ occurs elsewhere: cf. William 2096, Sir Ferumbras 2099.

1559  bede: Morris’s emendation to MS ede. ‘Bid’ certainly figures as a non-alliterating and unstressed word elsewhere in the MS (cf. 500, 630, Pa 187).

1559–61  and 1575–9 expand, to ludic effect, magos, Chaldaeos et aruspices and sapientes at Daniel 5:7–8. The Chaldeans were known to have been skilled in astronomy (see e.g. Three Kings of Cologne 56) and were therefore especially associated with astrology and the occult arts.

1566  make the mater to malt my mynde withinne: for the idiom (which here translates Vulgate interpretationem ejus manifestam mihi fecerit), cf. Pe 224 and n. Subjunctive make is sometimes emended to makes, since the verb is syntactically parallel with wysses at 1564; but the subjunctive mood accords better than the indicative with fecerit in the Vulgate (to which wysses was an addition) and is idiomatic in the context of a hypothesis introduced by he that [anyone who: 1564].

1570  The phrase pure clergye refers to clergie or learning in its strict sense (MED sv clergie 3(a)): intellectual command of sacred matters, moral or spiritual. Belshazzar is a pagan, of course, and what he means by ‘divinity properly so-called’ is probably ‘divining’ in its strict sense (cf. devine lettres at 1561): that is, the interpretation of omens, portents, dreams, etc. The prymate and prince of pure clergye is a rationalizing addition to the Vulgate promise of nearly supreme national status: the poet’s successful ‘clerk’ is to be the equivalent of the Archbishop of Canterbury, ‘primate of all England’, who was next after the king in rank.

1571  of my thryvenest lordes the thrid: for thriven with respect to public status, cf. ‘He spak al of his dygnete, How wel that he was threven’ (Theophilus, stanza 3). he schal hatte [be called, i.e. rank as]: the MS reads simply he schal, which is sound ME for ‘he shall be’, and as such explains why his omission of a line-ending stave went unregistered by the scribe, and why the line went unemended by all editors except Gollancz (who supplies be after schal).

1573  tee (MS þenne): in the MS, the b-verse lacks an alliterative stave. The poet’s focus appears to be on processional precedence (cf. to ride at 1572).

1575–9  See n. to 1559–61.

1576  sathrapas: the Vulgate term satrap in fact designates a secular dignitary, but it seems from the entries in MED to have been understood as referring to clerical status and the learning associated with it.

1577  Wyches and walkyries: valkyries (minor goddesses who conducted slain heroes to Valhalla) belong to Scandinavian mythology and strictly have no business in ancient Mesopotamia. But the word figured in OE as a designation for various classical goddesses of warlike nature (Bellona, the Furies, the Gorgons), and also developed the general sense of ‘witch’ or ‘sorceress’; the alliterative collocation wiccan and waelcyrian is itself in fact recorded in OE (see Anglo-Saxon Dictionary sv waelcyrge). It is possible that walkyries in due course became ungendered as well as decontextualized from Norse mythology. But, since the word is otherwise unrecorded after the Anglo-Saxon period (until reintroduced as valkyrie in the eighteenth century), and since Wyches could be male or female, there can be no certainty as to whether the paired terms here represent men or women. The involvement of women in ‘clerical’ matters would not in itself have seemed odd to a poet familiar with the Old Testament, which features both prophetesses and witches, including the renowned phitonissa or Witch of Endor (1 Chronicles 10:13, 1 Samuel 28:7–25).

1579  Sorsers of (MS &) exorsismus: the scribe presumably confused exorcist and exorcism. The construction with of is supported by Devinores of demerlaykes in 1578; cf. ‘dyvynour of the trinite’ (PP A.9.302) and ‘Of Artmagique Sorceresses’ (CA 8.2602). Exorcism [the conjuring up or banishment of spirits] is referred to elsewhere as the province of sorcerers: Christ was accused of being ‘a sorcerere, and thorough the prynce Belzebub cast oute the develles of folkes’ (cited in MED sv sorcerer), and the Witch of Endor, who raised the spirit of Samuel at Saul’s command, did so by ‘sorcerie’ (CA 6.2387).

1580–96  chorles (1583), like lewed (1580), pointedly lowers the rank of the clerkes to that of the labouring and uneducated classes. The poet plainly enjoys the discomfiture of these repeatedly so-called clerkes (1562, 1575, 1579, 1583, 1631), who are revealed by his roster (1576–9) to be simply a gang of dabblers in the black arts (practices always strictly forbidden by Christian clerkes: see CT X.600–607); their lack of true theological insight is exposed in what the poet (by these additions to the Vulgate) represents as a kind of divine joke, which strips them of even the most basic qualification for clerkly status by revealing them to be (1596) lewed lettres to rede [ignorant in the art of reading].

1581  In the lether of the poet’s lyft bote, the clerkes (1579) would have found nothing more informative than his ‘left heel’, used as a similarly derisive measure of incomprehension in Trevisa’s complaint that schoolchildren now understand ‘na more Frensche than can hir lift heele’ (II, 161).

1582–4  Belshazzar is here wilder with rage than is his counterpart in the Bible: Then was king Belshazzar greatly troubled, and his countenance was changed in him, and his lords were astonied (Daniel 5:9).

1582  kerves his wedes: an understandable but pointless instinct to rend one’s clothes under the impulse of rage or frustration is referred to at Pa 526–7. It is here an addition to the Vulgate which, however, preserves the ‘costume’ of the context, for the gesture was particularly associated with the Judaic culture from which the Bible emanated: cf. ‘Cayphas … For scorn carf his owe clothes [Matthew 26:65], as gywes wolleth by wone [custom]’ (Southern Passion 1222).

1584  hyed: we assume (with Morris, Menner and Moorman) that MS heȝed is the past tense of the verb hie (elsewhere in the MS spelled with i/y, but cf. the variation in the MS between hiȝe and heȝe). Hien is well attested in the required sense (hastening on somebody or something, giving urgent commands for the speedy performance of some act). The suggestion by A&W that heȝed represents the past tense of hoten [swear, threaten] is attractive in terms of sense, but that past tense always occurs elsewhere in the MS as hiȝt(e).

1586–96  Now the queen, by reason of the words of the king and his lords, came into the banquet house: and the queen spake and said, O king, live for ever: let not thy thoughts trouble thee, nor let thy countenance be changed (Daniel 5:10). The poet’s additions stress the courtesy in gesture and word (1591–2) of a queen already established (in another addition: 1351–2) as a virtuous lady unworthily neglected by Belshazzar for his concubines.

1588–9  Reflecting the Vulgate, pro re quae acciderat regi [because of what had befallen the king], which differs slightly in sense from the AV’s by reason of the words of the king and his lords (Daniel 5:10).

1591  kneles on the colde erthe: cf. G 818, WA 5055.

1594  into (MS in) lenthe of dayes expands the Vulgate in aeternum vive into an alliterative verse – but expands it ‘in style’, for the idiom derives from Vulgate in longitudinem dierum (Psalms 22:6, 92:5, etc) and is likewise used as an echo of biblical style at Pe 416. into restores b-verse metre; cf. the Wycliffite Bible, where the Latin phrase is translated ‘into (the) length of days’.

1597–1618  Based on Daniel 5:11–12: There is a man in thy kingdom, in whom is the spirit of the holy gods; and in the days of thy father light and understanding [scientia; cf. syence: 1599] and wisdom … was found in him; whom the king Nebuchadnezzar thy father, the king, I say, thy father, made master of the magicians, astrologers, Chaldeans, and soothsayers; Forasmuch as an excellent spirit, and knowledge, and understanding [prudentia, intelligentiaque], interpreting of dreams, and shewing of hard sentences [ostensio secretorum; cf. open uch a hid thing: 1600], and dissolving of doubts, were found in the same Daniel, whom the king named Belteshazzar [Baltassar]: now let Daniel be called, and he will shew the interpretation.

1598  gostes: the plural is due to the use of gost (Vulgate spiritus) to refer to each of the gifts of understanding conferred by the Holy Spirit (Isaiah 11:2–3), among which the spiritus sapientiae et intellectus, spiritus consilii and spiritus scientiae correspond to the sapientia, intelligentia, scientia (syence: 1599) and counsayle (1605) attributed to Daniel here and/or in the source (Daniel 5:11–12).

1604–5  See Daniel 2 and 4 for Nebuchadnezzar’s two cryptically emblematic dreams and how Daniel devised the events they foretold (after the Chaldean astrologers and wise men had been consulted in vain). Daniel foretold, but did not actually rescue Nebuchadnezzar from, caytiffe wyrdes. The poem presents him more as a confessor figure – bringing spiritual aid and stabilizing counsel (1601–2, 1605–6) to a distressed king – than does Daniel 5:11–12, where the emphasis is rather on the royal recognition earned for Daniel by his miraculous powers.

1607–8  Spread is often used of the presence of the Holy Spirit: cf. ‘The Holy Gost … spret … himself in oure hertes’ (Book of Vices and Virtues 119). spyryt … Of the … goddes: the variation between the singular god (1598) and the plural reflects the perceptions of a polytheistic culture and occurs also in the Vulgate: cf. spiritum deorum sanctorum (Daniel 5:11; cf. 4:6/9, 15/18), although it is a singular god Daniel is understood as serving (Daniel 2:47, 6:20).

1611  of derne connynges: probably an epithet to be taken with the name (‘Daniel of the occult arts’). The only other recorded instance of demed = ‘called’ occurs at 1020, where the epithet (the Dead Sea) again reflects a name.

1616  wynne him thee with worschip: the MS reads wynne him with þe worschip, but worschip is preceded by the definite article only when following or preceding a further specifier. The translation suggested in the footgloss is essentially that of Anderson, though he retains the MS reading. For wynne and wayne in the senses assumed, cf. 617 and G 1032, 2091 (and for the alliterative collocations of the line, cf. 1120 and G 984).

1618  also cler: MS also. The emendation, first made by Gollancz, restores sense as well as alliteration.

1619–40  Then was Daniel brought in before the king. And the king spake and said unto Daniel, Art thou that Daniel, which art of the children of the captivity of Judah, whom the king my father brought out of Jewry? I have heard of thee, that the spirit of the gods is in thee, and that light and understanding and excellent wisdom [sapientia; sapyence: 1626] is found in thee. And now the wise men, the astrologers, have been brought in before me, that they should read this writing, and make known unto me the interpretation thereof: but they could not shew the interpretation of the thing: And I have heard of thee, that thou canst make interpretations [obscura interpretari; unhyles uch hid: 1628], and dissolve doubts: now if thou canst read the writing, and make known to me the interpretation thereof, thou shalt be clothed with scarlet [purpura; purpre: 1637], and have a chain of gold about thy neck, and shalt be the third ruler in the kingdom (Daniel 5:13–16).

1621  clanly had haylsed: on clanly here, see p. 88.

1622–4  Belshazzar’s greeting (added to the Vulgate) is politer than would be expected from him to a Jewish captive – and shows him anxious to ingratiate himself by such respectfulness as the queen had recommended (1616). The matter introduced at 1623 by Hit is tolde me (rendering audivi at Daniel 5:14) recapitulates very closely the information he has just received from her. The lines are the equivalent of Tu es Daniel de filiis captivitatis Judae, quem adduxit pater meus de Judaea? (Daniel 5:13), but echo the closer rendering of those words inserted into the queen’s speech at 1611–14.

1622  The meaning of umbe-brayde (written as two words in the MS) is not clear. The gloss ‘embraced’ (given by Anderson and Vantuono) is consistent with the usual sense of umbe [around, surrounding], but that of ‘accosted’ (given by other editors) is better supported by attested senses of breiden, which is regularly used of speech in the sense of ‘burst or come out with’ (see MED breiden (1) 12d and abreiden (1) 3c; cf. brayd = ‘outburst’ at 1507). Beau (MS leue [dear]) sir: Gollancz’s emendation of leue to beau (for which the MED records the variant spellings beu and bewe) assumes a plausible scribal error and provides a well-attested expression (cf. G 1222) that supplies the missing alliterative stave.

1632  with quoyntyse conquere hit: cf. ‘Quayntise overcomes alle thing’ (Mannyng, Chronicle I.8683).

1633  hit to resoun brynges: cf. ‘the name of this glorious Seynt is thus browt unto reson: a morer of the city above, a gret encreser of the blis of hevene’ (Capgrave, St Augustine 2; cf. DT 2399).

1634  tede: usually interpreted as ‘tied (= joined together)’, and as influenced by ligata [knots] dissolvere [dissolve doubts] at Daniel 5:16 (see n. to 1619–40). But the connection with the Vulgate phrase is tenuous and the past participle of tie appears elsewhere in the MS as tyȝed or (in rhyme at Pe 1013) tyȝt. Anderson’s theory of a unique survival of OE geteod [ordained, fated] is also unpersuasive.

1640  baroun upon bench (Vulgate princeps, AV ruler): rendered by Anderson (followed by A&W and Vantuono) ‘A lord of the king’s council’, presumably on the basis of the locution ‘baron of the bench’. But ‘upon bench’ is a different expression and is used of position at the hall table (cf. G 351), and more specifically of seats at the dais or head of the table, as in the present scene, where the phrase is used only of Belshazzar (1395, 1499; cf. on dese at 1517), who has excluded all except himself and his concubines from the dais (1399–1400).

1641–52  Based on Daniel 5:17–19: Then Daniel answered and said before the king … O thou king, the most high God gave Nebuchadnezzar thy father a kingdom, and majesty, and glory, and honour: And for the majesty that he gave him, all people, nations, and languages, trembled and feared before him: whom he would he slew; and whom he would he kept alive; and whom he would he set up; and whom he would he put down. Omitted, however, are Daniel’s opening words – Let thy gifts be to thyself, and give thy rewards to another; yet I will read the writing unto the king, and make known to him the interpretation – which contradict his apparent acceptance of the promised rewards at 5:29 (translated in the poem at 1741–52). The poet evidently decided to sacrifice Daniel’s dignified declining of Belshazzar’s bribes in favour of the bestowal upon him of regal splendour. This is consistent with patterns of emphasis particularly evident in this third exemplum (in which ejection from and reception into kingly state is a mark of heavenly judgement on cleanness or uncleanness: as with Zedekiah at 1225–32, Nebuchadnezzar at 1672 and 1701–8, Belshazzar at 1738–40).

1642  Daniel implies that Belshazzar stands in need of a higher power to rede [direct] him than his own compliance with the specific request that he should rede [interpret] the writing (1633) can supply. Since the poet does not include the dignified snub of Daniel’s opening words in the Bible (see previous n.), he has substituted another means of indicating the prophet’s proud independence (cf. Derfly at 1641).

1647–50  The two antitheses are in the AV, but the first (1647–8) was not in fact available to the poet from the Vulgate, which has interficiebat [slew] … percutiebat [struck] (Daniel 5:19) for the AV slew … kept alive (see n. to 1641–52; Menner refers the discrepancy between the Vulgate and the AV to ‘the double meaning of the original Hebrew’).

1653–6  The lines are independent of the Vulgate and consistent with 1321–8 (likewise independent), which also attribute the superior grandeur of Nebuchadnezzar to an inner acknowledgement of the even greater grandeur of God.

1655  And while that was cleght: after that, comfort is inserted by Gollancz, and counsayl by A&W. But what the now missing alliterative stave might originally have been can only be guessed at.

1657–79  But when his heart was lifted up, and his mind hardened in pride, he was deposed from his kingly throne, and they took his glory from him (Daniel 5:20). The Bible is more summary than the poem precisely because it is summarizing events which have already been recorded – three times: in Nebuchadnezzar’s cryptic dream of the incident (Daniel 4:10–17); in Daniel’s interpretation of it (4:20–26); and in the fulfilment of its prophecy a year later (4:28–37). It is only now, at the point where it makes its fourth appearance in the Bible, that the poet gives his single version of the story, a version which draws on those earlier passages in the Bible (especially Daniel 4:28–37).

1661–8  The king spake, and said, Is not this great Babylon, that I have built for the house of the kingdom by the might of my power, and for the honour of my majesty? (Daniel 4:30). On the contrast between Nebuchadnezzar’s blasfemy (1661), which God punishes but ultimately forgives, and Belshazzar’s more mean and stupid blasphemous desecration of the vessels, see pp. 90–91. It is Nebuchadnezzar’s responsiveness to aesthetic grandeur and beauty that prompts both the instinctive respect for the vessels and their god (1309–18) and the blasphemous pryde (1657) in his own creation in this complex and powerful character.

1661  to blame (MS on to blame): Menner and Anderson attempt to explain on as going with blame [utter impiety against], but the word order is difficult and ME blame is not elsewhere construed with on. Prosodic considerations confirm scribal error. Since in his alliterative verse the poet appears to have pronounced final -e in infinitives, this would, unemended, be the only b-verse in the MS where pronunciation of infinitive -e would result in the metrical irregularity of two long dips (Putter et al. 2007: 99).

1669–76  While the word was in the king’s mouth, there fell a voice from heaven, saying, O king Nebuchadnezzar, to thee it is spoken; The kingdom is departed from thee. And they shall drive thee from men, and thy dwelling shall be with the beasts of the field: they shall make thee to eat grass as oxen (Daniel 4:31–2).

1671  Cf. 669, where the parental firmness of the word inogh, with its mixture of authority and mildness, again marks God’s tone when dealing with sinners not guilty of ‘uncleanness’ – with which Nebuchadnezzar’s blasphemy (as opposed to Belshazzar’s: 1713, 1721) is never equated; cf. also 215, 247 and Pa 346.

1673–80  The details of the terrain (mor, wasturne, bent, countre unknawen, fyr frith) are independent of the Vulgate; all except the penultimate item refer to uncultivated wasteland. Nebuchadnezzar’s incorporation into wilderness and the animal nature he takes on (1681–98) gain extra significance in a poem which consistently equates spiritual worth with social and courtly refinement (35–48, 609–44, 797–832) and with civilized culture and art (1441ff), and which, in this third section, correlates loss of worldly court and kingship with loss of acceptability to the heavenly Lord (see n. to 1641–52).

1675  bite (= graze; cf. Pa 392) corresponds to Vulgate comedes (AV: they shall make thee to eat) at Daniel 4:29/32; 1683–4 similarly reflects Vulgate comedebat [he ate] (AV: they fed him with) at 5:21.

1676  The wolves are from an English culture in which they had always figured as epitomizing the lawless savagery of life outside civilized society; the wild asses are from the Vulgate onagri of Daniel 5:21 (see next n.).

1677–1700  And he was driven from the sons of men; and his heart was made like the beasts, and his dwelling was with the wild asses: they fed him with grass like oxen, and his body was wet with the dew of heaven; till he knew that the most high God ruled in the kingdom of men, and that he appointeth over it whomsoever he will (Daniel 5:21). The same material occurs also at Daniel 4:15–16, 25, 32–3. Daniel 4:33 adds the details on which 1696–9 are based: and his body was wet with the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown like eagles’ feathers, and his nails like birds’ claws.

1678–9  Fro the solie of his solemnete and is out cast are from Vulgate de solio regni sui and ejectus est at Daniel 5:20–21 (see nn. to 1657–79 and 1677–1700).

1680  fyr frith [fir forest]: fyr is by most editors interpreted as the positive or comparative form of adjectival far and glossed ‘remote’, but fyr nowhere else in the MS appears as a form of fer or ferre, and ‘far into a far(ther) wood’ gives awkward sense. The reading here follows MED and Vantuono.

1684  hay: Anderson so understands MS ay, which would indeed appear to be a form of or error for hay, found as the equivalent of Vulgate foenum (Daniel 4:29/32, 5:21) in the stories of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar in Chaucer’s Monk’s Tale (CT VII.2172, 2217). hay occurs alliterating with both horse and erbes in Pa 394, 438.

1686  The line (cf. ‘Fro seven dayes ben seyed’ at 353) renders donec septem tempora mutentur super eum at Daniel 4:20/23.

1687  thye: MS thyȝe (emended to fytherez by A&W) has been variously, but to date unconvincingly, explained. It probably refers to head or facial hair and is perhaps to be connected with OE thufa [plant, tuft], thuft [thicket], ME thufe (which is used of leaves and seems to mean ‘bushy’); for the movement of the lines follows the growth of Nebuchadnezzar’s hair and his consequent growing transformation into an animal: from his head (1687–8), to the matted thatch between shoulders and groin (1689–90), to the twining ‘tail’ that then falls to his feet (1691–2), followed by a frontal view of hair growth (eyebrows, beard, whiskers) at 1693–5.

1688  dubbed and dight were generally used of ennobling or beautifying array or ornamentation (cf. 1743, 1753, Pe 202) and so here re-emphasize the antithesis of 1685.

1689  For fyltered as applied to hair in the sense of ‘matted, tangled’, cf. ‘His fax and his foretoppe was filterede togeders’ (MA 1078); cf. also Ipomadon 6147. The rare verb felten (apparently from the noun felt) occurs in the sense required here (‘cause to adhere’) in Ancren Riwle 156: ‘I schal … felten [adherere faciam] thi tonge to thi palate.’ fyltered and felt have been interpreted as adjectival past participles, but could be past tenses parallel with flosed [?formed a fleecy coat], which seems to be cognate with modern floss, but is of obscure derivation.

1690  schyre-wykes [loins]: explained by Menner as representing schore/schare/schere (the regular ME word for ‘groin’) and wyke [corner, angle] as used of body parts (cf. G 1572).

1692  clyvy is interpreted as a verb by A&W (following Menner), who gloss the line ‘where many (hairs) clung as though plaster stuck it together’. But clyvy reads unnaturally as a verb, not only because the subject has to be supplied but also because the inflection -y is only found in this MS in infinitives. It would thus appear, as Gollancz suggests, to be the only recorded occurrence of OE clife [‘cleaver’, burdock] between c.1100 and the reappearance of the word as clivre, cliver, cleaver in the mid-fifteenth century. clyde similarly figures in MED (sv clithe) as the only occurrence after the twelfth century of OE clitha, a word occurring in medical contexts as a term for a ‘plaster’ or ‘poultice’.

1694  bresed: the verb (related to bresse [bristle]) appears in ME only here and at G 305, ‘Bende his bresed browes’ (cf. ‘His browe as brestles wore’: Roland and Vernagu 480). Alliteration is thickened in 1693–4, as in 1687 and 1689, which also refer to the shaggy hair which gradually envelops Nebuchadnezzar.

1695  under campe hayres: cf. ‘With kempe heeris on his browes stoute’ (CT I.2134). Since Nebuchadnezzar’s eyebrows are dealt with at 1694, under (which bears alliterative stress) has here been assumed to be adverbial, the campe hayres referring to tufts growing on the cheeks below the eye-sockets: ‘underneath (were) stiff hairs’.

1697  pauue: MS pa + 4 minims + e is usually expanded to paune or emended to paume but is more likely to represent ‘paw’ (the second u in pauue representing w; cf. MS scheued for schewed at Pe 692). For the application of paw, and the epithet grymme (1696), to a bird’s claw, cf. the eagle ‘with hys grymme pawes stronge’ at Chaucer’s House of Fame 541.

1699–1700  This moral appears on all four occasions on which the story is told in the Vulgate (see n. to 1657–79), where the same donec construction (Til: 1699) also figures (Daniel 4:14/17, 22/25, 29/32; 5:21). Nebuchadnezzar learns in much the same hard way as Jonah that he is not autonomous (cf. Pa 286, 296).

1701–8  Based on Daniel 4:34–7 (for which there is no equivalent in the account of the incident given by Daniel to Belshazzar in Daniel 5:18–21): And at the end of the days I Nebuchadnezzar lifted up mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned unto me, and I blessed the most High, and I praised and honoured him that liveth for ever … At the same time my reason returned unto me; and for the glory of my kingdom, mine honour and brightness returned unto me [figura mea reversa est ad me]; and my counsellors and my lords sought unto me; and I was established in my kingdom, and excellent majesty was added unto me. Now I Nebuchadnezzar praise and extol and honour the King of heaven.

1707  Hawerly: a rare word, from ON hagr [skilful, handy], which appears also at 18 (and as adjective at G 352 and 1738), there too in relation to fitness for courtly and civilized society. hue: MS hwe is emended to hwef [headdress] by A&W, who see here a reference to Nebuchadnezzar’s crown and to Vulgate in regno meo restitutus sum at Daniel 4:33/36. But that part of the Vulgate is amply rendered by the other lines in this quatrain, and the present one corresponds rather to figura mea reversa est ad me in the same verse (see previous n.). Nebuchadnezzar’s resumption of human from animal form is aptly fused with his resumption of kingly status, and there seems no difficulty in assuming that hue renders figura and bears the larger sense of ‘visible form’, which the noun certainly could have (MED heu 3(a)): i.e. in his own hue = ‘in the visible appearance proper to it (= “his head”, which had become like that of an animal)’.

1709–20  And thou his son, O Belshazzar, hast not humbled thine heart, though thou knewest all this; But has lifted up thyself against the Lord of heaven; and they have brought the vessels of his house before thee, and thou, and thy lords, thy wives, and thy concubines, have drunk wine in them; and thou hast praised the gods of silver, and gold, of brass, iron, wood, and stone, which see not, nor hear, nor know: and the God in whose hand thy breath is, and whose are all thy ways, hast thou not glorified (Daniel 5:22–3).

1713–14,  1717–18 The biblical vessels of his house is twice expanded upon to produce an antithesis of the same rhetorical structure as 1445–50, and thus to re-emphasize the contrast drawn at 1489–1500.

1713  vesselles avyled occurs also at 1151. unclene: the polysemy of clene is exploited to create parallels between the indecent and unfitting (MED clene 2(c)) use of the vessels by Belshazzar and the (710) unclene [unchaste, sexually perverted: MED unclene 2(b), (c)] practices of the Sodomites. See also n. to 1721.

1714  of firste: possibly ‘from the first’ (see MED of prep 5(a)), but probably simply ‘first’ (for redundant of before adverbs, see of prep 24(e)).

1717–20  As the Vulgate here (Daniel 5:22–3) recapitulates its own previous wording at 5:3–4 with regard to Belshazzar’s double desecration of the vessels (using them for a binge and lifting praises to false gods thereon [over them]), so too does the poem: see notes to 1420–36, 1521–8, 1709–20 for the Bible, and, in the poem, cf. 1718 with 1445, and 1719–20 with 1343, 1522–4.

1717  for beverage (MS beverage): the word thede normally means ‘people, nation’, and attempts to discern in it a different word that might provide an antecedent for That (= the vessels) in 1718 are not convincing (Anderson suggests thede = ModE thead [brewer’s vessel], while A&W read th’ede [the blessed ones]). The insertion of for restores sense, allows thede to be taken in its normal signification, and enables the vessels, represented by That (= those things which), to serve as the object of has thou broght (as at 1433: ‘Bryng hem now to my borde, of beverage hem fylles’).

1721–40  From Daniel 5:24–8: Then [Idcirco; And for that: 1721] was the part of the hand [articulus manus; The fyste with the fyngres: 1723] sent from him; and this writing was written [exaratum est [‘ploughed’, incised: see n. to 1529–49]; rasped: 1724]. MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN [MANE, TECHAL, PHARES: 1727]. This is the interpretation of the thing: MENE; God hath numbered thy kingdom, and finished [complevit; fulfylled: 1732] it. TEKEL; Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting [minus; ful fewe: 1735]. PERES; Thy kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians.

1721  frothande fylthe echoes the fylthe and yestande sorwe of the Sodomites (845–6). The expression refers in both cases to a desecration of a courtly feast that is simultaneously a desecration of what is sacred to God (His angels and His vessels).

1724  On runischly, see n. to 1545.

1726  uch figure [written symbol]: cf. StE 51–3 (where the reference is likewise to letters of a language not recognized: see n. to 1545): ‘golde lettres … Ful verray were the vigures’.

1727  At f.56v, one of the two full-page illustrations found at the beginning of the poem depicts Daniel kneeling before the king, who is himself pointing to the words, which are represented in the picture along with the disembodied palm holding the pen; and the enigmatically crucial three-word message is marked in the MS by a cross against the present line in the left margin. thrynne [three], as adjective or noun, is always used in this corpus of three things that form a unity or a united group: the divine Trinity (606, 645), the three kisses of the lady (G 1868) and the poet’s own threefold exemplification in this poem of what he presents as the same moral (1805). The words here are similarly represented as a message in triplicate (in thrynne), announcing upon thre wyse (1728) essentially the same doom (loss of his kingdom) to Belshazzar. The poet has thus discerned in the threatening message a rhetorical threefold variation on a theme similar to the doom he sees himself as having announced to the ‘unclean’ upon thrynne wyses (1805). See pp. 92–3.

1728  thretes thee of thyn unthryfte could mean ‘threatens you with your doom’, but the sense ‘rebukes/denounces you for your wickedness’ (MED threten 2) is more probable: although such cognates as unthrifty, unthriftily, unthriven can all refer to wretchedness or misery as well as to wickedness, unthrift itself is recorded only with reference to the latter. A double meaning is, of course, entirely appropriate.

1730–39  In Josephus (Antiquities X.x), Daniel explains Maneh as a Greek signification for number (cf. 1731), Thekel as weight (cf. 1734–5) and Phares as another Greek-derived term for fragment (indicating the breaking up of the realm: cf. 1738–9).

1731  clene: the sense of this key word here is given as ‘whole, entire’ in MED, but it seems rather to be ‘exact’: cf. MED clenli adv 2(d) (‘distinctly, clearly’) and clene in its aesthetic sense of ‘faultless(ly), with minute precision’ (see e.g. 310, 1455).

1736  to frayste the trauthe: ‘Probably not “to test, prove, the truth” (edd. and MED sv fraisten), but rather a conventional expression, “to seek the truth”, equivalent to modern “to tell the truth”. Cf. [G] 355: “who laytes [seeks] the soothe”, used similarly’ (Anderson).

1738  depryved: for the contextual sense ‘deprived of kingdom (i.e. deposed)’, cf. 1227 and Pe 449. worthes [will be]: the present tense of worthen [become, come about, be] occurs largely in the subjunctive (cf. 60, 727, 1056); indicative worthes also generally has reference to (less hypothetical) future events, as here and at Pa 200.

1740  of menske schowved: the parallel with line 44 is of obvious significance.

1741–52  Based on Daniel 5:29: Then commanded Belshazzar, and they clothed Daniel with scarlet, and put a chain of gold about his neck, and made a proclamation concerning him, that he should be the third ruler [quod haberet potestatem tertius] in the kingdom. See n. to 1641–52.

1742  as forward hit asked: this provides an explanation of the uncharacteristically honourable response by Belshazzar to the bad news and condemnation just received from Daniel. Standing by pledges was a crucial point of regal honour: the principle is observed even by the similarly unsympathetic king (of Fairy) in Sir Orfeo 463–70.

1746–7  For bowe (in its political sense of ‘be subservient to’) in a similar context, cf. Guy of Warwick 3076 (‘Al tho that ben to me serveinde, Ichil thai be to thee boweinde’).

1750  in burgh and in felde here means ‘everywhere’: cf. ‘what wemen love best in feld and town’ (Wedding of Sir Gawain 91).

1752  that folwed him tille: ‘who attended upon him (i.e. Belshazzar: cf. 1747)’ is the meaning that suggests itself, but follow in this sense does not usually take the preposition to/til, which may imply pursuit to a specified spatial point – and that is actually the force of to in the example cited by Anderson (in support of the above gloss), ‘He followit to him haistely’ (Rauf Coilyear 419). The present b-verse should probably therefore be glossed ‘(all those) who made their way to him (= Daniel)’.

1753–96  Elaborated from the tersest of postscripts to the story in the biblical source: In that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain. And Darius the Median took the kingdom (Daniel 5:30–31).

1758  For farande fest (reinforcing solemnete at 1757) cf. the reference at G 101 to ‘uch farande fest’. Both Belshazzar’s and Arthur’s feasts are full state banquets – and, as such, must go on (cf. G 467–75) despite a traumatic interruption that leaves a death-sentence hanging over one of the chief diners; compare the planned three-day feast (likewise involving guest dignitaries who have travelled some distance) with which Theseus feels obliged to proceed, despite the fatal accident which has befallen Arcite, who would have been the guest of honour (CT I.2700–740). The diplomatic necessity leads in all three texts to an expressive counterpointing of public festivity against a known impending disaster.

1759  The ominous falling of night (as of a gathering storm) is heightened by a semi-personification of the skues: the collocation of ble with bryght and/or with one or other of the often overlapping verbs related to ModE bleach and blacken refers almost everywhere else to a radiant or greying face: cf. ‘Hwer is Paris and Heleyn that weren so bryhte and feyre on bleo?’ (‘Mayde Cristes’ 66), ‘Hire bleo bigan to blakien for the grure [terror] that grap hire’ (Seinte Marherete 22).

1760  For drive applied to the rising and gathering of nebulosity, cf. ‘a derknes thare drafe and demyd the skewes’ (WA 561).

1761  the lyst of the lyft: the reference seems to be to the lower regions of the sky, though no comparable applications of lyst [boundary, edge, arena] are recorded in MED. Anderson puts a pause after 1760 and reads 1761 with 1762; but 1761 makes poor sense as a chosen route home and good sense as an account of night mist, which would gather especially in low medoes (i.e. ground near water: cf. Trevisa, Properties II, 961, ‘in lowe medes, in mareys [marsh], and in watry place’).

1762–4  Anderson (followed by Vantuono) wrongly assumes that these cannot be Belshazzar’s guests, ‘who would hardly be in need of soper, but the ordinary people of the town who hurry home to escape the worsening weather, and whose simple pleasures contrast with the luxury of the palace’. But the public banquet (like most royal feasts) was a daytime event, a dinner (traditionally partaken of at noon), which would be followed by a soper (the evening meal); cf. the royal feast in the Squire’s Tale, a daytime dinner (CT V.263–5) which is over by early afternoon and is followed by a soper in the early evening (290–307). Nor is singing after supper a folksy scene of simple people (in whom this aristocratic poet shows little interest), but a regular part of after soper entertainments among the well-off (cf. Troilus III.610–16). Belshazzar’s guests here return, after the feast, to their lodgings in the town (1762) and to their evening soper engagements (1763), which continue late into the night (1764).

1765  It was customary, in the higher ranks of society, to be conducted to one’s sleeping quarters by servants who would carry torches to light the way (cf. G 1120, 1989–90). Since the verb carry is not elsewhere used in this oeuvre, MS caryed has been assumed to be, not ModE ‘carry’ (Anderson and A&W), but a form of kayred (cf. 1478); cf. MS caryez (= cayres) at G 734; cary (= cayr) in Douglas, Aeneid XII.xi.136; and MS heyred for heryed at C 1786.

1766  See nn. to 1500 and 889–92.

1771–2  The Vulgate refers only to Darius, who is declared to have succeeded to Belshazzar’s throne (see n. to 1753–96); the prince of Perce is Cyrus, who was in fact the leader of the campaign and conqueror of Babylon; the non-biblical Porros of Ynde is an ally of Darius in legends of Alexander, which would have formed another tradition from which the poet would have been familiar with the splendours of Babylon, which Alexander conquers (see WA 5610ff) after defeating the Persian Emperor Darius and Porus of India (3308–787).

1775  on throwene hepes: cf. 504.

1776–8  The Bible implies a surprise capture by night (see n. to 1753–96), to which the poet has given military plausibility by assuming seizure by scaling; for historical instances of seizure and raids conducted at night through scaling ladders, see Warner 1968: 99, 117.

1778  Stelen stilly … ere any steven rised: cf. the secret military exit (as opposed to the entre here: 1779) at 1203: ‘stel out on a stille night ere any steven rised’.

1778–88  In imagining this sequence, the poet may have been influenced by a similar scene in Guido delle Colonne’s Historia 233, where the Greeks enter Troy secretly by night and proceed to slaughter the sleeping citizens and to pillage their homes, a passage rendered thus in the alliterative version of the Historia: ‘Buernes in hor bednes britnet all naked … Brekyn into bildynges britnet the pepull … Robbet there riches, reft hom hor lyves’ (DT 11933–40).

1784  Ascry scarred on the skue: cf. ‘He is so scoymus of that scathe He scarres bylive’ (598), ‘As a scowt-wache scarred so the ascry rised’ (838). It seems unlikely that these three instances of scarr- represent separate verbs, though that has sometimes been argued in the very varied explanations offered by editors. The poet is probably using what he conceived of as a single verb with a range of senses drawn variously from skerren [frighten, alarm] and skairen [send out]. That some fusion of the two verbs has occurred is suggested by the fact that the collocation at 838, scowt-wache and scarred [alarmed, aroused], appears elsewhere (DT 1088, MA 2468) as scoutwatch and skair [send out]. The intransitive usages at 598 and 1784 share a reference to some sudden forceful flinging and dispersing motion outwards or upwards: scarres bylive means (as implied by the next line, ‘He may not drye to draw allyt, bot drepes in haste’) ‘lashes out’ (to disperse and scatter any source of scathe), while scarred on at 1784 similarly seems to indicate ‘scattered upwards by a forceful burst’.

1786  heryed (MS heyred): see n. to kayred at 1765.

1787–92  The humiliating details of Belshazzar’s death are independent of the Vulgate (for which see n. to 1753–96).

1788  his blod and his brayn: cf. 1248 and n.

1791  doghty: A&W and Anderson gloss ‘bold’, but that sense of the word is confined to contexts of combat. The adjective derives from OE dugan [be of avail] and retained its earlier sense (‘of worth’) when applied to morally or socially ‘excellent’ or ‘important’ persons (including women and non-combatants); and that sense suits the contrast obviously intended with 1792.

1795–6  The political measures taken by Darius towards consolidation of his power are (like his military tactics) additions that lend verisimilitude to the biblical events.

1801–3  See n. to 1641–52. Correlating honour or shame in this world and the next was a common topos that has particular pertinence in the present poem. Cf. the words of Briseis to Calchas (who has defected to the Greeks): ‘thi worship is went and wasted for ever … If men laith with thi lyf, lyffyng in erthe … the shall happon in helle hardlaikes mo, For thy filthe and thi falshed with fyndes to dwelle’ (DT 8117–24).

1804  To loke on our lovely Lord: the phrasing recalls the first Beatitude, which the poet announced as his base text or theme at the start of the poem (25–30). Cf. especially 28: ‘For he schal loke on our Lord.’

1805–12  The concluding lines produce a strong effect of circularity in their reprise of words and images from the texts introduced at the opening (see p. 93).

1810  schyn see His owne face (MS schyn se his face): the b-verse in the MS lacks a long dip; for the emendation, cf. 595b.

1812  in His sight is a common phrase, but has here special pertinence to the Beatitude taken as the theme text (27–8) and recalled at 1810.

NOTES TO PATIENCE

1  poynt: ‘condition, quality’, not ‘virtue’; the examples collected in MED under the spurious sense ‘good quality, virtue’ (10(c)) show merely contextual application to virtue(s) of other senses (‘state’ or ‘item in a set’).

2  When … ben: since ben (instead of are/arn) in this MS usually indicates futurity or subjunctive mood, it is presumably here the latter (triggered by the indefinite sense of When [whenever, if]).

3  swelme occurs only here and (in a similar collocation) in WA 872: ‘Lete aswage … the swelme of his angirs.’

4  ho: the feminine pronoun picks up the feminine gender of both Suffraunce and PACIENCE (from Latin patientia) and anticipates the personification of the virtues of the Beatitudes as courtly ladies at 30ff.

5–6  The poet plays on the double meaning of suffer (see pp. 197–8): ‘bear patiently’ (5) and ‘experience pain’ (6). With line 6, cf. the gnomic advice given to the dreamer at Pe 344: ‘Who nedes schal thole, be not so thro.’

9  highe Masse was the formal sung Mass performed on Sundays and major feast days. The halyday referred to is probably All Saints’ Day (1 November), one of the mandatory holidays which all were required to observe by attending Mass and abstaining from work (see n. to G 536–7): the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3–10) formed the Gospel reading for this feast (Sarum Missal II, 554).

10  con teche: cf. And he opened his mouth, and taught them [docebat eos], saying (Matthew 5:2). The periphrastic past tense formed with auxiliary con often occurs for metrical reasons: it here ensures (with the preceding -y in meyny) the single long dip required in the b-verse.

13–14  Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 5:3). The Beatitude was usually interpreted as referring to voluntary poverty. Since the b-verse must have one long dip and the alliterative line must end in only one unstressed syllable, poverte in 13b requires stress on the second of its three syllables.

15–16  Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth (Matthew 5:5; the AV reverses the Vulgate order – which the poem follows – of this and the next Beatitude).

17–18  Blessed are they that mourn [lugent]: for they shall be comforted (Matthew 5:4). lugent was traditionally interpreted (as here) as referring to penitential sorrow.

19–20  Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled [saturabuntur] (Matthew 5:6). The expansion ful of alle goode may echo the Magnificat (Luke 1:53): He hath filled the hungry with good things [bonis].

21–4  Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God (Matthew 5:7–8).

25–6  Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God (Matthew 5:9).

27–8  Blessed are they which are persecuted [persecutionem patiuntur] for righteousness’ sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 5:10). that con her hert stere is an adaptation of the Beatitude which is central to the poem’s treatment of impatience as lack of self-restraint under both pain and joy; the connection of patience with both the fortitude of this eighth Beatitude and with self-control represents a traditional association of ideas going back to biblical times: cf. He that is slow to anger [patiens] is better than the mighty; and he that ruleth his spirit [dominatur animo suo] than he that taketh a city (Proverbs 16:32). For the expression used in the poem, cf. Rowlande and Ottuell 162, when restraint of rage against a messenger is urged: ‘thyn herte that thou wolde stere’.

30  The reference is to a passage in the Roman de la rose (7721–38) in which the lover is advised to gain his lady’s favour by imitating her and modelling himself upon her; the same passage is paraphrased at C 1057–68.

31–3  The demands of alliteration have affected the sequencing, causing the Mekenesse of the second Beatitude (15) to exchange places with Pyty, which here has the broader sense of Latin pietas [sense of duty] and represents those who ‘hunger for right’ in the fourth Beatitude (19). The personification of virtues as noble ladies was common in the literary and visual arts (cf. PP B.5.618–23) and partly reflects the feminine gender of abstract nouns in Latin.

37–9  Since the first and the last lines of Patience, Pearl and Sir Gawain are also fettled in on forme, it is not surprising that the poet should have been struck by the verbal interlinking of the first and last Beatitudes – which some earlier commentators had also noted: ‘the eighth maxim returns, as it were, to the beginning’ (Augustine 9).

39  quest could be taken in its legal sense and glossed ‘judgement’ (Anderson) or in its hunting sense (as at G 1150, 1421) of ‘pursuit’ or ‘search’ (Bateson and A&W). Supporting evidence for the assumption of a hunting metaphor is provided by enquylen, which (like aquilen) could also be used as a hunting term, meaning ‘to flush, hunt up’. MED gives no other examples with prefix en-, but there are instances in Twiti’s Art of Hunting 20, 24 (Putter 2006: 374–5). quoyntyse: ‘(spiritual) wisdom’ is the main meaning, but the hunting metaphor would suggest the word bears also its equally common sense of ‘skill, art’.

43–4  The logic is similar to that of the gnomic proverb cited at PP B.10.438: ‘For quant OPORTET vient en place il ny ad que PATI’ [For when MUST comes on the scene there is nothing for it but to SUFFER].

43  enpresses derives from AN empresser, which is found both with inanimate subjects (sickness, death) in the sense ‘oppresses’ and with animate subjects in the sense ‘subject to force, harass’. The word is thus suited to the transition that takes place here (as the poet translates his allegory into non-allegorical terms) from personified poverty (41) to non-personified poverty (43).

45  The coupling of poverty and patience is traditional (and is reinforced by the metre in alliterative verse: cf. PP B.10.340, 12.61). Noting that the first Beatitude mirrors the last, the thirteenth-century Speculum Morale (578D) similarly states that ‘paupertas comitem debet habere patientiam’ [poverty should have patience as a companion]; the poet, however, arrives at this orthodox dogma by a more complex and punning logic: since poverty necessarily entails ‘suffering’ (44), it behoves the poor man to suffer patiently (46).

52  to ride other to renne to Rome: since Rome was the seat of papal government (except during the Pope’s exile in Avignon from 1309 to 1377), English clerics were routinely dispatched there to pursue business on their lords’ behalf (Jacob 1968). The journey was so arduous and hazardous that ‘Rome-running’ acquired proverbial status as an unpleasant task (Andrew 1982). The coupling of ride [ride] and renne [go on foot] is common; cf. the servant commanded in Lament ‘to ride and to renne To my wif’ (81–2).

53–6  Cf. ‘A slogh messagere … That charged ys with lordes errand, Yyf he go nat as he ys sent He ys wrthy to be shent. Man that weyl spedyth hym yn dede, And messager smart at nede, They shul stonde before the kyng, And haue mede to here askyng’ (Mannyng, Handlyng Synne 4813–20).

53  Like its Latin equivalent, murmur, gruchyng figured frequently among ‘sins of the tongue’ as the verbal manifestation of impatience. Jonah is in fact adduced as an example of murmur impaciencie in the Speculum Laicorum: ‘Murmur may occur with respect to the command of a superior … it is impatient to murmur against his wholesome demand. Thus Jonah murmured against the command of the Lord and was handed over to be devoured by the whale’ (cited by Craun 1997: 85); cf. CT IV.354, where Griselda is required to submit absolutely to her husband’s will and ‘nevere … to grucche it’.

56  bongre occurs elsewhere in ME only in the phrase bongre, malgre [willy-nilly, whether one likes it or not], which might suggest that it should here be read as parallel with the preposition maugre (54); most editors have therefore treated it as a preposition and interpreted bongre my hyre as meaning ‘in accordance (with the terms of) my hire’. Our interpretation of it as a noun follows Burrow 1989; with 55b and 56b, cf. ‘et es foly For to lufe your enemy Yife ye gete a velany And mawgre to youre mede’ (Sir Degrevant 585–8).

61–4  Now the word of the Lord came unto Jonah the son of Amittai, saying (Jonah 1:1).

61  The beginning of the exemplum is marked in the MS by a decorated capital H. New sections are similarly announced at 245, 305 and 409. On termes of Judee (cf. terminos Israel: 2 Kings 14:25), see p. 200.

63  Cf. ‘Then Godes glam to hem glod that gladed hem alle’ (C 499). unglad gives a somewhat comic twist to the unsurprising collocation of God-, glam, glod, -glad.

65–72  Arise, go to Nineveh, that great city, and cry against it; for their wickedness [malitia] is come up before me (Jonah 1:2).

70  I may not abide (contrast 7 and 419): this remarkable ascription of impatience to God makes the point, not only that anger is a powerfully intuitive emotion, but also that the Omnipotent does not face the same checks and curbs against acting on it that humans do (6, 45–56); it is just as well, therefore, as He Himself later points out, that, with the power to destroy cities at a stroke, He is more able to soften His wrath voluntarily than man is (520–23).

71  venge me on her vilany: cf. (with reference to a secular lord and a military setback) ‘To weng him of the welany’ (Barbour, Bruce IX.550).

73–88  Jonah’s thoughts have no scriptural source, but there are parallels in other biblical poems. Cf. Marbod of Rennes’s twelfth-century De Naufragio Jonae Prophetae (col. 1676): ‘Forte timens fatum, non ivit vaticinatum. Nam quia portaret quod plebis corda gravaret, Nuntius interitus, satis foret undique tritus, Vel gladio stratus, vel forsitan igne crematus’ [perhaps he did not go and prophecy because he feared his fate. For, since he would carry news that would aggrieve the people, the messenger would be killed, or beaten, or put to the sword, or perhaps burned at the stake]. Cf. also Metrical Paraphrase 13849–53: ‘Ionas herd tell of Nynyue, / and of the folk so fell thei wore, And yll doers in all degre, / therfore he dred hym to come thore.’

77  typpede: past participle of ME tippen. Previous editors have glossed ‘extreme, consummate’, but there is no dictionary evidence for such a sense. In the Catholicon Anglicum (389) the word is glossed as cornutatus, which could have the sense ‘aggressive, violent’: cf. ‘tam graves erant excessus eorum et cornuta superbia’ [so serious were their crimes and their overbearing pride], cited sv cornutus (6b) in Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources.

78  tee (MS com) restores the missing alliterating stress and the chiming contrast with ta [take]. The archaic tee [go] is common in alliterative poetry: see 87, 416, and cf. SJ 847, 1162, 1182, where the variants (turne, went) clearly illustrate its vulnerability to scribal substitution.

89–101   Expanded from Jonah 1:3: But Jonah rose up to flee unto Tarshish from the presence of the Lord, and went down to Joppa; and he found a ship going to Tarshish: so he paid the fare thereof, and went down into it, to go with them unto Tarshish from the presence of the Lord.

90  port Japh: on Japh (also called ‘Port Japh’ at SJ 296), see p. 200.

93–6  On this addition to the Vulgate, see pp. 202–3.

101–8  Independent of the Vulgate, but nautical scenes were a popular topos in narrative verse in general (e.g. Wace 11191–233) and the alliterative tradition in particular: see e.g. MA 736–55, 3652–71, which actually refers to the sailors themselves talking nautical shop (‘Of theire termys they talke’: 3654) and is similarly full of specialist termys. The Old Testament ship has been thoroughly medievalized to become a single-masted coge (152), the most common cargo vessel in northern Europe in the fourteenth century. On departure, the sailors first raise the crossayl [sail-yard – a pole which is slung from the mast and on which the sail is laced]. Before the sail is unfurled, the sail-yard is made fast with cables [ropes]; the sailors then weigh anchor at the wyndas [windlass – a drum with levers for raising weights]; the bawelyne [bowline – a rope attached to the edge of the sail and pulled tight to keep the sail steady when sailing close to the wind] is drawn tight on the sprete [bowsprit – the horizontal pole projecting forward on the bow]. Then the sailors tug at the guys or gyde-ropes to unfurl the sail, and the canvas drops. In order to gain the wind, they layden in on laddeborde [turned the ship to port], and the wind catches the belly of the sail. Anderson and A&W gloss layden in as ‘they put in (their oars)’ and assume that the sailors bring the ship round by rowing on the port side. That gloss is based on a single occurrence of the phrase in Havelok 719 (‘leyn in an ore’), but, as Smithers shows in his edition, this does not mean ‘they laid in oars’, but ‘they set course to starboard’ (on ore = to the side of the rudder, starboard). Ships were turned to the wind, not by rowing, but by pushing the rudder over and adjusting the sail. See Putter 2004 and, on the nautical details, Friel 1995: 93 and Hutchinson 1994: 15–64, 183–90.

104  spare bawelyne: we follow Anderson in taking spare to mean ‘spare, used for special cases’ (the bowline would only be used when sailing to windward). This sense of the adjective appears to have been a specifically nautical usage; cf. Falconer sv spare, ‘An epithet applied to any part of a ship’s … furniture that lies in reserve’, and Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors I.i.80–81, ‘A small spare mast, Such as sea-faring men provide for stormes’. In lieu of a bowline, a wooden pole was sometimes used (Friel 1995: 93–4) and spare bawelyne is glossed by Morris as ‘spar-bowline’.

109–28  These lines have no equivalent in the Vulgate, but appear to be indebted to the tradition of biblical verse paraphrases, in which denunciations of Jonah’s folly also occur. With 113–17 cf. e.g. Marbod (col. 1676): ‘O animum vatis mirandae simplicitatis! Si procul esse putat Dominum sibi, dum loca mutat Qui complet totum nihil huic valet esse remotum’ [O, what astonishing naivety for a prophet’s mind! As if he thought he could be out of God’s reach by change of location. But it is impossible to be remote from him who extends over everything]. Cf. also Metrical Paraphrase 13857–60: ‘This was a foull foly / when he so fondly dyd; / God ys ever all mighty: / from hym may noyght be hyd.’

111  planted: probably influenced by Psalm 93/94:9 (part of a passage quoted in full at 121–4): He that planted [plantavit] the ear, shall he not hear? The verb is retained in the Wycliffite Bible translation (‘He that plauntide the ere’), and it appears that the sense ‘form, create’ was taken over into English: cf. Trevisa (with reference to the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet) ‘kynde hath iplauntid [Latin composuit] thes parties for he schulde the lightloker fele coolde and hoote’ (Trevisa, Properties I, 118).

114  put him in plyght of peril: for the collocations, cf. ‘Wold have put him to the plit for perell of all’ (DT 8018).

116  Samarye: Samaria (a district in southern Israel) is the first of three geographical details which the poet has added to the Vulgate which show that he was aware that the historical Jonah was assumed to come from the northern Jewish kingdom of Israel, not the southern one of Judah (see pp. 199–201). Japh lay near the border between the two kingdoms.

118–20  David (whose history is recounted in the Books of Samuel) was often portrayed with a crown and a harp – emblematizing his status as the first kyng of all the Jewish tribes and the (supposed) poet of the Psalms of the Sauter – and is here imagined iconographically on dese (a phrase which could, as here, mean ‘on throne’). Since the Psalms formed the first textbook at school, as well as a major part of the daily liturgy, phrases from them would have been heard oft.

121–4  Understand, ye brutish [insipientes] among the people: and ye fools [stulti], when will ye be wise? He that planted [plantavit] the ear, shall he not hear? he that formed [finxit] the eye, shall he not see? (Psalm 93/94:8–9). The same verses are also quoted at C 581–6.

122  he: the interpretation ‘even the one who’ follows Burrow; most previous editors had emended to ye. The emendation of MS stape fole to stape in [advanced in] foly, and the interpretation of fole as the noun ‘folly’, follows Gollancz: the requirement of a line-ending dip rules out the noun fol [fool] or the adjective fol [foolish]. The expression stape [stepped] in, however, is otherwise recorded only in the phrase stap in age [advanced in years].

124  bigged preserves the register of finxit, for the Latin verb fingere, when applied to the plastic arts, had the sense ‘fashion, mould, model’.

125  that dotes for elde: there is no mention of Jonah’s age in the Bible or in commentaries on the Book of Jonah. In MS illuminations and medieval wall paintings, however, he is often represented as aged. See e.g. Randall 1966, figure 290.

131  that ilk craft He carf with His handes: on the presentation of God as a craftsman, cf. 123–4 and n. to 496; cf. also C 697–700. craft here has a sense similar to that which it bears when, in StE 346, flesh is referred to as ‘that … craft that covert the bones’ (i.e. a phenomenon or device that occurs in nature).

129–56  Expanded from Jonah 1:4: But the Lord sent out a great wind into the sea, and there was a mighty tempest in the sea, so that the ship was like to be broken. On the storm scene, see Jacobs 1972. It is a conventional topos in ME alliterative poetry (cf. DT 1983–2026) as well as in classical literature, where the locus classicus is Virgil’s Aeneid (I.82–107), a description which has many resemblances with the one in Patience. A number of other versifications of the Book of Jonah also include this rhetorical set piece (Rougé 1964), the Virgilian amplification of the storm in Marbod’s De Naufragio providing the closest comparison.

132–6  The personification of the winds here pertinently presents them as obedient servants (unlike Jonah). The tradition of personifying the winds goes back to classical literature: Juvenal includes the ‘old trope’ of ‘what the winds are up to’ among the stale themes regurgitated by second-rate poets (I.9).

139,  141 For the collocation of rud- with rak-, cf. G 1695 (‘In red rudede upon rak rises the sunne’), and for wynd- and wrastel-,cf. G 525 (‘Wroth wynd of the welkyn wrasteles with the sunne’).

143  breede: MS breed has been interpreted as past tense of ‘breed’ (Morris) or the noun ‘brood’ (Kluge). But, since the b-verse requires a long dip, it must represent a trisyllabic word (breëdë), and has therefore here been interpreted (with MED) as the participial adjective (= alarmed), from OE bregan [alarm, terrify], ME breën.

145–9  With 145 and 149, cf. SJ 63–4 (‘So the wedour and the wynd on the water metyn, That alle hurled on a hepe that the helm yemyd’). The Flood in Cleanness also, predictably, provides some parallels: with 145, cf. C 371 (‘For when the water of the welkyn with the worlde mette’), and with 146–7, cf. C 423, 491.

151–2  suppe behoved The coge of the colde water: cf. ‘Scho [a holed boat] suppit huge watir of the layk’ (Douglas, Aeneid VI.vi.64).

153  Yet corven thay the cordes: the sailors are cutting the ropes so as to relieve the ship of its anchor and sail, which has collapsed into the sea. This (like the jettisoning of the cargo: 157–60) was standard medieval emergency procedure, as the sea laws make clear: ‘It happens that the master of a ship cuts away his mast in very bad weather … and somewhile it happens that they cut their cables and let their anchors go to save ship and goods’ (Black Book of the Admiralty IV, 425–7).

156  the lif is … swete: proverbial (Whiting L246).

157–68  A re-ordering and expansion of Jonah 1:5: Then the mariners were afraid, and cried every man unto his god [deum suum] and cast forth the wares that were in the ship into the sea, to lighten it of them.

157–60  For similar jettisoning of valuables in order to lighten the ship in an emergency, cf. ‘And for wothe of the worse warpit over-burde Mikill riches & relikes reft fro the toune’ (DT 13.412–13). See also n. to 153.

157  bales (MS bale): i.e. canvas-covered packs trussed with cords, used for shipping spices and furs (Hutchinson 1994: 93–5). Anderson retains the MS reading, noting that bale is often encountered in the unchanged plural; however, in such cases it is always preceded by a numeral (after which uninflected plurals are normal: Mustanoja 1960: 58).

158  Bedding was commonly of straw; fetherbeddes were a luxury and owners would have them transported if they relocated (Woolgar 1999: 79).

163  wery forwroght: cf. ‘He was wery forwroght … Hade laburt so longe, hym list for to rest’ (DT 5860–61).

164–7  From Vulgate deum suum (see n. to 157–68) the poet develops a colourful catalogue of pagan gods: Vernagu, a Saracen giant in the Charlemagne tales; Diana, the woodland goddess of classical mythology; Neptune (MS Nepturne), the legendary god of the sea; Mahoun, the prophet Mohammed, treated by medieval Christians as a heathen deity; Mergot, a pagan god who figures in the Charlemagne romances; the mone and the sunne, worshipped as divinities in pagan antiquity. This serves to highlight the conversion of the sailors from evident paganism to Judaism (237–40), a conversion that matches that of the Ninevites in the second half of the poem (405–8).

169–82  An addition to the Vulgate, in which the lot-casting is not proposed until Jonah 1:7, after Jonah has been chanced upon and, for no given reason, brought up on deck. In the poem, the proposal occurs earlier and all on board are sought out to take part: this provides a reason for both seeking Jonah and forcing him up on deck and gives the story more narrative cohesion.

182–6  Based on the end of Jonah 1:5: But Jonah was gone down into the sides [ad interiora] of the ship; and he lay, and was fast asleep [dormiebat sopore gravi].

182  jowked (< OF joucquier [to roost]) is a term from falconry (where it is still used: Mitchell 1900: 19). As a colloquially disrespectful word for ‘sleep’, it occurs also at Troilus V.408–9: ‘non honour is to the To wepe and in thi bedde to jouken thus.’

185  hurrok occurs also at C 419 and in Capgrave, Chronicles 234 (‘o boy … fled to on of the Flemysch shippis, and hid him in the horrok’). Though it has been interpreted (following Sandahl 1951: 126) as ‘rudder-band’ (perhaps from ON hork [handle of a basket]), it is probably the same word as thurrock [bilge], described in Myroure of Oure Ladye as the ‘place in the bottome of a shyppe wherin ys gatheryd all the fylthe that cometh in to the schyppe … that place stynketh ryghte fowle and yt ys called in some contre of thys lond a thorrocke’ (quoted in Sandahl sv thurrock; cf. Ellis 1985: 26). The form hurrok is probably a re-analysis of thurrock as the hurrock: note the variant hurrok for thurrok in CT X.360–5, 710–15. The ‘bilge’ both accords with the portrait of an undignified prophet ‘slobbering in his sleep’ (186), and provides a parallel with Jonah’s later foul-smelling refuge inside the whale (273–80).

186  sloumbe is perhaps more likely to represent the adjective sloomy (= ‘torpid’; see OED sloomy, MED slummi, and cf. P3A 101: ‘I for slepeles was slome and slomerde a while’) than the noun slume < OE sluma, though the noun has been assumed by previous editors, who have interpreted sloumbe slepe (here and at 466) as a compound. But, apart from the uncertain form slym at DT 13821, there are no other attestations of the noun in ME. The Vulgate has an adjective + noun construction: sopore gravi. sloberande he routes: though slober is not otherwise recorded in this sense before the eighteenth century, bisloberen [drool] is well attested. Anderson mentions PP C.7.1 (‘Thenne cam Sleuthe al byslobered with two slimed yes’). Jonah is likewise depicted as snoring by early Christian poets (Carmen de Jona 54) and commentators: ‘Jona autem descendit in ventrem navis et dormiebat et stertebat’ [but Jonah descended into the bowels of the ship and slept and snored] (Jerome 191), and according to Philo it was his snoring that betrayed his presence to the ship’s captain (De Jonae Oratione 381). The detail derives ultimately from the Greek Septuagint (1:5).

187–204  So the shipmaster came to him, and said unto him, What meanest thou, O sleeper? arise, call upon thy God, if so be that God will think upon us, that we perish not. And they said every one to his fellow, Come, and let us cast lots, that we may know for whose cause this evil is upon us. So they cast lots, and the lot fell upon Jonah. Then they said unto him, Tell us, we pray thee, for whose cause this evil is upon us; What is thine occupation? and whence comest thou? what is thy country? and of what people art thou? (Jonah 1:6–8). The poet transfers some material from verse 6 to his rendering of verse 8; see also n. to 169–82 on his repositioning of the original idea for the lot-casting.

187  The freke him frunt with his fot: cf. ‘Nauta sed accessit, pulsum pede voce lacessit’ [but the sailor approached and roused him with his voice after kicking him with his foot] (Marbod, col. 1677).

188  Ragnel: the MS can be read either as Ragnel or Raguel, and both are possible. Ragnel is a devil’s name in ME mystery plays (including the Chester Plays), but the name probably originated as a corruption of Raguel, the angel of vengeance in the apocryphal Book of Enoch.

189  By the haspe-stede unhende (MS By þe haspede): Anderson defends the MS reading as a phonetic spelling for hasp-hede, but such a word is not attested in either spelling, and the verse is in any case metrically unsatisfactory. It is clear from 190 that Jonah is dragged up by the equivalent of his lapels: the sailor probably takes him by the front of his cloak, at the place where a clasp was often worn, but not by the clasp itself, which might not withstand the yank.

193–4  The confirmatory lot-castings (serelyche … aye) are not in the Vulgate; see p. 204. How lots were cast in biblical times is not known, but the poet is probably visualizing something like the ‘circulating urn’ imagined by Prudentius (Cathemerinon 7.112): i.e. a vessel filled with tokens (one of which is marked) that is passed round everyone on board.

197–8  What seches thou … to lose us uchone is interpreted as meaning ‘Why are you trying to destroy us all’ by Anderson and by A&W. But what meaning ‘why’, though it certainly occurs in ME, does not otherwise figure in the MS, and it seems preferable to assume that What has the same sense as in 196; so + adjective/adverb would normally, outside a be clause, be followed by a result clause (cf. 357), but with the infinitive here (following lastes so luther), cf. ‘He … hent hire so hetterly to have hire a-strangled’ (WP 150).

199  For governour applied to a deity, see e.g. ‘Lauerd and godd he sal be ur, And ever mar ur governur’ (Cursor 18365–6).

205–16  And he said unto them, I am an Hebrew; and I fear the Lord, the God of heaven, which hath made the sea and the dry land. Then were the men exceedingly afraid, and said unto him, Why hast thou done this? For the men knew that he fled from the presence of the Lord, because he had told [indicaverat] them. Then said they unto him, What shall we do unto thee, that the sea may be calm unto us? For the sea wrought, and was tempestuous. And he said unto them, Take me up, and cast me forth into the sea; so shall the sea be calm unto you: for I know that for my sake this great tempest is upon you (Jonah 1:9–12). The poet changes the sequence of events in order to rationalize the action: the sailors’ panic follows, not Jonah’s announcement of his nationality and creed, but a differently worded declaration by him that the tempest will not cease while he is on board, because he has fled from God; the resulting alarm then leads immediately into the desperate resort to the oars that corresponds to Jonah 1:13.

205  Israel: the historical Jonah was a native of the northern Jewish kingdom of Israel, as is indicated in other geographical references the poet has added to the Vulgate. See pp. 199–201.

208  at a word one: cf. O God … who madest all things by thy word (Wisdom 9:1). Line-final one must be the adverb ‘alone’ and not the adjective ‘one’, which is always spelled on and never appears at line ending (where an unstressed syllable is required).

213–14  The obscure line 213 is usually understood to mean ‘He showed them by signs/indications which they understood (that)’ – which puzzlingly implies that gestures or something other than plain words are required for communication by Jonah of the information that he has fled from his god. But the poet has plainly assumed (at 195–212) mutual intelligibility between the sailors and Jonah, despite their obviously different nationalities. ossed (apparently related to OE halsian [adjure; augur] and ME halsen [supplicate; interpret]) appears elsewhere only in WA 2391 and 2434, where it means ‘prophesied’ and refers to predictions which have just been made (by a god and a prophetess respectively). Since Jonah is a prophet who has also just made a prediction, it seems best to interpret the verb as here too referring back to this prediction. Unnyng otherwise occurs only in Ancrene Wisse 107, where ‘god unnunge’ (= wishing someone well) is straightforwardly related to the recorded senses of unnan [grant, concede, permit]. No such relationship is observable in the present unnynges, and the gloss ‘signs, indications’ is based simply on the Vulgate indicaverat which ossed … by unnynges corresponds to. We have here assumed that unnynges has a sense related to that which the verb has in ON (‘tell, relate’) and have treated 213b as a result clause and construed undernomen with That in the next line (cf. Cognoverunt … quod at Jonah 1:10). The sense of the two lines thus seems to be ‘He gave them predictions/warnings of this kind by confessions (about himself), with the result that they understood that he had fled … ’ The sailors’ terrified response (215), which has been shifted from its place in the Vulgate, certainly suggests that they connect the information of 213–14 with Jonah’s warning that the storm will not cease while he is on board (209–12).

216  ruyt: the verb, from ON, occurs only here in ME, and is an example of the lexical versatility which the poet brought to the demands of his alliterative metre.

217–24  Nevertheless the men rowed hard to bring it to the land; but they could not: for the sea wrought, and was tempestuous against them (Jonah 1:13).

217–18  The destruction of the sail has necessitated oars (carried by sail-powered cogs only for emergencies).

219  Hef and hale upon hyght: hale is sometimes emended to haled, since hef is elsewhere in the MS preterite. But variation between on and upon (+ noun) is generally metrically dictated: upon here would not be required (to provide the long dip between the alliterating stresses) with haled, which would be a disyllable under conservative pronunciation. We have therefore assumed Hef to be present tense, of which it is a perfectly possible form, and have retained MS hale; the switch to historic present (after the preterite verbs of 215–17) is perfectly consistent with practice elsewhere in these and in other alliterative poems. Anderson construes Hef and hale as infinitives parallel with to rowe in 218.

220  her note: the MS omits her, which leaves the a-verse without a long dip between its alliterative stresses; C 381, ‘Bot all was nedles her note’, indicates the probable original reading, and we have emended accordingly.

225–8  Wherefore they cried unto the Lord, and said, We beseech thee, O Lord, we beseech thee, let us not perish for this man’s life, and lay not upon us innocent blood: for thou, O Lord, hast done as it pleased thee (Jonah 1:14).

229–32  Expanded from Jonah 1:15: So they took up Jonah, and cast him forth into the sea: and the sea ceased from her raging.

230  luchen: the verb occurs only here. MED compares OF lochier [shake] and eslochier [dislodge].

233–40  Then the men feared the Lord exceedingly, and offered a sacrifice unto the Lord, and made vows (Jonah 1:16).

233  A similar line describing a storm-tossed ship (from which valuable cargo has also been jettisoned) occurs in DT : ‘And the takill to-torne, tynt of hor godes’ (13417).

235  the depe to serve: cf. ‘Shipmen seide … they moste serve the see. So hidousely tho the wynde gan blowe … ’ (Partonope 9192–4).

238–40  The lines stress conversion to and conformity with the Judaic faith and the first of the commandments given to Moyses (‘Thou shalt have no other gods before me’: Exodus 20:3). Since Moses and the Judaic faith were regarded (in accord with Hebrews 3:1–6) as the forerunners and prototypes of Christ and the Christian Church, the sailors are in effect becoming proto-Christians who now worship our mercyable Mayster (238). Cf. nn. to 358, 375, 406.

238  Mayster: the MS reads god, which yields an a-verse with a non-alliterating second stress; emendation to Mayster (the literal translation of the Vulgate Domino) is supported by the collocation in C 1113: ‘Yis, that Mayster is mercyable.’

241–304  Expanded from Jonah 1:17–2:1: Now the Lord had prepared a great fish to swallow up Jonah. And Jonah was in the belly of the fish three days and three nights. Then Jonah prayed unto the Lord his God out of the fish’s belly.

242  The point is key to the logic of the poem (cf. 6, 58, 113–14) and to the clear and consistent moral focus it gives to the Bible story.

245–6  The new section is marked in the MS by a decorated N (see n. to 61). The reminder of the point reached in the narrative reinforces the sense of a pause, and may indicate the provision of a midway break-point for a two-instalment reading in the event of oral delivery (usual at this period: cf. Troilus II.81–4, 94–105).

247  whal: the Vulgate piscis [fish] was early assumed to be a whale. Cf. cetus in Marbod (col. 1677) and Carmen de Jona (85) and whalle in Metrical Paraphrase (13894).

250  swepe: for the sense ‘sweep up, sweep away’, cf. ‘And I was swythe in a sweven sweped belyve’ (WW 46).

251  The folk yet haldande his fete: the detail is faithfully preserved in the MS illustration of the scene (f.82r), and may in fact itself have been prompted by visual representations which show Jonah still held by the ankles while his head has already disappeared inside the whale: see e.g. the illumination in the Lampeter Bible, Lampeter University Library, MS 1, f.325v (reproduced on the dust jacket of Putter 1996).

254  ridlande strondes: ridlande occurs only here and at C 953, where rain is described as ridlande thikke. The word appears to be from OF rider/rideler; it is used of e.g. blood (to mean ‘run down’) and also of grooves, ripples or wrinkles (see Godefroy, Dictionnaire). ‘Forming streaks or lines’ seems to be a key part of the sense. The rain is clearly coming down ‘in stair-rods’ in Cleanness, and the strondes [currents] in Patience are forming observable lines of motion.

259–60  The poet’s engagement with the story at the literal, as opposed to the allegorical, level prompts this acknowledgement that it would stretch credibility if met with outside Holy Writ, since, by the laws of nature (kynde), Jonah could not have survived so long inside the whale; cf. ‘Although he ought to have been corrupted and digested in the belly of the whale and diffused through the veins and joints of the fish, [Jonah] came out safe and whole’ (Haimo of Auxerre 23).

264  Although colde and care frequently collocate (Oakden 1935: 275; cf. Pe 50: ‘care ful colde’), this is the first recorded occurrence of the now familiar coupling of colde and comfort (see Whiting C387).

269  glaymande glette: the reading glaym ande glet (A&W) is ruled out by metre, which requires a long dip in the b-verse.

270  rode: the obvious sense of ‘road’ is not recorded for ME rode (< OE rad), whose senses were mainly related to rides on horseback and to sea voyages. Turville-Petre 2008, however, points out that place names (e.g. Old Rode in Cheshire) and charters plainly show an originally separate noun (from OE *rodu) with the required sense ‘road, path’; and rod/roid = ‘path’ is well attested in Scots.

271  hele over hed: Whiting (H323) records later medieval analogues of the expression (the precursor of our ‘head over heels’), but gives this as the first attestation.

272  Til he blunt in a blob: it is not clear from what verb blunt derives, nor whether the MS reads blob (which Vantuono reports ultraviolet to have indicated) or blok (the reading of all other editors). The letter in question is ill-formed, and not quite like the scribe’s normal b or k. Patience forms the single entry for blok in MED, which glosses it ‘an enclosed space’, and compares Dutch biloke. The document cited by MED sv blobbe concerns fish or whale fat (‘soine drible seine that is called blob’), and the apparently related blober can also refer to fish or whale grease and is glossed burbalium [entrails, intestines] in the Promptorium Parvulorum. We have assumed it here refers to what Jonah registers as a piece of intestinal blubber, which yields a line (‘Til he blunt in a blob as brod as a halle’) comparable with 270 (‘Relande in by a rop, a rode that him thoghte’): in both, a word referring to some part of a whale’s intestinal anatomy is given scale by a similitude with some man-made structure.

276  bylded his bour: for the expression ‘build a bower’ (Oakden 1935: 271), cf. ‘Constu bulden a burh inwith thin heorte?’ (Seinte Katerine 68).

278  navel: this is the only occasion on which the word is applied to a stomach, for which navel is here in effect a poeticism: using words metonymically, i.e. in broadened sense, was one of the skills of the alliterative practitioner; cf. n. to swowed (442) .

287  Haf now mercy of thy man: cf. ‘For þi have mercy on thi man, thi methe we beseke’ (said to Alexander: WA 3229); Jonah’s thy man similarly makes a claim on the protection of his lord in the act of acknowledging him (cf. 282).

288  a lord in londe and in water: i.e. a lord as much in water as on land. Lord in land was a set phrase (Oakden 1935: 330) and lord and land a standard collocation (see e.g. G 1113), but Jonah’s situation prompts him to remind God that He is lord of both: cf. ‘Fader of folde and flod’ (Pe 736).

294  Thre dayes and the night: some editors emend MS þe nyȝt to þre nyȝt. But cf. ‘Threo dayes with the niht nou he the schal driue’ (Joseph of Arimathie 355), where the expression conveys the sense ‘three full days’.

296  The poet is here applying, with gnomic pithiness, a piece of existing wisdom: cf. ‘For manye man and womman, whyl they ben in anguysch and tribulacion and in seknesse, they knowin here God and heldin hem with God; but whanne they comyn to welthe of the world and helthe of body … thanne they foryetin God … as longe as they han here wyl and here prosperyte …’ (Sermons from Longleat 88).

300  wamel at his herte: cf. ‘E cil qui trop laumbei [glossed wameleth] au quer [at heart, i.e. in his insides]: Sovent li estuet escouper [vomit]’ (Walter de Bibbesworth 1097–8).

305–36  to thee have I cleped: the poem has inserted material (281–8) to which this statement can refer back, but in fact the Vulgate Jonah has made no such prayer, his words at 305 being a semi-quotation of Psalm 129/130:1, De profundis clamavi. For Jonah 2:3–10 (on which 305–36 are based) are apparently a later interpolation into the Book of Jonah of psalmic material to which Jonah in his present plight can give a specific force; the most obvious parallels with precise psalmic verses are cited in the notes below.

305–8  And said, I cried [Clamavi] by reason of mine affliction unto the Lord, and he heard me; out of the belly of hell cried I, and thou heardest my voice (Jonah 2:2/3). The Book of Jonah here echoes Psalm 129/130:1, Out of the depths have I cried [clamavi] unto thee, O Lord, and Psalm 31:22, thou heardest the voice of my supplications when I cried unto thee.

309–12  For thou hadst cast me into the deep, in the midst of the seas; and the floods compassed me about: all thy billows and thy waves passed over me (Jonah 2:3). Cf. Psalm 42:7, the noise of thy waterspouts: all thy waves and thy billows are gone over me, and Psalm 69:1–2, 15.

310  gotes of thy guferes: cf. ‘gotes of golf’ (Pe 608). gufer- is not a form that otherwise occurs in ME, though it is well attested in OF (see AND sv goufre ‘abyss’).

313–16  Then I said, I am cast out of thy sight; yet I will look again toward thy holy temple (Jonah 2:4). Cf. Psalm 31:22, For I said in my haste, I am cut off from before thine eyes.

316  Cf. C 9 (‘Thay teen unto His temple and temen to Himselven’) and see n. to Pe 460.

317–24  The waters compassed me about, even to the soul: the depth [abyssus] closed me round about, the weeds were wrapped about my head. I went down to the bottoms of the mountains; the earth with her bars was about me for ever: yet hast thou brought up my life from corruption, O Lord my God (Jonah 2:5–6/6–7); cf. Psalm 69:1, Save me, O God; for the waters are come in unto my soul, and Psalm 86:13, thou hast delivered my soul from the lowest hell.

317  wrapped in water to my wo-stoundes: for wrap = ‘immerse’, see MED wrappen 4(b). The compound with wo + noun draws on a practice common in OE verse (e.g. wea-tacen [sign of woe], wea-spell [tidings of woe]), and seen also in early ME in Layamon’s wa-daei (4364). Cf. n. to wyl-dremes (473).

319  The pure poplande hourle: cf. WA 1277 (‘the pure populande hurle passit it umby’), which also contains the only other occurrence of the noun hourle in the sense of ‘surge of water’ (but cf. C 376, 413). The verb popel [bubble] is likewise used by Douglas of the ‘Popland and bulrand’ river Acheron (Aeneid VI.v.5) and of sludge that ‘up popyllit’ out of the sea (IX.xi.112).

320, 323  man, renk: as the distinction between God as lord and master and Jonah as man is carefully and consistently observed in the modes of address and reference in the poem (see pp. 198–9), these nouns must be appositional with I and me, not vocatives to God, as A&W and Anderson assume. Though God may be referred to in periphrasis as ‘The Wye that … ’, as at 111, He would not be addressed as ‘man’.

323–4  The antithesis between right [justice] and mercy was a commonplace (cf. Pe 669–72) and is the subject of the debate poem Mercy and Right.

325–8  When my soul fainted within me I remembered the Lord: and my prayer came in unto thee, into thine holy temple (Jonah 2:7).

329–32  They that observe lying vanities forsake their own mercy (Jonah 2:8).

329  The verb here is me(d)len [meddle, engage or concern oneself with], not melen [speak], and the collocation with maystres is discussed by Burrow 1989. maystres in this context is influenced by mysteries, and indicates ‘advanced theological speculations’. In Peter Idley’s Instructions to his Son, ‘Medle not of his maysterie [var. mysteries]; take the to thy crede’ (I.840), the contrast is plainly between (unhelpful) abstruse theological speculation and (safe) simple faith, and a similar contrast figures in ‘This World Fares as a Fantasy’: ‘Of Material Mortualite [the material world of mortal beings] Medle we and of no more Maistrie. The more we trace the Trinite, The more we falle in fantasye’ (93–6). Jonah, by profession a prophet, has engaged with the theological maystres which are considered in the above-cited texts to be of such dubious benefit to the layman (I have meled with thy maystres mony longe daye), but the collocation retains its negative implications, and its contrast with the simpler and safer knowledge that is introduced at 330 by Bot now I wot wyterly. Although scholars have tried to see in 329 some penitent allusion by Jonah to his earlier rebellious resistance to God’s commands, Jonah is here speaking rather as the regretful prophet (confessing that his professional career has not brought him any deeper wisdom than is available to all), and 329–32 may be paraphrased thus: ‘As a prophet, I have long concerned myself with your more recondite truths, but I now know for sure just this, that one’s business is to save one’s soul through your mercy, and that all else is vanity.’

331  Alliteration of v with f occurs in this MS (e.g. G 1375, 1391) and in other alliterative poems when French-derived words are involved (Schumacher 1914: 62–8); this phenomenon probably reflects confusion between v and f in AN.

333–6  Based on Jonah 2:9 (itself based on Psalm 116:17–18): But I will sacrifice unto thee with the voice of thanksgiving; I will pay that that I have vowed. Salvation is of the Lord. The Vulgate Jonah offers, like the Psalmist, a metaphorical sacrifice, for the Judaic religion itself had come to deprecate literal in favour of figurative sacrifice (see e.g. Proverbs 21:3). The sacrifice in the poem is literal: the poet is at this point thus more Judaic than his source – especially since his ful hole gifte (335) continues the sacrificial logic and alludes to the need for the sacrifice to be ‘whole’ and ‘without blemish’ according to the elaborate rules governing it (see e.g. Leviticus 3:1–9). The poet similarly responds unembarrassedly to the sensuous exoticism of the sacrificial ritual in the old dispensation in Cleanness (505–12, 1445–8, 1497–8).

333  I devoutly avow: cf. ‘And I sall make myn avowe devotly to Criste’ (MA 296).

337–44  And the Lord spake unto the fish, and it vomited out Jonah upon the dry land [in aridam] (Jonah 2:10/11).

338  spare drye: for spare applied to terrain and meaning ‘clear, bare, without much vegetation’, cf. ‘And sped hym spedely on the spare mure’ (Gologras 112).

341  swepe [swept] to the sonde in sluchchede clothes: cf. ‘In the slober and the slicche, slongyn to londe’ (DT 12529). The verb sweep (strong in OE) usually has weak past tense in ME, but cf. MA 2508.

342  The line is discussed on pp. 203–4.

343–4  The bonk that … bode him biside Were: bonk is here a collective singular with plural sense (‘shores, slopes’). The plural verb Were (MS wern) is taken by some editors to indicate that bode must be a noun (‘habitation’), but singular bode = ‘abode’ would be odd without preceding article, whereas past of bide = ‘be situated’ would be idiomatic (cf. Pe 75), and bonk takes a plural verb (MS wern) at C 379.

345–50  And the word of the Lord came unto Jonah the second time, saying, Arise, go unto Nineveh, that great city, and preach unto it the preaching that I bid thee (Jonah 3:1–2).

345  wynd: see n. to swey (429). bruxles is an ON-derived word that occurs only in northern texts (Kaiser 1937: 188) – the verb (= reproach) here and at WA 4789, the nouns brixel and brixling [humiliation] only in Cursor 10319, 28196.

346–7  The multiple negatives in God’s question prompt Jonah’s responsive Yis, which (by contrast with yea) was used in answer to questions involving a negative.

348  me gaynes non other: for the sense (‘there is no other course of action open to me’), cf. WA 181 (‘gefe thaim up the girdill [submit to them], us gaynes noght ellis’) and MA 4303.

350  Lause: cf. C 668; G 1212, 1766, 2124; StE 178 (‘he loused such wordes’).

351–64  So Jonah arose, and went unto Nineveh, according to the word of the Lord. Now Nineveh was an exceeding great city of three days’ journey. And Jonah began to enter into the city a day’s journey, and he cried, and said, Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown (Jonah 3:3–4).

355  ful joynt: cf. ‘This cite was sothely, to serche it aboute, Thre iorneys full iointly to ioyne hom by dayes’ (DT 1537–8). Joint when combined with full in these two cases perhaps gives the sense ‘continuously, without stopping’: the city perimeter was three days’ travel in Destruction of Troy even without pauses, and Jonah had traversed a third of the city (one day’s worth of its three-day-journey diameter) before he paused (cf. 356) to prophecy their doom to the Ninevites (i.e. by contrast with his earlier fears for his own safety, he now cuts off a quick escape route to maximize his audience).

358  Though teme could be used in a more general sense (cf. Pe 944, G 1541), it occurred especially frequently as a homiletic term (designating the text which provided the theme for a sermon: see e.g. CT VI.333–4), and here implies a parallel between the Old Testament prophet and the preacher of the Christian dispensation (which the Judaic religion of the Old Testament was thought to forerun and foreshadow). Cf. nn. to 238–40, 375, 406.

362  dumpe depe to the abyme: the verb is well attested, but DT 10713 (‘Bot I degh of thi dynt, and dump into helle’) and 13289 (‘Thai dump in the depe and to dethe passe’) are particularly close.

365–76  Expanded from Jonah 3:5: So the people of Nineveh believed God, and proclaimed a fast, and put on sackcloth, from the greatest of them even to the least of them.

365  This speche sprang: cf. ‘speches … that sprang of her mouthe’ (G 1778).

366  borges and … bacheleres: a set collocation (Oakden 1935: 270), which distinguished merchants and artisans (borges) from noblemen (bacheleres). (Knights bachelor were strictly knights following the banner of another knight, as distinct from bannerets, who carried their own, but the term was loosely used of knights in general.)

368  all chaunged her chere: i.e. they showed emotion. Though used with different force in Sir Gawain (711; cf. 2169), the expression was normally used to indicate a show of emotion (usually grief or dismay). Cf. ‘[S]o his chere chawngide That the chillande watire on his chekes rynnyde’ (Gawain grieving for the death of a squire at MA 2964–5).

370  For voyde, with reference to cities, meaning ‘demolish’, cf. C 1013.

372  dared: MS doured is assumed in MED to be from an otherwise unattested verb (perhaps associated with Latin durus) meaning ‘grieve, suffer’. A form of the verb duren (though that elsewhere in the MS is spelled dur-) is a possibility, since intransitive usages with the sense ‘suffer, be afflicted’ do occur sv enduren 3(d) in MED. But it seems easiest to assume an error for dared [cowered], which gives good sense and occurs in collocation with for drede (of) both at G 315 (‘all dares for drede’) and 2258 and elsewhere (e.g. ‘For drede of dethe thei droupe & dare’: Laud Troy Book 7286).

375  Dropped dust on her hede: the detail (not found in the Bible) aligns the Ninevite actions with recorded Christian penitential practice (cf. nn. to 238–40, 358, 406); cf. the public penance (for having sacrificed to idols) described in Higden, Polychronicon 5.107: ‘He … threwe powder and dust [Latin cinere] on his owne heed.’

377–84  Expanded from Jonah 3:6: For word came unto the king of Nineveh, and he arose from his throne, and he laid his robe from him, and covered him with sackcloth, and sat in ashes.

385–94  And he caused it to be proclaimed and published through Nineveh by the decree of the king and his nobles, saying, Let neither man nor beast, herd nor flock, taste any thing: let them not feed, nor drink water (Jonah 3:7).

391  Not in the Bible, but cf. Marbod (col. 1678): ‘Et cibus et potus sit ab omni carne remotus. Dum genetrix luget, nullus puer ubera suget’ [and let all fleshly creatures keep away from food or drink, and while their mothers mourn, let no children suck their breasts].

392  best bite on no brom: for the collocation with reference to grazing, cf. Chaucer, House of Fame 1226 (‘herde-gromes That kepen bestis in the bromes’) and Richard the Redeless 3.19.

395–404  But let man and beast be covered with sackcloth, and cry mightily unto God: yea, let them turn every one from his evil way [convertatur vir a via sua mala], and from the violence that is in their hands. Who can tell if God will turn and repent [si convertatur et ignoscat Deus], and turn away from his fierce anger [et revertatur a furore irae suae], that we perish not? (Jonah 3:8–9).

395  forclemmed occurs only here. It is perhaps to be associated with OE clemman [close tight], which the OE noun clemnes [torment] suggests could be used in an extended sense. The for- prefix is an intensifying one.

397  What [who]: cf. Who [Quis] can tell if God will turn and repent (Jonah 3:9). What = ‘who’ is common in predicative use (e.g. ‘telle what he is’), though rare as the subject of the sentence (which may be an extension of the predicative use: see Mustanoja 1960: 182); but cf. ‘What iherden avere suggen’ [who ever heard say] (Layamon 3321), for which the notoriously normalizing Otho MS reads ‘Wo ihorde evere segge’.

401–3  stille steppen in the stye (402) is a more developed version of the metaphor implicit in via … mala [evil way] (Jonah 3:8), by which it was probably suggested; and the correspondence between man’s and God’s change suggested by the parallel between if we leven … And stille steppen in the stye (401–2) and He wil wende … and His wrathe leve (403) matches that between convertatur vir a via sua mala and convertatur … Deus, et revertatur a furore in the Vulgate (see n. to 395–404).

405–8  And God saw their works, that they turned from their evil way; and God repented of the evil [malitiam], that he had said that he would do unto them; and he did it not (Jonah 3:10).

406  Parformed all the penaunce: cf. PP B.5.598 (‘I parfourned the penaunce that the preest me enjoyned’) and 13.412 (‘Ac penaunce that the preest enjoyneth parfourneth yvele’). The language again integrates the events of the pagan and Judaic past into the Christian (and confessional) culture of the poet and his audience. Cf. nn. to 238–40, 358, 375.

409–28  But it displeased Jonah exceedingly, and he was very angry. And he prayed unto the Lord, and said, I pray thee, O Lord, was not this my saying, when I was yet in my country? Therefore I fled before unto Tarshish: for I knew that thou art a gracious God, and merciful, slow to anger, and of great kindness, and repentest thee of the evil. Therefore now, O Lord, take, I beseech thee, my life from me; for it is better for me to die than to live (Jonah 4:1–3).

409  The new section is announced by a decorated capital, as at 61, 245, 305.

410  wroth as the wynd: the simile is conventional and especially common in alliterative works (cf. G 319).

411  onhit him in his herte, he calles: the MS reading onhit his hert ye callez (with what looks like an h written over y) leaves a b-verse with no double dip and an odd use of the verb anhitten. The emendation restores metre and brings the phrasing into line with the other two recorded uses of the verb (with personal object and adverbial phrase): ‘With swerde ihc thee anhitte’ (Horn 716), ‘King arthure agen the brest is felawe … ahitte [var. an hytte]’ (Robert of Gloucester 3825).

417–24  In the Vulgate, Jonah’s account of his reasons for disobeying God could well be true, since his thoughts at that point were not reported. But the reader of the poem has already been told that Jonah fled for fear (73–96), and not because of such foresight of the outcome as he here credits himself with. This later sophistical reinterpretation of his own earlier motives is a nice piece of psychology. The Jonah of the poem, moreover, had been happy to request for himself (323–4) the very mercy whose extension to others he here (420) resents.

417–20  The attributes here rehearsed are, of course, usually matter for praise and celebration, rather than complaint, and, in the Vulgate and in the poem, there are echoes of eulogies of God’s forgiving nature in the Psalms (e.g. The Lord is gracious, and full of compassion; slow to anger, and of great mercy: Psalm 145:8).

423  a prayer and a pine: in this context, the nouns (especially the latter) would not normally be treated as count nouns and would have no article (contrast e.g. Pe 663). The effect of the indefinite article here is belittling and dismissive (‘a mere prayer and a token bit of penance’). Cf. n. to Pe 346.

426  bale-stour: deth stoure and hard stoure similarly figure elsewhere with reference to the throes of death: see MED stour(e n^2 2(b). bale is frequently compounded in ME and OE alliterative verse: cf. bale-hunger (C 1243), bale-deeth (PP B.18.35), bale-fyre (WA 562, 2783).

429–32  Then said the Lord, Doest thou well to be angry? (Jonah 4:4).

429  swey is the most interesting of the ways in which the poet has chosen to suggest the ‘sound’ of God’s voice in Jonah’s ear. It was first a whisper (rouned: 64), and later ‘a wynd of Godes word’ (345). Swey indicates a slightly louder sound of the same quality as a whisper or a wind: the verb is used of the whooshing sound of the sea at 140, and is elsewhere used of a sigh, the noun swough similarly indicating a sigh or the rushing sound of water or wind (see MED sv swouen v and swough n^1). The imagined sound is in each case an addition to the Vulgate. Only when He speaks for the last time (489ff) is God’s voice introduced without any indication that the sound in any way differs from that of normal speech.

433–42  Expanded from Jonah 4:5: So Jonah went out of the city, and sat on the east side of the city, and there made him a booth [umbraculum], and sat under it in the shadow, till he might see what would become of the city.

439  playn … fro plyande greves: cf. ‘downes that ben playn, withoute schadewynge of trees’ (Vegetius 107; cf. William 2217). fro is an emendation of MS for, ‘from’ being the appropriate preposition when plain means ‘bare (of), free (from)’: cf. ‘The se is calme and fro rokkis pleyn’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 4.2162). The scribe has made the same error at G 1863 and at C 740.

441  bothe: Latin umbraculum (translated in the Wycliffite Bible with characteristic literalness as ‘schadewyng place’) is rendered booth both here and in the AV. Though booth was most commonly used of a stall, hut or tent, it could also cover a shelter constructed of boughs and leaves, and figures in a military context as a humbler equivalent of a tent or pavilion: cf. ‘that they duelle nought in somertyme in the hete of the day out of tentes and pavylouns or bothes ymade of bowys’ (Vegetius 107). lefsel (448) and loge (457, 461) figure with similar sense in similar contexts in DT 1166, 6025.

442  swowed and slept: to swoon was not the same as to fall even into a deep sleep (the distinction between the two being apparent in e.g. ‘Half sleping and half suoun’: James I, Kingis Quair 510). But semantic shift to less specific sense is a feature of alliterative poetry, and the poeticism is apt in context (Jonah has had a very hot and bothered day). Cf. n. to navel (278).

443–64  Expanded from Jonah 4:6: And the Lord God prepared a gourd [hederam], and made it to come up over Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head, to deliver him from his grief. So Jonah was exceeding glad of the gourd.

444  The climbing plant which the Vulgate designates by the word hedera [ivy] – rendered yvy and eder in the Wycliffite Bible – is referred to in the poem as a (wod)bynde. That this term was applied to many climbers, including some kinds of ivy, is clear from the variation between ‘berys of wodbind’ and ‘ivy beryes’ (for French ‘les bayes de edre qe nous appellons yvy’) in Mandeville, Buke 83.

445–60  The poet’s elaboration of the charm of the wodbynde (446), and of Jonah’s delight in it, prompts some further vivid and expressive hapax legomena (cf. nn. to 216, 230, 254, 272, 395): the verb lyllede (447), presumably related to Dutch lillen [tremble, quiver]; loltrande (458), from an unattested verb whose meaning can only be guessed from context; the participial adjective boghted (449), which may be related to the noun boght (used of a loop in yarn or a curve in the body; cf. also boughtnes [bends, folds]), itself related to bight (used of a bay; an armpit; or the fork of the legs, as at G 1341) and ultimately to OE byht [bend, corner, angle]; and the adverb wythe (454), which appears to be the only recorded survival of OE wethe [sweet, mild], and which the OE verb wethan [assuage, make calm] suggests would have in the present context the apt sense of ‘soothing’.

448  lefsel elsewhere designates an artfully improvised overarching shelter of boughs. Cf. ‘Umbe the sercle of the citie was sothely a playne, Full of floures … With lefsales uppon lofte, lustie and faire, Folke to refresshe for faintyng of hete’ (DT 335–8). Here, as in Patience, the shelter is precisely from heat, and the gloss umbraculum provided for the word in Promptorium Parvulorum (300) also suggests that it was primarily associated with shade. See also nn. on bothe (441) and loge (457).

451  nos plainly refers to an opening of some kind and is usually assumed to represent ‘nose’ (spelled nase at its one other occurrence in the MS: G 962). The noun does not elsewhere occur with reference to ‘a projecting doorway’, a sense for which Patience provides the only entry in MED sv nose n^1 3(b). The only other plausible explanation is that A nos represents an us (from AN (un) us [doorway]).

455–6  no schaft … The mountaunce of a little mote: for mountaunce followed by a noun that expresses a small portion of another stated noun, cf. ‘Kan nought the montance of a knotte unbynde, Aboute his herte, of al Criseydes net’ (Troilus 3.1732), ‘… this confiture Nat but the montaunce of a corn of whete’ (CT VI.863).

457–61  On the expansion of Jonah’s intemperate delight and its relation to the theme of patience, which entailed moderation ‘in pain and in joy’ (525), see pp. 204–5 and n. to 525.

457, 461  loge (like lefsel) was often used of temporary shelters which were made precisely of boughs and leaves. In Destruction of Troy, outside accommodation consists of pavilions for the important and ‘Logges to las [lesser] men with levys of wod’ (6026); and Master of Game recommends construction of hunting stations of ‘faire logges of grene bowes’ to protect the king, queen and dogs ‘fro the sonne, and fro evil weder’ (108). As with lefsel (448), the use of the term in the context of courtly pursuits and personae suggests a word with more courtly associations than the bothe of 441. See nn. to 441 and 448.

460  the devel half: MS haf has previously been read as the verb ‘have’ and the expression interpreted as a form of the imprecation ‘the devel have/take it’ (cf. G 1944). But that locution does not occur without expressed object or in such pronounced interruption of syntax as it would here entail. MED is probably right to take haf as a form of ‘half’ and to compare the expression ‘the devil a bit’ (see MED half n 7a(c)) – though it interprets half as ‘behalf’, whereas analogy with such expressions as devil a bit would suggest half = ‘part’, since the expression obviously means ‘not a bit, not at all’.

463  Effraym … Ermonnes hilles are the last of the geographical references which the poet has added to the Book of Jonah and which associate Jonah with the northern Jewish kingdom of Israel (see pp. 199–201); both occur elsewhere in the Old Testament (e.g. Psalm 89:12, 2 Kings 14:13). The mountain sides evidently represent ideally cool locations back in the home territory to which Jonah would like to transport the loge (461).

465–8  But God prepared a worm when the morning rose the next day, and it smote the gourd that it withered (Jonah 4:7).

466  slydes on a sloumbe slepe, sloghe: the expression slide (up)on slepe occurs also at 200 and at Pe 59 (Sir Gawain reusing the collocation with different signification at 1209), as well as elsewhere (see e.g. Avowing 271, DT 6). The verb may be varied to slip and/or the noun to slumber(ing) (see Pa 186, G 1182). For the collocation of slow with sleep, cf. ‘[I shall never] slomyre ne slepe with my slawe eghne’ (MA 4044). On sloumbe see n. to 186.

469–88  And it came to pass, when the sun did arise, that God prepared a vehement east wind [vento calido, et urenti] and the sun beat upon the head of Jonah, that he fainted [et aestuabat], and wished in himself to die, and said, It is better for me to die than to live (Jonah 4:8). Note that ‘east (wind)’ and ‘fainted’ in the AV are details that do not occur in the Vulgate text known to the poet.

469–70  For the collocation softe, Zeferus, syfle, cf. G 516–17. The mildness suggested by softe seems inappropriate in this context, but the word was so consistently used to characterize the west wind as to amount to a semi-meteorological term (see e.g. the illustrations sv Zephirus (a) in MED). For the personifying use of the classical gods of the winds, cf. 132–6 and n.

472  brenne as a candel seems a weak comparison to use of glaring heat, but it was in fact proverbial (see Whiting C19–21) and is used to characterize incendiary fire at Arthour and Merlin 3203–4 (‘wild fer That brent bright so candel cler’).

473  For wyl used in OE and early ME in combination with following nouns (e.g. wilday [happy day], wilspel [good news]), see MED wille n 10(a) and (b). The poet seems to be reviving and extending an earlier practice; cf. n. to wo-stoundes (317).

478  swythes: for swythe [burn, scorch] used of the parching and scorching effect of a wind, cf. ‘Unkyndenes … is a swithinge [Latin urens] wynde that drieth the welle of pyte’ (cited from Milicia Christi in MED sv swithen v (c)).

481  anger … hot heterly: Vulgate aestuabat [he grew hot] refers to the literal heat Jonah experiences, but the poet correlates that outer heat, which heterly brenned (477), with an inner heat of anger (cf. line 3) that causes Jonah to cry out heterly and which preserves the moral focus that presents the story as an example of ‘impatience’ (cf. n. to 497).

484  With all meschef … never thou me spares: for spare with = ‘spare from’, cf. ‘With sporrs scho sparid noght her palfray’ (Ywain 2892). Alliteration in the b-verse falls unusually but appropriately on the personal pronoun me: Jonah accuses God of targeting him personally, forbi all other [above all others] (483).

489–94  And God said to Jonah, Doest thou well to be angry for the gourd? And he said, I do well to be angry, even unto death [Et dixit Dominus ad Jonam: Putasne bene irasceris tu super hedera? Et dixit: Bene irascor ego usque ad mortem] (Jonah 4:9).

489  laused [uttered]: cf. 350 and n.

493  Jonah’s reference to righte [justice] provides a responsive echo to God’s question (‘Is this ryghtwys … ’: 490) that is slightly less immediate and direct than occurs at Jonah 4:9: ‘Putasne bene irasceris [Doest thou well to be angry] … ?’, ‘Bene irascor ego [I do well to be angry] … ’

495–527  Expanded from Jonah 4:10–11: Then said the Lord, Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for the which thou hast not laboured, neither madest it grow; which came up in a night, and perished in a night: And should not I spare Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand; and also much cattle?

496, 501  my hand-werk, the werk: the notion of man as God’s ‘handwork’ was common: cf. ‘for mann iss Godess hande-werrc’ (Ormulum 5054). werk was likewise often used of things created by Him (cf. C 198). The concept of God as a creating craftsman is one that recurs in the poem (cf. 123–4, 131, 482) and it here plays a dominant role in the motives for mercy attributed to Him.

497  Thou art waxen so wroth: this adaptation to the biblical wording (‘you grieve for the hedera’) preserves the moral focus of the poem on that ‘impatience’ which the biblical story has been pressed into service to illustrate.

503  of materes myn one: the materes of which all earthly things consist are the four elements (water, fire, earth, air), the constituent parts of the ‘primal matter’, i.e. ‘that matiere universal, which hihte Ylem’, which God ‘hadde under his ordinaunce’ prior to the creation (CA 7.210–16) and of which the earth and earthly things were created: cf. ‘The mater first therof he mad, That es the elementes to sai That first scapless [shapeless] al samen lay’ (Cursor 348–50).

505  travayl … tyne [waste one’s labour]: a common idiom in alliterative verse; cf. ‘All my travayle es tynt’ (MA 3566; cf. DT 9775 and William 299, 358).

506–8  turned … mournes: the words similarly co-occur with reference to conversion to the true faith and repentance for sin in Cursor 19013–14: ‘Thir wordes herd, thair hert gan turn, And als for thair misdedes morun.’

507  Cf. ‘Soche a sorowe of that sight sanke to his hert’ (DT 5868); the idiom expresses an emotional impression that reaches to the innermost ‘quick’: cf. C 689.

509–10  Babes at the breast would not seem to form a plausible subset of the group sottes formadde [crazed fools]. Gollancz’s theory that 513–15 were originally intended to follow on 509 would account for this, since it would mean that the sottes formadde were initially conceived of as a group distinct from the little barnes. In the Bible (see n. to 495–527) God says that the whole of Nineveh does not know the right hand from the left; in the poem, God thinks more specifically of the collateral damage, in the event of destruction, to beings who could not share in the town’s culpability because they were not intellectually capable of moral choice: crazed idiots (509 and/or 513–15), infants (510), female simpletons (511–12) and dumb beasts (516–17). Not knowing the right hand from the left (511–12, 514–15) thus becomes the typifying attribute of such incapability, the poet experimenting with different translations of the key idea and carefully enumerating the different groups it would embrace.

513–15  These three lines do not conform to the quatrain units observable elsewhere in the poem, the masculine pronouns of 515 do not correspond with the wymmen unwytte of 511, and 514–15 virtually repeat 511–12. Gollancz plausibly suggests that the lines were initially intended to follow on from line 509, and were perhaps later meant to be cancelled; this would account not only for the anomalies in them, but also for the awkward connection between 509 and 510 (see previous n.), which could be the result of the removal of originally intervening matter.

520  here (MS heere) is interpreted by Anderson as the noun herre [lord, master] used as a form of address (‘sir’), but this would be inconsistent with the distinction between God as lord or master and Jonah as man, a distinction that is elsewhere carefully and consistently observed in the vocatives used in the poem (see pp. 198–9).

524–7  Since inverted commas do not figure in medieval scripts, the end of God’s speech is not orthographically marked in the MS, and some editors close the inverted commas at 523 and treat 524–7 as part of the poet’s own closing address. But Burrow and Turville-Petre’s claim that goodman is a preacher’s form of address (and therefore more applicable to the narrator than to God) is true of the word only when it is used in the plural, for it never so figures in the singular: see MED godman 1(b). And, though arguments can be raised against the ascription to either voice, those against assigning these four lines to the narrator are more powerful. The poet has too much tact ever to give patronizing moral advice to his readers, always applying his moral wisdom instead to his representative self, rather than to the reader (see 8, 35–6, 46–56, 528–9). So when, in the next quatrain (528–31), he draws a conclusion from the advice given in 524–7, he speaks as the recipient of it, not the giver (Forthy when poverte me enpresses … saghttel me behoves: 528–9). He is, of course, also the giver of it, since God is his mouthpiece for the wisdom he wishes to enunciate, and the truth is probably that the lines form a transition from the superior perspective from which God can talk down to Jonah to the different position of the narrator, who always treats himself as a human needing to heed rather than give admonitions to patience. Medieval conventions were friendlier to such layered or transitional voices than the requirements of modern punctuation and traditional literary theory (both of which insist on specific ‘characters’) permit us to be.

524  Be noght so gryndel, goodman: God’s words to Jonah are curiously reminiscent of Bertilak’s to Gawain: ‘Bolde burn, on this bent be not so gryndel’ (G 2338). These are the only two attestations of the adjective gryndel in ME, the cognates gryndellayk and gryndelly being likewise unique to this MS (G 312, 2299). The word means ‘fierce’ and would seem to be related to Grendel, the ferocious and bloodthirsty monster in Beowulf.

525  The idea that patience is relevant both in payne and in joye is central to the structure of the poem (see pp. 204–5). Cf. ‘Patientia est quae in prosperis non elevatur, nec in adversis frangitur’ [patience is not being elevated in prosperity nor broken in adversity] (Fasciculus Morum, cited in Hanna 1978: 69). The coupling of these intemperate responses (to good or bad fortune) occurs also as lay wisdom in secular contexts: cf. ‘Li vileins dit, L’un ne deit dolor sordoleir, Ne sa grant joie surjoir … Kar li grant dols sovent abesse E la grant joie enpire e cesse’ [the countryman says: one should not be overtroubled by trouble, nor be overjoyed in joy, for great grief often lessens, and great joy can decline or cease] (Protheselaus 7699–704); ‘He is a fool who grieves too much at misfortune [die te sere ontsiet Een ongheval] and who becomes over a gain [ghewin] too happy [blide]’ (Walewein 6390–92). MS preue would appear to represent the adjective prou/preu (as at G 262) – and/or the similar adjective previ [proven, trusty] – rather than privy (for which preue occurs as a spelling at G 902). Prou and previ were applied mainly to knights who were ‘staunch, hardy, abiding’. The strong association between patience and fortitude (see Hanna 1978: 68), for which the term pruesce is actually used in Speculum Vitae (1539, 5266), explains the collocation of preu/previ and patient.

526–7  The homely logic suggests proverbial wisdom. Bateson quotes an old saying, ‘Many rendings make many mendings.’ The antonyms certainly have a venerable history, occurring in a gnomic context as early as Ecclesiastes 3:7: tempus scindendi et tempus consuendi [(there is …) a time to rend, and a time to sew].

528–31  The residual personification, the vocabulary, and the reasoning of 528–9 recall the prologue (especially 43–4); the increased penaunce and payne that result from a refusal to suffer (and so prove the need for patience) recall lines 5–6, and the sense of the poem coming full circle is confirmed in the restatement of the opening line in the closing one. The addition of the adjective noble makes for a last line which, as in Pearl, contains a small but significant difference from the opening one.

529  softly in its sense of ‘meekly, humbly, patiently’ frequently collocates with suffer-: cf. ‘convenient Is to the wyse, softly, with suffraunce, In al his port to have tolleraunce’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 2.7012–14).

NOTES TO SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT

1–7  The poet is here rehearsing what would have been classed as orthodox ‘history’: cf. ‘And aftir that Troye was destroyede, many of the Troianes seylede by dyvers cuntreys of the worlde … Of hem come most myghty naciouns of the worlde, as moste trew stories of dyvers regiouns and londes tellen’ (Trevisa, Properties I, 818). Correlative sithen (1, 6: ‘after … then’) is similarly used to ‘fast forward’ through a long span of time at Beowulf 2200–2208 (Burrow 1988).

3–4  For the collocation and the sense of tried, cf. ‘my wit has bene aye, When treid [Latin patefacto] was a trechory, the tulkis to be hedid’ (WA 3566–7), and for tried similarly meaning ‘proved, exposed’, cf. ‘The court ys set, thy falshed yt is tryed … now thou art aspyed’ (‘Suffolk’ Poems 19.523–4). For the pointed play on what would normally be the antonyms of tresoun/trecherye and truest, cf. ‘The trayn of tho traytours, that truly were fals’ (DT 11350), where the reference is to Antenor and Aeneas (who in some later versions of the Troy legend was involved in the betrayal of the town and who is often assumed to be the traitor here referred to).

8–12  Romulus, the reputed founder of Rome, was of the kynde (5) of Aeneas (Virgil, Aeneid VI.777–84), as was Langaberde (cousin to Brutus: 13), who, according to Nennius, Historia Brittonum, ch. 17, was the ancestor of the Lombards or Langobardi. The founder of Tuscany appears elsewhere as Tuscus or Tirius, one of whom presumably underlies Ticius; see further Silverstein 1965.

9     Cf. ‘After that Brutus this burgh had buggid on fyrste’ (StE 207), where the reference is to the Trojan Brutus (G 13) and his foundation of New Troy (later London).

13–14  The name Britain was regularly derived from an original colonization by Brutus, a supposed great-grandson of Aeneas. Accounts of the early history of the realm were therefore often termed Bruts or (as at 2523) Brutus bokes. See the earliest of these, Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History, Book I, for details of Brutus’ journey to and settlement in Albion. Felix is ‘unique as a praenomen of Brutus … though the epithet (“happy”) is associated in Roman tradition with founders of cities, etc, and in the Early ME form sæl, it is applied to him by the poet Layamon in his chronicle-poem Brut’ (A&W).

16   wonder probably carries the negative connotations it could have, indicating what is alarmingly, rather than excitingly, out of the ordinary: cf. C 1504 and n. to C 1503–4.

20–26  Though stories set in Arthurian times could be very fanciful, Arthur himself had his origins in chronicle and was accepted as a historical figure – and has here been placed firmly in his historical context: as one of a line of pre-Anglo-Saxon (i.e. Romano-Celtic) kings who ruled over Bretayn (14, 20, 25), as distinct from England (the name later conferred upon the land by the Anglo-Saxons) or Albion (the name for the pre-British island later renamed from Brutus).

23–9  The Lancelot refers matter-of-factly to a specific period of mervoillouses aventures which ‘lasted, so says the history, 1,690 weeks’ (III, 269). This poet similarly places the wonderes of Arthur’s reign in a period of ferlyes (to which the court is therefore not unused: see 239).

30–31  Cf. DT 8420–21 (‘Lengys here at a litill, lystyn my wordes, I shall tell you full tyte how hom tyd after’), 12437, 12550. Medieval texts often characterize themselves as oral in delivery and aural in reception, and it was common for them to be read out by one member of a group to the others (see Troilus II.81–4); since they were as often read aloud as silently, the distinction between heard voice and read script was more blurred than it is now. So when the poet moves to himself as receiver rather than retailer, a heard source (31) moves imperceptibly into a correlative or underlying written one (33–6).

30    laye: here a loose generic marker, confirming the reference to the single aunter (27) that is to constitute the matter to come, for the term was not generally applied to the multiple narratives, serial or interlaced, typical of the roman [romance].

31   On in toun in this context, see Kölbing’s note to Sir Tristrem 10.

35–6  The lines are sometimes interpreted as a reference to the alliterative mode and rendered ‘made firm with true alliteration as has long been the custom in the land’ (Burrow). And – though the context concerns an authoritative source, to which the attested sense of lele as ‘reliable’ is obviously the most pertinent – the alliteration cannot help but render With lele lettres loken metrically mimetic of its content (especially since alliterative verse could be referred to as metrical composition ‘by letter’: CT X.43).

37   Cristmasse: in French romance, Pentecost is the festival usually chosen for an Arthurian feast triggering an aventure (29), but the Christmas and New Year season – so central to the festive texture and double gift-game plot of this poem – is often preferred in the English tradition. As T&G note, ‘The Morte Arthure also opens with a Christmas feast … followed by a challenge on New Year’s Day.’ The poet of Sir Percyvell changed the springtime setting of his source (Chrétien, Conte du Graal) to Christmas, and the Gawain poet may have done the same, for in what appears to be the poet’s source for the beheading game, the challenge takes place at Pentecost (First Continuation 3287).

44   fest was ilyche ful fiftene dayes: ful is usually read as an adverb modifying fiftene dayes. But metre requires it to fall in the a-verse, as does linguistic usage, since was ilyche [was to a constant degree] is always elsewhere in this MS followed by an adjective (cf. C 1386, Pa 161). ful is here a semi-technical term indicating the plenary court (cour pleniere or esforcie) as distinct from ordinary court festivities: preceded by a general summons, and involving the formal wearing of his crown by the king, cour pleniere normally occurred only at such major festivals as Christmas and Easter (see Lancelot III, 134, and our n. to 536–7). The ‘fifteen days’ are here one of the small details distinguishing Christmas at Camelot from Christmas at Castle Hautdesert: the former feast (where the guests are still assembled for New Year’s Day) lasts longer than does the latter, where the guests depart on 28 December (1022–4).

54   first age: cf. the reference to Alexander (after an account of the feats and tastes of his boyhood) as already ‘sa fers in his first elde’ (WA 657). The youth of this court recurs to notice in the account of Arthur (86–9) and in the comment of the unexpected visitor (280), who chooses to make it the occasion of some needling dismissiveness.

57   highest … of wille: comparable expressions usually refer to courage and a venturesome spirit: cf. ‘heigh corage’ at CT IV.1513.

59   hardy … on hille: for the sense of on hille [in a castle-fortress (sited on raised ground)] cf. the earl ‘That hardy was on hill’ (Ipomadon 3542) and the reference to Charlemagne’s knights as ‘doghety proved one hill’ (Rowlande and Ottuell 12). See also Paradise Lost V.732.

60   yep connoted the vitality of youth (cf. ‘Thou art yong and yep’: PP B.11.18) and here acts to personify the year, matching the calendar with Arthur and his youthful court, who are also young (54) and yep (105).

61   double: certain Church festivals were termed ‘double feasts’ (MED feste 2(d)), and a secular occasion might also be so designated (the marriage of Paris and Helen is celebrated with ‘double fest’ at DT 3462). At double feasts, anthems at Matins and evensong were doubled, and double portions were served at meals, as at the New Year’s feast here (cf. 483) and the Christmas Eve feast later served to Gawain (890).

65   Nowel: a festive cry uttered over the Christmas season (which included New Year): cf. ‘Janus [January] sit by the fyr … And “Nowel” crieth every lusty man’ (CT V.1252–5).

66   hanselle: New Year (rather than Christmas) was the day for gift giving. The New Year hanselle – which meant both ‘gift’ and ‘foretoken’ – was intended as an earnest of the prosperous year wished by the donor to the donee: cf. ‘Jewels precious can I none find to sell to send you, my sovereign, this New Year’s morrow, wherefore, for luck and good Hansel, my heart I send you’ (‘Iuellis Pricious’ 1–4), ‘We bylyveth … thurgh this hansel of this newe yere, spede wel al the yere folwynge’ (Ten Commandments 28). The gifts are here given to the accompaniment of some game, in which the kisses may be forfeits given by the ladies who laugh (69) when they lose (T&G, citing Emerson 1922). The delightful inconsequence of the sportive rituals here (in which losing seems quite as pleasurable as winning: 69–70) acts as a contrastive prelude to the grimmer and more portentous gift-games that inform the plot of this Christmas poem (and which are both proposed as suited to the New Year season: 283–95, 1105–11).

71   mete tyme: the feast takes place shortly after Mass (63) – the first event of the day in court life (cf. 1135, 1311) – and is a daytime affair, i.e. a dinner (the first meal of the day, traditionally partaken of at noon: cf. PP B.5.493, 20.3–4) rather than a supper.

74–84  gay (74) is almost certainly adverbial, not adjectival (the flat adverb is much commoner in this MS than the form gaily and figures frequently in collocation with the semantically similar verbs gere- and grayth-: see e.g. 179, 666). Guinevere, the decorative centre of the scene, is herself thus finely [gay] framed in a richly decorative setting of curtains and canopy with bejewelled drapes. The host and/or hostess’s seat at a feast was commonly distinguished by such a canopy or selure (76): cf. ‘the king to souper is set … Under a siller of silk’ (Awntyrs 339–40). sendal (76) and tars (77) occur elsewhere as rich and costly fabrics, though a cloth named tolouse (77) figures only here (see n. to C 1108); with the Smal sendal forming Guinevere’s side curtains cf. ‘The courtins were of cendal thinne’ (CA 1.1787).

80   In day meaning (apparently) ‘ever’ occurs only here.

86–9  The lines have a quasi-physiological basis in what was believed to be the ‘lighter’ nature of the brayn and blod in the young (see Sidrak B 8553–5 and editor’s n. to 8554). joly in the sense of ‘active, lusty’ often collocates with yonge, as does lyght in its sense of ‘agile, mobile’: see illustrations in MED sv joli adj 2(a) and light adj (2). The young and boyish Arthur here described – presiding over a court in its first age (54) – is unusual in chivalric romance.

86  joly, joyfnes, child-gered alliterate on voiced and voiceless versions of the same consonant. joyfnes (< OF jeunesse, jovence) is the earlier of only two recorded occurrences of the word and is here semi-technical, recalling the term iuventus used in philosophical treatises on the ages of man (on which see Burrow 1986). child-gered is found only here, but childgere(s) occurs at WA 825, where the twelve-year-old Alexander is pictured ‘chattering to his chieftains in his child gere’, and 1899, where toys are sent him in scorn by Darius, since childire geris are what his youth fits him for; and, as was pointed out by Luttrell 1962, in the Ormulum, where childes geres are referred to as what adults and the old should be free from (8050, 10885). The word in those texts is condescending or disparaging, and the poet is careful to qualify (sumwhat) its applicability to Arthur – which lies in his having a child’s fidgetiness (86–8) and in a restlessness natural to youth (89).

88  longe lye [get up late]: cf. ‘slepe longe’ at Troilus III.1536.

89  For blod = ‘spirit’ (MED blod n^2 7), cf. 286. For the coupling of brayn and blod as seats of thought and feeling, cf. PP A.10.54–6. For brayn wylde, cf. ‘Whan the nek bowyth bakward, yt sygnyfyeth gret hastyness, wyldenes off brayn’ (Metham, Physiognomy 36). The eruptions of erratic and wayward ‘wildness’ [impatience of restraint] were associated with the yonge: ‘a child That is witles and wylde’ (Lybeaus Desconus 184–5), ‘thonne he geong færeth / hafath wilde mod’ (Second Dialogue of Solomon and Saturn 199–200).

91–101  This custom is attributed to Arthur in Chrétien’s Conte du Graal and its Continuations, where it occurs in the story of Carados (the probable source for this part of Sir Gawain): the king refuses to eat at a haute feste (Upon such a dere day: 92; farande fest: 101) until some estrange novele ou alcune aventure belle should arrive (Conte du Graal 2821–4) or some Merveille grant ou aventure should occur (First Continuation 3322–31). Arthur was reported to hold such a grant feste on the occasions of the major Christian festivals (see n. to 44). The custom is referred to in other romances: see e.g. Vulgate Merlin 320 and Malory 293, ‘the kynge had a custom that … he wolde not go that day [Pentecost] to mete unto that he had herde other sawe of a grete mervayle’.

99  the fayrer to have: cf. ‘For it is graunted of goddis the grekes for to have The fairer of that fight’ (DT 4505–6).

104  stightles: sometimes translated as ‘rules, presides’ (MED stightelen (a)), but that leaves Therefore (103) inoperative. The poet is explaining, not why Arthur is in command, but why he has not yet gone to table: stightles … in stalle means ‘keeps his place, stays fixed’ (cf. standes in stalle at 107, i.e. ‘remains in position, keeps his stand’: see MED stal(le n 4b and 6b).

107  standes in stalle the stif kyng echoes stightles stif in stalle at 104. Such stanza concatenation (which occurs also at e.g. 150–51, 178–9, 278–9) is a feature of the earlier portions of this poem, in which it figures as an occasional formal flourish (as opposed to the regular and integral feature of form it constitutes in Pearl).

109–14  Gawan and Agravayn were the eldest sons of an older half-sister of Arthur’s by King Lot of Orkeney (see Malory 10). Bawdewyn, or Baldwin, appears early and regularly in English Arthurian stories as Arthur’s court prelate. The high status enjoyed in Arthurian legend (and at the table here) by Ywan (Yvain, son of King Urien) was principally due to the fact that Chrétien de Troyes had devoted a whole romance to him (Chevalier au lion).

109–10  Both the king’s nephews or sistersunes (111) are given their sobriquets. Gawain is ‘Gawain the good’ or ‘good Gawain’ in the English tradition (see e.g. 2214 and Stokes 2005), while Agravain’s cognomen (meaning ‘with the hard hand’) comes from French romance (see e.g. ‘Agravains, / li Orguelleus as dures mains’ in Conte du Graal 7887–8).

112  begines the table: for the sense ‘sits in the place of honour to the right of the host at the head of the row of guests’ (MED biginnen 4(c)), cf. ‘ofte tyme he [the Knight] hadde the bord bigonne’ (CT I.52). As a lord spiritual, Baldwin is also given ceremonial precedence over the lords secular at a feast in Sir Gawain and the Carl of Carlisle: ‘The besschope gan the tabull begynne’ (A 359).

114–25  Details of the seating arrangements, the musical accompaniment and the silverware, together with similar alliterating collocations, all feature in the royal feast at C 1398–1416, which likewise includes side-bordes, dese, the crakkes and baneres of trumpes, sewes in sylveren vessels, and nakryne noyse coupled with notes of pipes (cf. ‘daunsyng … with dynnyng of pipis and the nakerer noyse’: SJ 855–6).

119  Wylde werbles: for wylde [unrestrained] applied to sound in the sense of ‘loud’, cf. 1423 and C 302.

120  mony hert ful high hef: ‘heave up the heart’ [raise the spirits] was a common expression (MED heven v 2(d)), though the intransitive usage with ‘heart’ as subject is recorded only here.

130–31  The superfluousness of comment on the plenty available at a royal feast is a standard topos. The Vulgate Merlin (254) is typical: ‘no mention is made of the dishes nor of the food with which they were served that day, because it would be arduous to recount and a waste of words’ [si ne fait mie a parler des mes ne des viandes dont il estoient le jor servi, car ce seroit anuis de retraire et parole gastee]; cf. Ferguut 807–8 and Squire’s Tale: ‘What nedeth yow rehercen hire array? Ech man woot wel that at a kynges feeste Hath plentee to the meeste and to the leeste’ (CT V.298–300).

134–5  unethe was … the first course … served: developments in the storyline are not infrequently initiated, in French romance, by a mid-feast arrival of some kind. With the wording here, cf. ‘ne n’avoit ancores Claudas que lou premier mes eü’ [Claudas had scarcely had the first course] (Lancelot do Lac 58).

138–44  The details and the wording recall what is represented elsewhere as the ideal male form in courtly and chivalric terms: in P3A, Youth ‘was balghe in the breste and brode in the scholdirs, His axles and his armes were i-liche longe, And in the medill als a mayden menskfully schapen; Longe legges and large …’ (112–15). Cf. Sir Ferumbras 1072–3, Havelok 1648–56.

144  Bot is commonly emended to Both, but the mixed construction (‘although … but’) is of a kind frequently met with in ME.

145  all his fetures folwande, in forme that he hade: for the collocation, cf. ‘[The fate of the body] Most folow by fourme the freeltie of man’ (DT 8722). that he hade is taken as referring to fetures by A&W (and by Burrow, who translates ‘all the bodily parts that he had harmonizing in shape very elegantly’), which gives perfectly satisfactory sense; but in all their other examples of relative clauses separated from an antecedent noun by an intervening phrase (e.g. 429, 785, 1456) the latter does not occur in the b-verse (where metrical and syntactic units usually correspond) and the former is subject, not object, of the relative clause.

147  Forwonder is usually printed as For wonder, but for as conjunction has no logic in context. A noun forwonder meaning ‘amazement’ finds some support from forwondered [amazed] at 1660, and from OE forwundorlic [very wonderful]. The prefix was more common before verbs, but could occur before nouns.

149  ferde as freke were fade: for faren as = ‘resemble, be like’, see MED faren v 14, and cf. ‘Thus ware thai fourmed all before, and farand behynde Like as it ware lepards’ (WA 5563–4). fade (apparently related to fo [foe]) is a word found only in northern texts (Cursor Mundi, Sir Percyvell, Sir Tristrem) and on all occasions except one in rhyme position, as here. Meaning sometimes ‘aggressive, hostile’, sometimes ‘fierce, bold, doughty’, it characterizes a man capable of determined and effective physical combat – an impression of himself created by the Green Knight both here and at 201–2.

150  enker grene [bright green?] occurs also at 2477. The adjective enker is otherwise unrecorded, but seems related to the ON intensifier einkar- [singularly, very] and the adverb enkerly [earnestly] found in MA (507, 2066, 2639) and occurring in Middle Scots with similar sense (‘deeply, intently’) as a loose intensifier. The revelation of the knight’s colour is reserved for the last line of the bob-and-wheel, and serves to reintroduce the alterity his abnormal size had at first suggested (140), just when that had become somewhat naturalized into large-scale handsomeness (142). grene (150, 151) concatenates this stanza with the following one, where the colour becomes a motif worked out through the man’s apparel and his horse’s trappings.

154–6  Some of these terms are from the semi-technical register of furriery. pane was often used, as here, of the portion of fur lining visible as an edging or ‘reverse’. pured is defined by MED (puren 3) as ‘trimmed so as to show only one colour to view’; where the pelure to which the term was applied is specified, it is invariably vair/grau, blaunner or miniver. blaunner is mentioned elsewhere as a kind of luxury fur, but its precise nature is not known; the identification with ermine (T&G) – on the basis of a hypothetical derivation from blanc-ner [white-black] – is doubtful and contradicted by the medial m or d in other recorded spellings (including MS blaunmer at 856), which support the alternative derivation suggested by OED, from blanc de mer [sea-white]; nor does the term pured occur elsewhere with reference to ermine, for which uniformity of colour would not be desirable; hence pured is avoided in Sir Gawain where ermine is at issue (contrast 880–81 with 154 and 1736–7). The lines here may be compared with such expressions elsewhere as: ‘purid pelloure … to put in oure wedis’ (WA 2893); ‘I-pured [furred] with blawndenere’ (Lybeaus Desconus 126); ‘paulle [cloth] purede [furred] with pane [fur lining]’ (Awntyrs 353); ‘a mantil … the pane of rich ermyne’ (Ywain 204). Closer parallels occur in other references within the poem to furred garments or materials: see 855–6, 1736–7, 1929–31.

157  wel-haled hose: cf. ‘Hir hosen weren … Ful streite yteyed’ (CT I.456–7; cf. Galawnt Pride 29, Book of Nurture 895–9). The word hue is not in the MS, which yields a metrically problematic line; T&G’s solution is to omit grene and assume caesura before hose.

159  upon silk bordes barred ful riche: cf. ‘a ceynt [girdle] of silk, with barres smale’, ‘a ceynt … barred al of silk’ (CT I.329, 3235). These decorative metal strips were a common ornamentation for fabrics, girdles (cf. 162) and items of harness (cf. 600).

160  scholes: the footgear of the fashionable (when not armed for battle) often consisted simply of ‘soled hose’; see Clark 1955 and Rigby 1956. rides: a court at feast is elsewhere entered by a stranger on horseback and the circumstance seems to occasion no surprise in itself (cf. Conte du Graal 901ff, CT V.76ff).

162  On barres, see n. to 159.

164  silk werkes: silkwork generally referred to embroidery. The term werkes [workmanship] is used specifically of ‘design(s)’ at 216, 1817, 2026 and 2432. The gems here (162) presumably pick out the embroidered designs and patterns worked into the fabric (cf. C 1467–8).

166  For the popularity of birds and butterflies as decorative devices, cf. C 1410 and 1465–76; for similar embroidered motifs, see 609–14 and n.

167  gay gaudi of grene: cited in MED as the single attestation to a sense of ‘ornamentation’ for gaudi, which otherwise refers to one of the larger beads (sometimes formed of precious metals) in a rosary. ‘Beadwork’ – i.e. the precious stones picking out the decorative designs (see n. to 164) – is probably the sense here.

168–72  Equine accessories could be lavishly ornamented in life and in literature: cf. ‘The synne of aornement is in thynges that apertenen to ridynge … in to curious harneys as in sadeles, in crouperes, peytrels, and bridels covered with precious clothyng and riche barres and plates of gold and of silver’ (CT X.432–3); ‘Hir steraps were of crystalle clere … And als clere golde hir brydill it schone’ (Thomas of Erceldoune 59–63); ‘paitrell and crowper garnysshid with fyne golde, enbordred with great pearll’ (Marriage of Margaret of York 334). On the use of enamel in horse trappings in fact and fiction, cf. Ipomedon 7948 and Campbell 1991: 131.

169  molaynes (cf. OF moellin [rotating part] and molete [spur]) are found only here and in the Catholicon Anglicum, where ‘A molane of a brydyll’ is glossed mordaculum (82). The reference seems to be to the metal parts of a bit.

175–8  The ideal male form that combines shapeliness with sware and thikke power (138) finds its match in a horse that combines quik spirit with gret and thik sturdiness (for thik applied to a horse, cf. the ‘thikke palfrey’ of Chaucer’s Legend of Good Women 1198): cf. the horse ‘heigh … brood and long’, but ‘quyk of ye’, which ‘Nature ne art ne koude nat amende’ in the Squire’s Tale (CT V.191–7). Such a horse would indeed be difficult to control, stif to strayn, and to render gayn, where the sense ‘ready’ seems to imply ‘prompt to respond’, as in some of the usages cited in MED sv gein adj 2(a).

176  stede: a term used of a knight’s warhorse. This stede and the golden spurs (158–9) – a badge of knighthood (MED sv spore n^2 1(c)) – are thus indications of a knightly status that is otherwise (since the stranger is unarmoured) not immediately apparent (see n. to 276).

177  brayden brydel: cf. ‘His bridell alle of brente gold with silke brayden raynes’ (P3A 131), where brayden also means ‘interwoven, braided’ or ‘decorated, ornamentally fashioned’ (MED breiden v^1 9(a)–(d) or 9(f)).

180–95  The coupling and matching of horse and rider continue into this stanza, of which hair is the theme, the man’s (of his horse sute, 180) and the horse’s (much to hit like, 187). The two stanzas elaborate a common descriptive topos (the unification of knight and steed in terms of colour and ornamental design): cf. ‘The knight in his colours was armed full clene … His horse trapped of that ilk’ (Awntyrs 378–83), ‘Baith his horse and his geir wes of ane hale hew, With gold and goulis sa gay graithit in grene’ (Gologras 605–6).

181  fannande: glossed ‘waving, floating’ in MED, but the present participle here has been improvised, not from the verb, but from the noun fan and means ‘forming a fanlike shape’. Cf. the crul hair of Absolom which ‘strouted as a fanne large and brode’ (CT I.3315). In both cases, the reference is to thick hair broadening outwards and downwards as it falls, rather than hanging ‘smothe’ and ‘thynne’ on the shoulders (CT I.676–9).

185  halched: the verb occurs in ME only in Sir Gawain, where it is used of a variety of different forms of enfolding or interlocking (see 218, 657, 939, 1852). The Scots and post-medieval northern usages recorded in OED suggest it was a northernism. It is perhaps a variant of halsen [embrace], which the poet uses only in the sense ‘greet’ (C 1621).

186  knightes capados: MS kyngeȝ must be an error for knyghtes, since the poem later associates the garment specifically with knightly dress (571–3). Confusion between kyng and knyght is a common scribal error (see e.g. WW 83, P3A 529, Sir Eglamour F 1105). capados does not occur outside this poem. The quasi-definitions inserted into the text (186, 572) imply not an everyday garment, but one with the special use for knights which the arming scene later indicates. Since it would need to provide a snug fit under head and neck armour, and since this under-armour garment could be suggested by the combined effect of long hair and full beard (181–5), it obviously covered the head-to-shoulder area (cap à dos) and enclosed the neck completely (cf. that closes his swyre, 186b; cf. C 1569), extending upwards over the head in a coif or close-fitting hood and downwards over the shoulders in a sort of camail (a circular neck-and-shoulder covering of cloth or mail: see Evans 1952, plates 22, 33, 35).

191  twynnen is usually assumed to be past participle of twine and glossed ‘plaited’, but participial twined is nowhere else given the -en suffix proper to a strong verb. It is more probably present plural of twin, and twynnen of a sute must mean ‘form two of a kind (i.e. match)’; a similar sense of the verb occurs in Pierce the Ploughman’s Crede: ‘Of the kynrede of Caym he caste the freres And founded hem on Faryens … Here I touche this two, twynnen hem I thenke’ (486–96), where, however, the usage is transitive.

194  throwen plainly has the sense (‘interwound’) which the verb carried when used of the intertwisted strands that constituted ‘thrown silk’ (MED throuen v^1 6(a)). The sense of thwarle, which occurs nowhere else, can only be guessed. ‘Reynawde … thwerled his swerde by grete fyersnesse’ (Foure Sonnes of Aymon i.32) likewise provides the only instance of a presumably cognate verb. There appears to be some relation in sense and etymology to twirl (< OE thwer-).

195  Bridle bells were common (cf. CT VII.2794–5). The bells in Sir Gawain are attached to a thong (194) knotted round the tail and forelock (191). For bells so attached, cf. the ‘large thong full of smale belles’ carried by the couriers of the great Chan in Mandeville (Cotton Titus) 160.

199  He loked as layt so lyght: A&W translate ‘His glance was as swift as lightning’; but loked here seems to mean ‘was to the eye, appeared’ (MED loken v^2 3); cf. the angel at Christ’s tomb, whose ‘lokyng [Latin aspectus] was as leyt [lightning], and his clothis as snow’ in the Wycliffite Bible (Matthew 28:3). That the man’s greenness is luminous is suggested also at 236 and 305.

203–5  Cf. Ajax, who in his folye goes into battle armed only with a sword: ‘Withoute scheld … no helme, Ne spere … Ne on his bak non haberioun, Platis, pysane, ne aketoun’ (Laud Troy Book 15678–82)

206–8  The threatening axe and festive holly spray bring into sharp focus the dual elements in the stranger’s appearance and subsequent behaviour.

207  grettest in grene when greves are bare: cf. ‘As the holy grouth grene And never chaungyth hew … As the holy grouth grene … When … grenewode levys be gone’ (Early English Carols no. 448).

210–15  Formidable axes are elsewhere described in similar terms. The bitte … with a brod egge [blade with a long cutting edge] recurs in the ‘brode bite and scharp’ attributed to the sparthe (209) in Vegetius (189). The axe at Lancelot do Lac 74 shares with the present one the wide sharp blade or axe-head and the sturdy, iron-banded shaft (‘la hante forz et roide … de fer bandee’: stif staf … wounden with yrn), as does the axe of which ‘the schafft was bounden’ and ‘long was the bit’ in the Laud Troy Book (5801). The elnyerde which the present axe-head measures outdoes the ‘bite … to fot long’ in Arthour and Merlin (4798) and even the ‘long and sharpe’ blade ‘thre fote longe’ of the axes wielded by the giants in Sir Ferumbras (4433) and Arthur of Lyttel Brytayne (403). grayn was often used of a ‘branch’ or ‘fork’ of some kind, and here evidently refers to some metal projection. Both ‘spike’ and ‘blade’ have been suggested, but since the focus is on the massive hed, resolved into constituent parts of grayn, bitte and egge, the object at issue may be the socket which held the blade (and spike), and which is visible in the MS illustrations of the axe (folios 94v and 129v), which show a long crescent-shaped blade fitted into it.

219–20  For similar botouns of silk with pendant attachments, cf. the whip with ‘boutons … De fine soie a pendans d’or’ in the First Continuation (11851–2).

223  overloked combines literal with figurative sense. Since the stranger is mounted, he physically ‘looked over the heads’ of the others in the hall, whom he also thus ‘did not deign to notice’ – for which latter sense of the verb cf. ‘thogh he jette forth among the prees And overloke every pore wight’ (Hoccleve, Regement 428–9) and ‘he that overlooketh every man’ in Thomas More’s account of pride (The Last Things 156). The ‘body language’ of the stranger thus reinforces his words: he will ‘go over the heads’ of lesser mortals to deal directly only with their governour (225).

225–7  The stranger’s speech (unceremonious but not abusive) consistently refuses to categorize itself as either polite or rude. While governour and gyng here lack the complimentary adjectives which complaisant courtesy might dictate, there is nothing rude in his words (gyng is neither derogatory nor dismissive: cf. Pe 455).

229  reled hem up and doun: hem refers back to the eyes (cf. 304) mentioned in 228 (though the noun iye is there singular). The gesture was associated with fierceness and defiance and with aggressive and intimidating postures (see e.g. Rowlande and Ottuell 172, Gui 8214, Moniage 519); in this poem, it accompanies a sweeping survey of the assembled company following a question (224–5) or proposition (299–300) that requires a response from someone.

230  This instance of the Norse-derived verb stemmen figures in MED sv stemmen v^2 [tarry, stop], but the collocation with studie suggests it belongs under stemmen v^1 [consider, ponder]: cf. WA 2605 (‘Ye suld not study ne stem the sternes for to handill’) and 3086 (‘He studis and he stuynes [is perplexed], he stemes within’, translating ‘inter se cogitare cepit et dire’).

233  had mervayl what hit mene myghte: cf. Sege of Melayne, where, when church bells ring of their own accord, ‘Thay hade mervelle whate it myght mene’ (532), and DT 11638, where a sudden cry from the town leaves no one able to ‘meve in hor mynd what it mene shuld’. The court is anticipating later critics in attempting to ‘read’ the phenomenon and its implications for them.

233–41  This wonder-hardened court – who have seen fele sellyes (239; cf. 23–9) – are sufficiently stupefied by this one to attribute it to that subsection of marvels that involves the supernatural (fantoum or fayrye: 240), an assumption which is offered as the explanation (Therefore) for what the alliterative collocation in 241 (arwe [cowardly, timid] and athel [noble]) points up as an uncharacteristic backwardness to respond on the part of the great knights.

235  grow grene as the gresse: grow is glossed ‘turn, become’ in MED. But the verb is probably being used of the man and horse in the same way in which it was used of the grass to which they are compared (as in ‘the grass grows green’), and means ‘is, carries on life’ (MED growen 7), a usage common in, but not confined to, references to vegetation.

236  The glow of grene aumayl on gold is one of the most precise of the many references to the products of the goldsmith in these poems. In basse-taille, or translucent enamel, the colours were reflected by an underlying ground of gold (Cherry 1992: 31, 44; see also Theophilus 106–7, and Campbell 1991: 117, 127 and figure 62). The contrast between this simile and the one at 235 reflects a pervasive combination of contrasting elements in a figure with a dual identity – as lord of a civilized castle and giant of a grassed-over (2181–90) chapel-cave.

242  The comparison is similarly applied to a silent court in Ipomadon, when no one responds to Imayne’s plea for a champion: ‘They satte all stille as anny stone’ (6545).

243  In a swoghe sylence: the participial adjective (y)swowe, (a)swoune is not elsewhere used attributively to qualify an abstract noun, and MED enters swoghe sylence as a compound under the noun swou(e. Since the word swoon was often associated with sleep and dreaming (MED swou(e n (c), swouen v^2 (c), swouning (c), and cf. Pa 442), swoghe here (whether adjective or noun) anticipates the simile of the next line, and is probably best translated ‘trance-like’.

244  slypped on slepe: a common idiom; see n. to Pa 466.

249  Cast unto that wye: both cast and warp were used of utterances in expressions such as ‘cast a cry’ and ‘warp words’ (cf. 224). But this is the single recorded occurrence of cast meaning in itself ‘speak’ – though there is evidence that warp could be so used (cf. Wyntoun, V, 1707–8 (MS W): ‘When this wif had warpit thus Of this abbot Eugenyus’). Since warp and wye would provide the alliteration commonly continued through the bob-and-wheel, Cast may here be a scribal substitution.

251  rekenly him reverenced (cf. C 10, 1318), for rad was he never: as the alliteration emphasizes, it is primarily the courtesies he is not flustered into forgetting that show how the encounter leads to no loss of nerve on Arthur’s part.

253  hostel is a hospitable characterization of the court: though the word could mean simply ‘residence’, it was regularly used of anywhere that provided (paid or unpaid) ‘accommodation’ (cf. 776).

255  It was a rule of hospitality that guests should not be questioned on their identity or business until they had eaten (see 901 and n.). Arthur therefore defers all questions until later (after). With his words here, cf. those uttered to a visitor in Dame Sirith 28–9: ‘com and site, And wat is thi wille let me wite’.

258  of thee, lede: though not abusive, the visitor’s speech lacks ceremony (cf. n. to 225–7); the king is given no respectful title, but addressed simply as ‘man’ – a blokily informal mode of address characteristic of the speaker in his other persona (of castle host) as well (cf. 1071) – and by the informal thou rather than the respectful ye. Arthur’s thou (254, 277) is simply the form that, as king, he uses to everyone (since they are all his social inferiors) except Guinevere.

265–6  A wand or branch signalled peaceful intentions. In the First Continuation, Gawain, going unarmed to question an armed knight, ‘en sa main une vergue prent’ (12807), and the messenger sent by the king in WW similarly ‘brake a braunch in his hande’ (121) before riding to address the leaders of two massed armies. It was especially used by messengers and negotiators, and it figures together with green apparel (which could similarly announce non-belligerence) in the case of the female messenger in the Stanzaic Morte Arthur: ‘Hyr paraylle all … Of one green velvet; In hyr hand a braunche newe, For-why that no man sholde her lette [impede]; Ther-by men messangerys knewe, In ostes whan that men them mette’ (2614–19). The present branch (holly) is suited to the Christmas season and to the green array of its bearer.

266  passe as in pese and no plyt seche: cf. ‘Ne com ich to thissen londe to halden fiht stronge Ne for nane plihte’ (Layamon 4733–4). For the collocation of pese and plyt, cf. ‘he aproched all with pes and in na plite ellis’ (WA 4171), where, however, plite bears its neutral sense [manner].

267  in fere in fyghtynges (MS feȝtyng) wyse: ‘armed following’ is a sense of fere [companion, company] attested to in MED sv fere n^2 1. in fyghtynges wyse corresponds to AN en fuer de guerre [in manner of war] which figures in English legal usage (Legge 1936) and which occurs in Scottish texts as ‘in feir of war’. The stranger is pointing out that he would have donned armour (268–70) had he come as a serious political opponent ‘with an army (in fere) in guise of war (in fyghtynges wyse)’. When it is a noun rather than an adjective that occupies the frame in … wise, that noun is, in this MS, regularly in the genitive (see e.g. C 271 and 1187). Since MS feȝtyng must be a verbal noun and not a present participle (which always terminates in -and(e) in this MS), emendation to genitive fyghtynges not only provides the long dip lacking in the b-verse as it stands, but also brings the grammar of the idiom into line with its other occurrences.

274  By right: in full court, or cour pleniere (see n. to 44), Arthur would traditionally grant any boon requested by any arrivant, so long as it was consistent with his honour to grant it; see e.g. Malory 294.

276  Sir cortays knight: as the visitor is unarmoured and therefore not immediately identifiable as a knight, he has so far been referred to simply by the alliterative synonyms for man: gome (151), schalk (160), freke (196), hathel (221), lede (232) and (in Arthur’s first words to him) Wye (252). Since his words at 268–70 make it clear that he possesses knightly arms, the unknown quantity he represents has now become the known quantity at least of a knight, and Arthur therefore now gives him a more specific honorific than he had at first been able to use.

278–9  ‘… to fyght.’ ‘Nay, frayste I no fyght’: stanza concatenation is used to good effect, marking the wrong-footing of Arthur’s attempts at normalizing courtesy, to which the stranger again (cf. 256) responds with a Nay.

283–8  Cristemas game … Yol and New Yere … gif him of my gift: the stranger’s proposal is presented in terms of the games and New Year gifts (cf. 65–70) appropriate to the two successive Yule and New Year festivities in which the action of the poem takes place.

286  brayn is an adjective of obscure origin which otherwise occurs only in slightly later Scots usage, though with a sense obviously similar to the one implied here: cf. ‘He walxis [grows] brayne in furour bellicall’ (Douglas, Aeneid XI.xvii.73).

290  bide the … bur: cf. 374 and Pa 7.

294  stande him a stroke: cf. ‘His strok may no man stand’ (Sir Tristrem 2335).

296  Barlay has attracted much conjecture but no convincing explanation. It is ‘usually identified with the dialect word barley used in children’s games to call a truce or to lay first claim to something … A suggested etymology is OF par loi, par lei, “by law” … Another explanation is that the word is a noun meaning “blow” ’ (A&W).

297  respite is a semi-technical term frequent in chivalric romance, where it indicates the stipulated interval between a legal or formal decision and the date on which it is to take effect; it is especially used of the deferment for a specified period of agreed combats (cf. Yvain 3685, 4805); for the interval of one year, cf. Conte du Graal 5993–4 (‘La bataille est … jusqu’a un an respitiee’).

298  A twelmonyth and a day indicates the 366 days involved in ‘a year to the day’; it is legally exact in register; cf. the written stipulation in the First Continuation that a corpse must remain in Arthur’s court ‘un an et un jor, plus ne mains’ (14378).

299–300  let see tite Dar any hereinne oght say: the expression occurs in the context of challenges: ‘What man he is, lat se, That take this bataile swithe’ (Sir Tristrem 1423–4), ‘And now lat se … whether ye dare com oute of youre castell, ye thirty knyghtes’ (Malory 511). The stranger implies (to somewhat comic effect) that the combat proposed is a perfectly regular one that requires no pause for thought – although, of course, the daring needed for this bizarre exchange of blows is rather different from the usual type with which the wording here, and the expression dar stiflyche strike a stroke for another (287), misleadingly aligns it. The briskly challenging let see seems to have left its mark on the moment, for it is one of the few phrases to survive in the later ballad version: ‘Let me see who will answer this’ (Greene Knight 143).

304  runischly his red iyen: runish and renish are confined to alliterative verse, where they show some conflation of sense and form as between OE run [runic letter; mystery] and the Scandinavian equivalent of OE hreo [rough, angry]. Thus renish in WA seems to mean ‘forbidding, intimidating’, by reason either of hostility or of a portentousness associated with the inexplicable or unexpected (387, 840, 3069, 5058). Similarly, C 1545 and 1724 (where the MS forms are respectively runisch and renyschly) show a meaning (‘eerie, spooky’) related to run, while Pa 191 (MS runyschly) clearly carries a meaning (‘roughly’) related to hreo. In the other instances of runish/renish (G 304, 432, 457; C 96), it is less clear in which of the two directions the sense tends. Since red eyes are elsewhere associated with anger and fierceness, and since the action described occurs among other gestures of a macho kind (305–8), the word here seems to mean ‘in a manner intended to be stern and forbidding’, as at WA 3069 (‘Than has Sire Dary dedeyne & derfely he lokes, Ryses him up renysch & reght in his sete’). On reled, see n. to 229.

305  ‘Bending the brows’ is explained as arching or raising them in MED benden v^1 2b, and Bende is sometimes glossed ‘arched’. But the meaning ‘frown’ is certainly attested (cf. ‘Depart freely … And not with frownyng visage and browes bent’: Idley II.ii.2343) and fits the present context of stagily aggressive posturing. On bresed, see n. to C 1694.

307  kepe him with carp: the verb here has a sense (‘respond to’) analogous with the one it bears when one warrior kepes [meets] an assault from another (MED kepen 8): the challenge here was verbal and has not been verbally (with carp) ‘met’. coghed ful highe: the verb cough was used to refer to a range of vocal gestures, including a sound made to attract attention to a following utterance (Burrow 2002: 129, 140). Such a sound uttered ful highe would here suggest a scornful exclamation that heralds the tone and content of the following speech.

308  rimed him … ryght him to speke: rimed derives from an OE verb meaning ‘to make roomy’. ‘Drew himself up’ is the gloss generally proposed for rimed him both here and in the only other comparable use of the verb at WA 5058 (where it refers to a corpse coming to life): ‘The renk … raxsils [stretches] his armes, Rymed him full renyschly.’ In both cases, however, the reference may be to an expansion of the chest caused by drawing a deep breath. ‘Drew himself up’ seems in Sir Gawain covered by the b-verse: for (though editors often gloss ryght him as ‘prepared himself’ or ‘proceeded’) the only recorded reflexive uses of righten concern standing up or making oneself erect; cf. WA 840, where the expression is, as here, used of a seated and mounted figure straightening himself up in his stirrups.

312  On gryndel- forms in this MS, see n. to Pa 524.

313  revel: here used in a sense (related to ‘rebel’) which the word could have in French (though not elsewhere in English): i.e. to denote aggressive energy or defiantly confident pride. Cf. Ipomedon 4820 (with reference to an assault), ‘Par grant orguil [pride] e par revel’, and Protheselaus 12178 (with reference to a march), ‘Par orgoil e par grant revel’.

314  Overwalt occurs only here in other than a literal and physical sense, thus lending the force of a metaphor not stale or dead to the derisive accusation that no actual bodily dint [blow: 315] is required to bring these knights to the floor.

315  dares for drede: dare [lie still or hidden] meant ‘cower’ when used, as here, in implied contrast to active combat; for the phrase as levelled in scorn against adversaries, cf. Minot 2/39: ‘The Scottes … Now er thai dareand all for drede, That war bifore so stout and gay.’

316  greve and agreve occur elsewhere of response to words that cause anger or pain. Active voice greved (as here) is preferred for the former emotion, and is associated with combative refutation in word or deed: cf. P3A 182 and MA 1352–4 (‘Thane grevyde sir Gawayne at his grett wordes … With hys stelyne brande he strykes of hys hevede’). Passive be (a)greved generally occurs, however, when insult or criticism has to be endured unrepudiated: cf. Generydes 4089 and Rowlande and Ottuell 289–91. It is a greved blush of this latter kind that the Green Knight’s criticism at the end of the aventure draws from Gawain, ‘So agreved for greme he gryed withinne. All the blod of his brest blende in his face, That all he schrank for schame …’ (2370–72) – where the passive participle agreved and withinne indicate the contrast between Gawain’s self-directed revulsion and Arthur’s defiant aggression at 316. The two moments mark the sad passage traced in the poem from confident indignation at honour impugned to painful acknowledgement of honour forfeited.

317  ME schame covered mortification at publicly imputed shame (as here) and what we would now call self-consciousness or embarrassment (as at 1189) as well as consciousness of guilt (as at 2504).

322–3  Enjambement between stanzas is rare in this poem, and should not be assumed here: omission of a pronoun subject was not uncommon, and many stanzas in Chaucer’s Troilus begin And + past tense, ‘And seyde’ providing the commonest instance (e.g. II.1310, III.1100, IV.525, V.476).

324  Cf. ‘Ye be-gan the folye … And seth ye folye have sought, folie have ye founden’ (Merlin II, 572), cited by Whiting F389.

326  upon Godes halve is always a serious oath in this corpus (cf. 692, 2119, 2149 and C 896) and thus suggests a weightier anger on Arthur’s part than it would in texts readier to invoke God merely for emphasis.

327  baythen thy bone that thou boden habbes: the established alliterative collocations (cf. Harley Lyrics 3/35, StE 194) underline Arthur’s sarcastic endorsement of the moral convention that the stranger has relied on (that any petition asked of the king holding cour pleniere will be granted: see 273–4 and n. to 274).

331  Arthur is gauging the weight of the axe, an act referred for explanation to the fact that he intends to deliver a blow with it. For the causal implications of the relative that here, cf. ‘No mervayl thagh him mislike That hoped of no rescowe’ (2307–8); a present participle construction is the ModE equivalent (‘And, intending to strike with it, moves it around’).

335  The sense of drye here and at 724 is similar to the meaning ‘undeflected’ which the word can have as adverb (cf. 1026 and Pe 125). It refers to the stoic perseverance of Gawain at 724, while it here conveys the unperturbed air adopted by the stranger – there being a touch of comedy in his ostentatiously insouciant gestures in the face of imminent execution.

339  Gawan enters the narrative in as unheralded (though not as melodramatic) a manner as the Green Knight: it is important to remember that there is no MS authority for the editorial title Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, which rather unfortunately pre-announces the protagonists. There is no indication that Gawain is to be the hero of the story in the only other previous mention of him (109).

341  I beseche was an expression used when addressing a petition to an acknowledged social superior, usually a lord, heavenly or earthly. The verb serves to categorize Gawain’s speech as a chivalric petition of the formal and public kind that Arthur, in responding to a knight thus requesting an aventure, would feel obliged to grant (cf. Yvain 2336–40).

343  Wawan: the MS reads Gawan, but the W- form is used elsewhere when alliteration requires it (e.g. 559, 1010). See n. to 559.

346  my lege lady: Gawain’s position next to Guinevere enables him to include Arthur’s consort in his deference to his sovereign: her gracious consent to Gawain’s leaving her side (which, as Burrow points out, would leave her seated between two empty chairs, Arthur not having taken his seat on her other side) is also a necessary precondition of any interception by Gawain, an interception which the syntax (the prolonged conditional clause with which the stanza begins) carefully represents as provisional on acts of command and permission from Gawain’s lord and lady.

347  counsel was a key principle of etiquette in medieval court politics. Giving it was, for the major vassals, both a right and a duty (cf. ‘Len devroit par droit son seignor Consellier’: Béroul 3112–13) and proper procedure required it to be followed by the lord, who would defend himself against recriminations by so doing, ‘C’um ne li puisse a mal retraire’ [so that no fault can be found with him] (Marie de France, Lanval 384; cf. DT 838–9, 8910–14). Once the transfer of the game has become expressed corporate counsel (362–5), Arthur therefore submits to that decision without question or objection. It would thus be anachronistic to hear anything patronizing or critical in Gawain’s proffer of counsel to Arthur: the word in fact reinforces his marked observance in this speech of the vassal–overlord relationship between himself and Arthur.

352  hawerer of wille: the ON-derived adjective hauer had the sense ‘skilful’ in early ME, but is not much recorded thereafter and seems to be used in this corpus in a weakened sense of ‘good, fine’ (cf. 1738, C 18). wille, as at 57, refers to spirit and courage (cf. CT IV.1513, DT 3924).

353  bent – from the poetic vocabulary of alliterative verse, to which (in the sense ‘battlefield’) it was confined – lends a heroic note.

354–5  For the modesty, cf. ‘for thogh y ben in batail schent, it ys no lest [loss] for hem’ (Sir Ferumbras 459).

359  For the principle that the knight who is the first to request an adventure should be granted it, cf. Yvain 682–8 and Ferguut 5199–201.

360–61  We construe riche as a verb, ‘to dispose, to arrange matters’, though riche/ruche (which figures chiefly in alliterative verse) is elsewhere transitive (e.g. Pa 101) or reflexive (e.g. G 367). Alternatively, one might assume (with T&G) adjectival riche and a not uncommon ellipsis of the verb ‘to be’ (‘And if I have spoken inappropriately, let this noble court nevertheless be blameless’).

367  fayre in these contexts can mean ‘in an ideally normal way’, ‘without immoderate force or haste’ (cf. MED fair(e adv 6) and probably here indicates ‘calmly, at an ordinary pace’ (cf. ‘he stey [rose] up into the eyr, not rygth hastyli & qwykly, but fayr & esly’: Margery Kempe 8).

368–71  The ritual gestures of kneeling and blessing formalize the transfer of the axe, and with it the game (365), to Gawain. With the blessing, cf. the ones bestowed before a battle at Rowlande and Ottuell 377 (on Roland by Charlemagne: ‘he gaffe hym goddes blyssynge’) and at Sir Ferumbras 340. The gesture accompanying the blessing (lyfte up his hande) is presumably the sign of the cross (used to ward off danger: see 1202–3): cf. Sir Ferumbras 256, ‘He lifte up ys hond & blessed him than’ (i.e. crossed himself: see MED blessen 5), and Seinte Marherete 22, ‘Heo hef up hire hond & blecede al hire bodi with the taken of the holi rode.’

372  Cf. ‘And sett the buffett well’ (Greene Knight 174). For sette applied to blows in the sense of ‘deliver’, see MED setten 5a; the same verb is used (1937) of the kisses which are the equivalent of the blows in the other ‘exchange’ game Gawain pledges himself to – where exactness of number and proper delivery are also at issue. Kepe thee is usually glossed ‘take care’, but kepe in that sense is not normally reflexive, and MED correctly assigns the present instance to reflexive keep = ‘govern one’s behaviour’ sv kepen 14c(b). Kepe thee … that thus means ‘guide your actions in such a way that’ (i.e. ‘be sure to’). cosyn [kinsman] was especially frequently used of a nephew or sisterson (111): cf. ‘Thi sistersonne am I, thou eam [uncle] & I cosyn’ (Mannyng, Chronicle II.4703), ‘Cosyn to the kyng & he his kyde em’ (DT 1284).

373–4  Though Arthur is no longer to deliver the physical blow, he can keep up his verbal sarcasms, common collocations (as at 327) again giving alliterative edge to the irony. redes him right: to ‘rede someone right’ was to arrange matters in such a way that someone gets what he wants (cf. Harley Lyrics 5/24), as at C 1346. Arthur is thus sardonically suggesting that the stranger ‘gets what he asked for’ in every sense.

378  Refourme is here used in a sense (‘re-formulate, rehearse’) different from the one (‘restore, repair’) in which it is elsewhere recorded. The contractual terminology of forwarde(s) and covenaunte(s) (the singular and plural are used interchangeably) figures insistently throughout the two ‘games’ constructed as a framework for the relations between these two men (see 409, 1105, 1395, 1405, 1636, 1934, 2347; 393, 1123, 1384, 1408, 1642, 2242, 2328, 2340). The agreed terms and conditions underlying the poem’s two contractual games create an arena in which truth [good faith], the virtue represented by the pentangle (623–39), is at issue in its precisest sense of truth to one’s pledged word.

380  truly: not here in weaker sense ‘indeed’, but ‘on one’s word of honour’, i.e. in a moral sense which introduces the poem’s larger theme (truth) and which is here emphasized by the alliteration of truly and tryst (both ultimately derived from trow) and by Gawain’s response, In good fayth (381).

382  whatso befalles after: the expression generally occurs (as here) following commitment to a course of action (cf. William 148, 607) and means ‘whatever may come of it’. It here conveys to the stranger Gawain’s awareness that he may well be walking into a trap, but accepts whatever consequences may follow.

387–91  The stranger has plainly heard of Gawain, and his satisfaction at finding his opposite number is to be this the most renowned and esteemed of Arthur’s knights is emphasized by the stanza concatenation, in which the name, Gawan, is repeated, with honorific (Sir). Bertilak’s household have also heard of Gawain (908–27), as has his wife (1226–9). On Gawain’s fame, see p. 252.

390  Gog: a colloquial form (of God) also attested in Towneley Plays (2.44, 174).

394–404  To the agreed covenaunt (393) the stranger now adds a clause (that Gawain must seek out his opponent for the return blow), to which he again specifically requires and receives a formal plighting of trauthe (394, 403). Gawain’s awareness of the seriousness of a commitment so pledged is apparent in his cautious response: he has, he points out, neither name nor address by which to seek the man (398–400), and is prepared to pledge his truth only to do his best to arrive at the unknown place, not to succeed in doing so (401–3). His caution testifies to his trauthe (he will not make a promise he might not be able to keep), but also to his courage – since it shows him clearly recognizing the possibility of a return blow. In this respect, the story does not belong with those (such as Chaucer’s Franklin’s Tale) featuring a so-called ‘rash promise’; for it is wrong to claim that Gawain would not have agreed to the contract had he ‘known that the conditions would in fact prove possible’ (Green 1999: 321); here and at 382 he fully confronts the superficially impossible outcome of the covenaunt, from which he would not in any case have rescued Arthur had he not realized that ordinary impossibilities could not be relied on in a figure whose very material form so visibly flouted them.

396  wages: the financial metaphor recurs with the word pay (2247, 2341) and figures also in the other ‘game-exchange’, in which mercantile terminology is consistently used (see e.g. 1939–41 and Mann 1986). The metaphors underpin with monetary logic the moral ‘dues’ incurred by a bargayn (1112).

397  before this douth: douth, though often used in a generalized sense of ‘group’ or ‘company’ (cf. C 1196), here bears its historically more specific sense and refers (like OE duguth) to the armed and aristocratic troop serving a lord and sharing his hearth – i.e. Arthur’s knights, who figure here as the witnesses before whom things have been publicly said or done (cf. 450 and n.).

398  thee … thy: the protagonists consistently use the less formal thou forms when addressing each other as partners in the game. When their relationship is that of host and guest, they both (Gawain consistently, Bertilak normally) use the respectful ye forms (see e.g. 1035–78).

406–9  The syntax has been variously construed, but the contrast between the object-verb order (characteristic of subordinate clauses) in 406–8 (thee telle, tappe have, me … has smyten, thee teche) and the verb-object order at 409 (frayste my fare) seems designed to mark the transition from subordinate clauses introduced by If (406) to a main clause introduced by Then (409): 407 rewords in reverse order the subclauses of the previous line, when governing both 406b (when I the tappe have) and 407a (And thou me smothely has smyten) and the conditional clause of 407b (smartly I thee teche [if I promptly inform you]) paralleling the If clause of 406a (If I thee telle truly).

406–14  For tole (413) used of this and other weapons or blades, cf. 2260, C 1108; knock (414; cf. 2379) was also regularly used of strokes and blows. tappe (406), however, was used, as today, of unforceful blows and it is in this poem used of the axe-blows only by the Green Knight (cf. 2357), who is here characteristically dismissive of the coming blow (which cannot in fact harm him).

407  smartly: previous editors gloss ‘promptly’, a standard sense of the word; but with regard to giving information, the adverb has the sense ‘clearly and concisely’ (cf. MED sv smertli (c)), which here provides a closer semantic link with truly (406).

409  frayste my fare: A&W think the idiom literally means ‘ask how I am getting on’, but that gloss is more suited to the different idiom frayn … fare at 2494. In all other recorded instances of frayst … fare, the verb carries its primary sense ‘to seek out’ and concerns first-hand experience (of someone or something) gained by a journey: in WA, Alexander, hearing that his mother is gravely ill, declares that he must return home and suspend other matters until ‘I fraist have the fare of my fayre lady’ (2145); in John Evangelist Hymn, the saint’s devotees are said, in an apostrophe to him, to have been fayne ‘for to frayste of thi fare … and come rynnande to the’ (147–50); and Quatrefoil of Love (381–3) concerns a metaphorical journey on the part of those who have vainly sought worldly help in affliction and ‘have been down that road’ (‘We seke efter socoure on everilka side … When we hafe frayst of that fare felde is owre pride’). Our gloss ‘seek out my whereabouts’ is consistent with the other instances of the idiom and also with the stranger’s own emphasis (cf. thou schal sech me thyself, 395) and the contrast with thou may leng in thy londe (411).

412–16  slokes is apparently an imperative, and is usually referred to the Norse-derived sloken [quench, extinguish] and glossed ‘Enough!’ But no other similar usage is recorded for that verb or for the related slokken, slekken, etc. The word seems to have been selected to provide a rhyme with cnokes (the spelling with single k indicating that the vowel, normally short, is here long) and strokes – which represents an unusual application of a verb that (in this sense) always elsewhere takes a part of the body as its object. The meditative gesture (Gawain is presumably palping the axe for weight and sharpness) contrasts with Arthur’s more forceful preparatory motions (331), as do the calmly polite words that accompany it.

418  lut with the hed (cf. ‘loutynge down with hir hed’: St Elizabeth 114) is paralleled in the return blow by ‘lened with the nek and lutte’ (2255).

421  gederes hit on hyghte: one of a number of lexical details that serve to unite this blow with the later return blow (cf. 2260); for further examples, see nn. to 418, 423, 425.

422  kay (of Norse origin) was often applied to the hand (cf. dialect ‘cag-handed’) and apparently also to feet (cf. the surname Cayfote recorded in MED sv cai). In a precisely visualized action, Gawain’s left foot is placed forward to balance the axe raised above his shoulder.

423  lyghtly combines the meanings ‘easily’, ‘quickly’, ‘requiring little force’ and ‘by natural inclination’. The recurrence of the adverb in the later return blow shows a nice distinction: though Gawain can let the axe fall lyghtly, this particularly large and heavy weapon (208, 289) can be lifted lyghtly (2309) only by a man of the Green Knight’s outsize proportions.

424  Cf. ‘Mony swouwninge lay thorw schindringe of scharpe’ (Joseph of Arimathie 513).

425  gres (used at a similar point in the return blow: 2313) usually refers to the fatty tissue of animals (as at 1326 and 1378). The beheading prompts a style of anatomical objectivity reminiscent of the hunting scenes, with which it shares other words also, such as biten (426, 1162, 1457) and schynderen (424, 1458, 1594).

428  foyned with her fete: Vantuono and Bennett each cite a different example of a sort of football being played in evil glee with a decapitated head (cf. Magoun 1937), Bennett opining that the ‘courtiers’ thus vent the ‘tension’ of their ‘suppressed fear’. The foining is, however, more likely to represent, not malicious kicks, but that involuntary warding off that is an instinctive response to contact with the gruesome – especially on the part of those not hardened to it: for the ‘foiners’ here are not the knights, who are all seated at the table, but the by-standing attendants. Foin was normally used of sword strokes, in which context it stood in contrast with ‘cutting’ and ‘carving’, being a thrusting or shoving action designed as much as a defensive manoeuvre (to push back or off the strokes of the enemy) as an attacking one (cf. CT I.2550); one might contrast frunt with his fot at Pa 187, where an aggressive kick really is meant.

435  Steppes into stele-bawe: in this common alliterative formula (cf. Layamon 11926, MA 916, WA 901), also used at 2060, stele-bawe and stirop are interchangeable; though the former may sound more ‘poetic’, it is not confined to verse and appears in the very unpoetic Paston Letters (I.543).

438  he were (subjunctive after thagh) is the emendation usually adopted for MS ho we, though Vantuono reads the MS as no we and accordingly prints nowe (which, however, yields an unmetrical b-verse).

440  bluk, emended to bulk by T&G, has been variously explained, but is probably correctly assumed to be a variant of blok(ke in MED, which, however, provides no parallel for either the spelling or the application to a human body. But o/u variation is common in this dialect, and the required extension from tree-trunk to human trunk certainly occurred with Latin truncus (given as a gloss for blok in the Promptorium 40: ‘Bloke or stok: Truncus’) and with ME stok (MED stok n^1 1c); cf. post-medieval block = ‘trunk of body’, in a reference in the Coverdale Bible (1535) to the limbless body of Dagon: ‘The bloc [Vulgate truncus, AV stump] laie there only’ (1 Samuel 5:4/5).

445–7  There are small alterations to what would be normal usage were the man and his face still a unity: the face has replaced ‘his face’, and distinct pronouns (he and hit) are required for the lifting of the head and the opening of the eyes. Burrow (followed by A&W) renders his mouth as ‘its mouth’, pointing out that his in ME could be used as the neuter as well as the masculine possessive pronoun; but the poet’s normal form for ‘its’ is hit (see Pe 108, 120, 224; C 956; Pa 267). his, in his mouth at 447, after the previous lines, must thus bear the sense it would have if applied to one’s watch rather than one’s hand (‘the mouth that belonged to him’).

445  Toward the derrest on the dese: the words that follow are actually addressed to Gawain (who is not seated at the dais), but the court is being invoked as witness (cf. 450), the derrest on the dese being a formulation that places emphasis on the focal point of the public hall rather than on any one individual at the dais; although this line has been linked with 2460, and thus with Guinevere, she is quite irrelevant to the emphasis of these words.

450  herande these knightes: modelled on French usage, in which voiant and oiant were used to introduce a phrase citing the presence of witnesses – in Arthurian romance often, as here, the court: cf. ‘Oiant toz les bons chevaliers’ (First Continuation 8925; cf. 1707, 1768 and passim), ‘Arthur asked on hight, herand hem alle’ (Awntyrs 404).

452–3  disserved thou habbes is sometimes treated as a parenthesis, on the assumption that it cannot grammatically belong with the next line; but deserve + passive infinitive is regular (cf. CT I.1741) and such verbs as yield could in the passive take as their subject what would in the active voice be their indirect object: cf. ‘This prisonere … shal be yolde al this peyne’ (Wyclif, Sermons 2.175).

456  recreaunt signalled the disgrace of knighthood. Its derivational sense of ‘going back on a promise, forsworn’, is obviously relevant here (448, 450). It was especially used of one who forfeited his cause by surrendering himself in combat (cf. ‘yilt hym recreaunt’: PP B.18.100); and the word could thus mean ‘cowardly’ (‘vos me tenez Por recreant et por coart’: Conte du Graal 7370–71) and could characterize a knight who avoided or fled from combat (Erec 2462, Yvain 2563). The taint of recreantise attached, by extension, to any knight who allowed himself to be diverted from any course he had undertaken (even from the physical road in which he was travelling: Conte du Graal 6381–3), especially from an aventure involving combat (Erec 5605–8; cf. Conte du Graal 6557). A deflection from the path he has committed himself to, a cowardly flight from combat, underpinned by the central disgrace of betraying his sworn word, are all implied in the appellation with which Gawain is here threatened should he fail to make the journey.

457  The noun rout elsewhere means ‘blow’, but the sense required here (‘pull’) is clearly attested for the verb from which it is derived (MED sv routen^4 2(a)). On runische see n. to 304.

460–61  The lines exemplify a formula often used for the disappearance from actual and cognitive view of a figure, mysterious and non-mortal (‘Ther wist no man wher he becom’: Sir Amadace 739) or otherwise (‘no man wyste never … Where he become, ne in what kithe’: Richard Coer de Lyon 1320). It is here extended to apply also to arrival, thus creating borders of ignorance around the episode that correspond with the verbal and visual frame of the doorway provided by the parallel between the sudden entrance (hales in at the halle dor: 136) and exit (Haled out at the halle dor: 458).

464  laghe and grenne: for the doublet, cf. ‘nouther lagh ne gren’ (Audelay 45/967). Neither Arthur nor Gawain has failed to take in the seriousness of what has occurred, but good cheer must be restored as soon as possible, since there is a feast toward, and so the two kinsmen at once cooperate in laughing off the incident, the poet virtually abetting their efforts to shrug it aside with his own What then? (462).

465  bare is probably adverbial, but the sense is similar to that of adjectival bar (‘downright, veritable’) in a similar context at DT 150: ‘And borne was abrode for a bare aunter’.

467–9  It was held to be a king’s duty, when hosting a public feast (at which the good spirits of his meyny should be his priority), to suppress and disguise any perturbation he might be feeling at hert: cf. ‘The kyng than comfurthid his knyghtes, all if he care tholed’ (WA 4004; see also First Continuation 3232–41, 8597–9, 8912–19; Lancelot do Lac 137; Parzival 90.14–16, 99.17–20). Arthur’s followers would here, however, in view of Gawain’s plight, find it difficult to respond to a direct injunction to get back to beer and jollity; Arthur therefore, with nice tact and hendeness, implicitly and obliquely calls on them to help him soothe the ruffled calm of the ladies. That his words to Guinevere are said ful highe indicates that their target is distinct from their addressee: for the formula implies that what is said is meant to be publicly heard (cf. ‘dit si/mout haut que … l’oent/l’ont oï’ [says aloud so as to be publicly audible] at Lancelot do Lac 341, 361, 584). That concern for any distress Guinevere might suffer is a mere pretext for ‘setting an example’ to the others to cheer up the ladies is further implied by the fact that the poet has not thought it relevant to indicate whether or not the queen requires any such comfort as Arthur so ostentatiously offers her. The clear tactical element in Arthur’s cortayse speche to her means that the passage cannot be unproblematically used to prove that her part in the motives later attributed to Morgan (2460) was at all present in the poet’s mind in the earlier stages of the narrative.

471  For craft likewise used of non-professional occupations or pursuits, the mode of spending time or pattern of activity of particular persons and/or particular times, see 1688 and cf. Chaucer, Legend of Good Women 1286.

472  enterludes were especially associated with the Christmas season: cf. the prohibition (1418) against the playing of ‘enterludes’ on the streets of London ‘duryng this holy tyme of Cristemes’ (Memorials of London 669–70). It is clear from this same prohibition that interludes could involve elaborate disguise (‘disgisyyngis with feynyed berdes, peynted visers, diffourmyd or colourid visages’). Arthur thus makes light of the Green Knight and the beheading by normalizing them as dramatic illusion.

473  kynde caroles: Sir Gawain provides one of the earliest indications of the special association with Christmas gradually developed, in England, by the carol (Early English Carols xviii–xx), which, in its continental origins, was typically a springtime and outdoor pastime; its status as one of the pastimes common at Christmas (cf. 43, 1026, 1655, 1886) is underlined by the adjective kynde [natural] and by these (here exophoric, i.e. pointing to a class familiar from outside the discourse, rather than referring back to elements within it: cf. 1514).

474–5  Cf. ‘ “Now may ye go to youre dyner,” sayde Sir Kay unto the kynge, “for a mervalous adventure have ye sene” ’ (Malory 518).

476–7  The expression heng up thyn axe (Whiting A251) was often used in derision to suggest a botched or fruitless task that might as well be given up (see Owl and Nightingale 658; South English Legendary II, 482; Historical Poems 4/231), though Arthur is wittily adapting it to different effect here. gaynly (whose root sense is ‘directly’), as applied to a speech, might well in fact mean precisely ‘wittily’. Adjectival gainli occurs in Sir Beves to characterize a joking speech: a lord who throws a knife at a messenger kills his own son by mistake, whereupon the messenger ‘spak a gainli [var. game] word’ (3103) to the effect that too much sex the night before had obviously affected the man’s aim. Here, as in Sir Gawain, gainli characterizes a joking speech, though the two poets plainly have very different ideas of what constitutes an apposite witticism.

478–80  Bennett rightly draws a comparison with Grendel’s claw (another ‘marvel’ in the form of a ‘weapon’ of awesome size), displayed high up over the hall entrance where all may look at and comment on it (Beowulf 836, 926, 983). Axe and claw alike function as what is referred to elsewhere as a token (a physical object which survives from and testifies to the truth of an extra-ordinary story – as, later, does the girdle: 2398–9).

483  double, as derrest myght falle: cf. 61 and 890 (‘Doublefelde, as hit falles’) and nn. For adverbial dere in the context of appointments suitably posh for the occasion, cf. ‘And double fest that day derely was holdyn’ (DT 3463), ‘And dighte me derely, and dide me to chirche’ (PP B.19.2).

484  A&W take this line to belong with the previous sentence. We have assumed (with T&G and Burrow) that it belongs with the next clause: a similar formula at 1952 introduces a new syntactical unit that similarly characterizes festivity over the remainder of the day til (485, 1958) its end came. The adverbial phrase could perhaps be read both as coda to the sentence beginning 481 and as preface to the new main clause at 485 – i.e. as an example of the construction apo koinou [in common], which Mitchell (1995: 70–71, 295–6) points out to be natural to the punctuationless habits of medieval writing and thinking.

487–90  Such a direct address to the hero is unusual, though not without parallel (cf. CT I.3397–8, VII.3230–33) – and the solemn adjuration here (emphasized by its fitt-ending position and by its contrast with the cheerful scene it closes) echoes the warning to Gawain uttered by the severed head: to turn aside out of fear, to fail to see through anything tan on honde, was the mark of a recreant knight (see n. to 456). For the collocation wothe/wo and wonde as expressing something the brave should not and do not do, cf. Pe 150–54, C 855, and cf. MA 3494 (‘I wille noghte wonde for no werre, to wende whare me likes’).

489  frayn: Gordon glosses fraynes at Pe 129 ‘makes trial of’, comparing Sir Gawain here and at 1549. But 489 is different: it involves, not putting someone else to the test, but trying out by way of seeing through, and is thus closer to ‘experience’ or ‘undergo’ – a sense well attested for the similar verbs fraisten (MED fraisten 5) and fonden, which is used by Gawain himself (565) when he declares his own determination not to wonde (563) from the adventure he undertakes.

491  Fitt divisions are not explicitly announced in this poem, as they occasionally are elsewhere (cf. ‘for here a fitt endes’: WW 217), but are visually apparent in the MS, in which there occurs at the relevant points an enlarged capital, here T, whose cross-stroke extends through a one-line gap between the stanzas (between which no space is normally left) and whose vertical stroke is four lines deep. Greene Knight also signals a new section at this point by the call for attention (‘Listen, lords! And ye shall have the second Fitt’: 256), which often heralded a new tranche of the narrative (as at G 1996–7). These fitt divisions are integral to the narrative structure: Fitt II follows the same opening pattern as Fitt I, a two-stanza prelude on the passage of time and its vicissitudes being in both cases followed by a third stanza introducing a feast at Camelot. A hanselle was a New Year gift given as a foretoken of a prosperous year (see n. to 66), here applied to the first instalment of such adventures as Arthur had desired (92–9). For similar transferred usages, cf. the ‘luther haunsel’ [ominous beginning] to an embassage in Sir Ferumbras 1708 and the ‘glad hancel’ [propitious beginning] to the day in Mannyng, Handlyng Synne 373; the equivalent estrine could also be so used in French (cf. the gift of a fine horse, ‘a bonne estrine d’aventure’ [in earnest of good luck (in a forthcoming tournament)], in Richars li Biaus 4313). Since in Sir Gawain this metaphorical downpayment on adventures occurs on the first day of the yong yere (492) – when literal hanselles are given (66) – the expression here involves the same witty interplay between literal and figurative sense as had ‘Hang up your axe’ at 477.

492  yelpyng generally means ‘boasting’ in ME, but the poet is here reverting to a sense the word could have in OE, in which it could refer to inspiriting words relating to heroic matter (cf. Beowulf 640, 868).

494  stafful her hande: i.e. the court is as full of wordes (493) of exciting adventure as their right hands would be if the sturne werk were to be done in deed – with possibly some play on staff, whether or not this was, or was thought to be, the origin of the expression stafful: the OED entry indicates that it may have had no etymological connection with a ‘staff’, and other uses show that it certainly had none that was always operative (cf. the mitre and window staffull of gems at WA 1666 and 5024); but her hande indicates that the poet had a weapon (or its handle: cf. 214) in mind.

497  mayn [powerful] does not occur elsewhere of alcohol and so probably represents an inventive alliterative manoeuvre.

498–533  With this description of the passing seasons, a common topos in medieval literature, cf. e.g. Gower’s Confessio Amantis, where the fact that the year yeldes never like, and that its seasons ‘stant upon debat, That lich til other non acordeth’ (VIII.2840–41), is used, as in Sir Gawain (495–500), as a corollary to the vicissitudes of human life – in Gower, as a simile for the ages of man and his passage from youth to old age. In Sir Gawain, the passage of the seasons is not merely a simile, but also a narrative fact which provides a literal analogue to the changes in human fortune it is linked with. Cf. nn. to 476–7, 491.

499  This sententia was current in a variety of forms. As noted by Silverstein 1964, one Latin version, ‘Cum fueris felix, quae sunt adversa caveto: non eodem cursu respondent ultima primis’ [if you have been fortunate, watch out for adversity: the beginning and the end do not follow the same course], occurs in the Distichs of Cato I.18 (a standard school book up to the seventeenth century) and is quoted in the medieval Latin Song on the Scottish Wars 140 to signal the downturn of English fortunes. Another occurs as ‘Principium fini solet impar saepe videri’ [the beginning is often seen to be unlike the end] in Orderic Vitalis (Historia XII.xxx (vol. VI, 314)) and (uttered by Darius to warn Alexander not to become so proud as to forget his ‘end’) as ‘cum semper a primis solent ultima discrepare’ in the source of the alliterative WA, where it is rendered ‘It limpis noght allway the last to licken with the first’ (3222).

501ff  sesoun is here used in its broader sense [time of year] rather than with specific reference to the four seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter. The poet in fact uses the terms summer and winter according to a binary rather than a quaternary division of the year (as was not uncommon: see MED sv somer n^1 (b)). Within this binary opposition, the ‘seasons’ through which the year is traced begin with Cristenmas, followed by the comfortless Lentoun, the burgeoning and flowering processes of somer (which covers spring and summer), processes which culminate in Hervest (521), here used specifically (MED sv hervest 1b, 1d) of the August month when fruits and corn are harvested, not as a synonym for the season of ‘autumn’, the wynter whose arrival it warns of (522) and by which it is followed (530) being in fact the autumn of the quaternary system, which began with the autumn equinox in September, the point at which the description concludes (532), but which is characterized as announcing the return of the wynter half of the year.

502–3  crabbede is here equivalent to the similarly derived cankered (< Latin cancer [crab]), and forms the first in a series of vividly concise personifications. Lentoun has here none of the positive associations it often had when used as a synonym of spring, and in fact figures as a continuation of wynter (see 504). Seen from the point of view of the flesch, not of the spirit, it stands liturgically in backward contrastive relation to the more genial season and fode of Christmas, rather than in anticipatory relation to Easter. fraystes here has the sense ‘assays and refines by subjecting to rigour’ (cf. ‘Silver fraisted with the fire’: Yorkshire Writers II, 144).

504  For weder as referring to the return of the warmer weather that is the opposite of wynter, cf. ‘Winter sceal geweorpan, weder eft cuman’ (Maxims I B 66). threpes reflects a common notion of annual battles between winter and summer weather: cf. ‘Thenne summer and winter winnen [strive]’ (Physiologus 358); the word here contributes to the personifications and the series of energetic verbs (cf. yernes, hyes, wrasteles) which alike ‘animate’ the passing year.

505  Colde clenges adoun: the fact that the earth’s subsurface temperature is cooler than its surface in warm weather, and vice versa, was conceptualized in terms of the predominant seasonal ‘quality’ of heat or cold driving down its opposite: cf. ‘The colde comes down from the eyre And into the erthe he dryves thore The heete that hette the erthe byfore’ (Sidrak B 2250–52). cloudes up lyften (i.e. it becomes less cloudy) is a similar semi-technical observation: clouds ‘ner … to the erthe’ show ‘gretter quantite to the sight’, while those ‘nygh hevene’ seem smaller (Trevisa, Properties I, 579).

506  To minds more attuned to agricultural needs, schowres played a more positive role in the archetypal image of spring than rain does today: Chaucer’s description of an ideal spring likewise begins with shoures soote and with the flour their moisture engenders (CT I.1–4).

509  Bryddes … bremlyche: for the collocation, cf. e.g. ‘Briddes ful bremely on the bowes singe’ (William 23). bylde [make a dwelling place: cf. 25] was not uncommonly used to mean ‘make a nest’ (cf. the magpies instructed by nature ‘there the thorn is thikkest to buylden and brede’: PP B.12.228); but busken [prepare, hasten, be busy] always elsewhere occurs with a human subject (i.e. there is a further personification implicit here).

510  The epithet softe was standard with reference to the warmer half of the year: cf. ‘In summer and in softe weder’ (Physiologus 154), ‘Now welcome, somer, with thy sonne softe’ (Chaucer, Parliament of Fowls 690).

516–18  with the soft wyndes serves as a restrictive adjectival phrase defining the particular sesoun [period] within the somer semester to which these lines refer, the delimiting soft wyndes being further specified in 517 as those breathed by Zeferus – the predominant (westerly) wind of spring, which ‘resolveth and unbindith winter and bryngith forth gras, herbis, and floures’ (Trevisa, Properties I, 574). Chaucer’s famous description of spring likewise alludes (CT I.5–7) to the ‘sweete breeth’ of Zephirus which ‘Inspired hath … The tender croppes’, i.e. has breathed shoots into being, an image that reflects (as does G 517) the notion of the west wind as breathing life into the vegetable world (an idea taken over from classical literature). The deified wind and the wynne [joyful] plant (518) continue the series of personifications.

518  Welawynne: wella (a variant of wel) is an intensifier found only in alliterative verse (see Layamon C 6390, WA 2096), and could be interpreted as adverb (‘very’) or as prefix (‘full-’). See n. to 2084. wynne (etymologically a noun: see 1765, 2420) figures as an adjective (cf. 1032, 2430, 2456) only in alliterative verse and in Pearl (154, 647).

519  donkande: the verb is used in ME almost exclusively of dew, with which it forms a standard alliterative collocation: cf. ‘The dewe appon dayses donkede full faire’ (P3A 10).

520  bide: the primary sense is ‘experience’, but the contrast (Bot: 521) with hyes and hardenes in the next line (in which the plant is chivvied on by a hurrying Hervest) indicates influence from the sense ‘pause, tarry’; for the verbs that follow then resume their characteristic force and energy (hyes, drives, flye, wrasteles).

521–4  The dustiness of late summer (523–4) is traced back to its cause in droght [dryness], which shows that Hervest at 521 refers to the August season in which corn is harvested (MED hervest 1b and d), i.e. late summer, not to autumn (hervest 1a), which is not dry and which is included in the wynter semester of whose imminent arrival Harvest warns (522). The pronouns and verbs continue the personification. hardenes has the same sense as at 1428, where the huntsmen harden [urge or chivvy on] the hounds (cf. MED hardenen 2b). MED erroneously cites G 521 (sv hardenen 1a) as an otherwise unattested reflexive usage carrying the sense ‘grow firm or ripe’; but him in 521 (as in 522) is an object pronoun referring to the personified wort (518). A&W detect an improbable punning secondary sense (‘makes him hard with fruit’) in hardenes him, but harden = ‘ripen’ is not attested; in the examples of the verb in Ormulum (1487, 1567), cited by MED sv hardenen 1a (‘make firm’), the reference is to the firming of dough during baking, not to the ripening of corn.

525  Wroth wynd … wrasteles continues the sequence of personifications, the verb vivifying the otherwise stale metaphor implied in the adjective wroth (often used of the wind: cf. 319, Pa 132). The same verb, when used of wind at C 949 and Pa 141, suggests tumultuously swirling gusts, whereas here the wind’s ‘wrestling with the sun’ is presumably a compressed way of saying that it drives clouds across the face of the sun to bring about an overcast sky. Since the description proceeds only as far (532) as Michaelmas (29 September), these winds are the gusty ones associated with the autumn equinox (22/23 September): cf. ‘gret wyndes than Threw doune the frutes … Levyng theym sone bare of that whyche they hade Afore Myghelmas’ (Ashby 3–6).

526  lausen: regularized from MS laucen. T&G read the MS as lancen (< AN lancer/launcer = jump, spring), but, as Anderson notes (n. to Pa 350), in all cases where the word definitely represents the AN verb (1175, 1464, 1561), it is spelled -aun. In the present context, it is worth observing that the more active verbs (drives, wrasteles, yernes) represent the actions of personified forces, while verbs indicating change or loss of state are associated with their effects: ‘loosen’ is thus consistent with lyghten, grayes and rotes in 526–8.

527  grayes: the verb is not otherwise recorded before the seventeenth century. The coinage, from the adjective grey, lends force to the standard antonyms green and grey (cf. e.g. Henryson, Testament of Cresseid 164, 178, 221, 260).

528–9  rypes and rotes formed a standard alliterative contrast (cf. CT I.3875), to which the poet has added ros to provide a compactly comprehensive survey of the entire vegetative cycle. The adverbial phrase in yisterdayes at 529 likewise transforms a commonplace into a powerfully effective line in which present seems to turn into past even as one reads.

530  wyndes: it is to wend or win that this poet most commonly resorts when a w- verb of motion is required. Wend, however, is not used of motion hither (which is at issue here), though win certainly could be (cf. 1537, 2215). It appears that wind has been selected here and at C 534 because of the appropriateness of its more specific sense to, respectively, the circular motion of the seasons and the movements of a fox (cf. G 1707). as the world askes [in accordance with the rules governing life in this world] figures as a b-verse elsewhere: cf. WA 4750 (‘And eftir wele comys wa, for so the werd askis’) and (with reference to the laws, moral and/or natural, governing human conduct) MA 2187, PP B.Prol.19.

531  No fage is the emendation (of MS no sage) adopted by nearly all editors, the similarity in medieval script of f and long s easily explaining the scribal error assumed. For fage [deceit, flattery] occurring in the expressions ‘this is no fage’, ‘withouten fage’ (i.e. ‘in truth’, ‘no kidding’), see MED sv fage b.

532  Meghelmasse mone is not the Harvest moon, as is sometimes suggested, for that is nowhere else so referred to, but the lunar cycle or month (i.e. September) in which Michaelmas falls: see MED sv mone n^1 2(c) and cf. ‘Columbyne shall be gadered in lammes mone’ (Leechbook 142), where lammes mone means ‘the month (August) in which Lammas falls’. The autumn equinox takes place in the month in which Michaelmas occurs, and that month therefore marked the turn from summer into the first of the two wynter seasons (cf. ‘Septembre … is ende of somyr’: Trevisa, Properties I, 533).

535  anious vyage: journeys were hardly ever undertaken in winter, when travel became unfeasible (Stokes and Scattergood 1984). The fact that Gawain’s journey exposes him to the rigours of winter travel is underlined by the date of his departure, for November marked the advent of the winter quarter, which, in the household calendar, began specifically on on All Saints’ Day (Alhalday: 536), 1 November, when allowances for candles and fuel were increased, winter livery dispensed, etc (Woolgar 1999: 95–6).

536–7  Yet indicates that Gawain is balancing potentially conflicting duties: though he starts to think of the journey at Michaelmas (532–5), he delays it until after the next major festival, Alhalday, when social and devotional considerations make it desirable that he should be in attendance on his earthly lord (with Arthur) and hear the service of his divine lord – for All Saints’ Day was one of the festa ferianda, the festivals which laymen were required to observe, by stopping work and attending divine service (Cheney 1961: 119). All Saints’ Day is listed in the Lancelot as one of the days when Arthur regularly wore his crown in plenary court (Lancelot do Lac 134, and see n. to G 44), and that fact is sometimes cited in connection with these lines. But there is no indication that the poet is here visualizing such a state occasion (which was preceded by a summons of all magnates owing allegiance to the king); 537 suggests something more intimate, a party thrown specifically for [Gawain’s] sake and implies that Arthur marks the day in a way he might not normally do, on account of his nephew’s imminent departure. The phrase reciprocates with Arthur, the festival thus furnishing an occasion for each man to demonstrate his regard for the other.

545  lege lord of my lif (cf. ‘The lege lord of my lyfe to lose or to save’: WA 3214) echoes the wording of the oath of feudal allegiance: ‘I bycome your man liege of lyfe and lymme’ (English Coronation Records 179). leve I yow aske: though ‘leave’ might be taken with elaborate politeness from others (cf. 595, 1960–61), only from one’s liege lord was it necessary to ask it (i.e. to obtain ‘permission’ to depart: cf. Charles d’Orléans, Songe 434, 538; WA 5355, 5358). The a-verse thus explains the b-verse and constitutes a covert apology for even mentioning his journey and the reasons for it: ‘Since you are my liege lord, I must ask your leave to depart.’

546  cost is not here the French-derived noun meaning ‘cost, price’, but the homonym derived from late OE cost [quality, condition]. Gawain is reminding Arthur, not of the ‘cost’ of the business (the tenes of which he downplays: 546–7), but of its ‘nature’: the publicly pledged troth that now obliges him to make the journey.

548  boun to the bur: boun in this sense (MED boun 4) is usually followed by a noun indicating person or place or by a directional adverb. The anomalous usage here is a reminder of the peculiar want of known destination (or even direction) in this journey: Gawain travels to a known destiny (the bur) rather than to a known destination.

551–5  These knights all figure as distinguished ones in Chrétien de Troyes’s romances and/or the Lancelot, the two best-known authorities on the ‘history’ of the Round Table. Ywan (already mentioned: 113), Errik (Erec) and Lancelot were the well-known heroes of separate contes by Chrétien. Yvain also figures in the Lancelot as one of those premier-league knights who are excelled only by Lancelot and Gawain, and to that category also belong: (a) Boors (Lancelot (M) XL.22), cousin to Lancelot; (b) Bors’s brother Lyonel, the hero of a set of adventures so major as to earn him a whole conte to himself, ‘son conte tot entier’ (and on those grounds excluded by Lancelot do Lac from its own conte of Lancelot: 612); (c) the Duk of Clarence, who is introduced as cousin to Gawain and brother to Doddinaual de Savage (so called because of his fondness for hunting: Vulgate Merlin 171) – with whom, in lists, Galeschins (later Duke of Clarence) is often, as here, coupled (Livre d’Artus 50, 81, 202) – and as a small knight, but one of outstanding prowess, joint hero with Yvain and Lancelot of a set of adventures (Lancelot (M) XI–XVIII) from which the little duke emerges as ranking very high in the tables of doughtiness (XXI.16–17, XXV.2); and (d), Mador de la Porte, who figures briefly as the champion of the first of a pair of tournaments in which he is outdone in the second only by Lancelot (LXXVIII.27–32), and whose only other function (apart from a bit part at the end of the cycle: Mort Artu 84–5) is to figure in lists such as the present one (XXVIIa.6, XCI.4) – his presence in Sir Gawain thus attesting to a detailed and retentive knowledge of that widely read histoire. Lucan and Bydver (Bedevere) were, respectively, Arthur’s butler and constable, and would ex officio be involved in all conferences within it. The names confirm the era to which the present tale belongs: that of the Lancelot, the period of the ‘adventures’ (see n. to 23–9), i.e. after the battles in which Arthur consolidated his kingdom and before the Grail Quest: for Lancelot arrives at court only after the initial battles and Galeschins is referred to as the Duk of Clarence only after the city of Clarence is conferred upon him in reward for his signal bravery in the battle before it (Livre d’Artus 17–8); but, since this court is still a youthful one, it does not include Perceval, the hero of the Grail Quest, who is a generation younger and who is thus the only significant absence from the knights in the super league here listed (Yvain, Erec, Lancelot and Gawain).

554  Boors: MS Boos would suggest Boso of Oxford, a minor character in Geoffrey’s History. He, however, belongs to the chronicle tradition, and disappears from the romance tradition, and would, in any case, have been dead before Lancelot arrived at court. Boos is therefore usually assumed to refer to the better-known and more prominent Boors/Bohors (see preceding n.), for which the spelling without medial r would be highly anomalous.

558  derne doel driven: derne (OE derne is sometimes read derue (cf. n. to 526), u and n being indistinguishable in the MS). But derf is not attested with respect to emotions, whereas derne is regularly used of, e.g., ‘concealed’ love, grief, etc (MED derne adj 5) and here reinforces the other references to a grief which the court has at her herte (557), but which is assiduously banished from outer demeanour (541–2, 557, 672).

559  Wawan: both W- and G- forms of the hero’s name occur elsewhere, reflecting the alternation between the two sounds in Anglo-Norman and northern French (observable in such word pairs as warrant and guarantee). The variant forms of the name are in this text exploited for metrical purposes: stressed on the first syllable, G- and W- give useful alliterative alternatives; while stress on the second syllable (as in French) is occasionally useful for rhyming and iambic purposes in the bob-and-wheel (see e.g. 365, 487, 838, 1044, 1975).

567–667  The ceremonious arming of the knight was so standard an ingredient of chivalric fiction (Brewer 1982) as to merit inclusion in the comic stereotype of the genre provided by Chaucer in his burlesque romance Sir Thopas (CT VII.857–908). The present account differs from the norm in being (as the poem often is) more systematically exhaustive than other romancers felt it necessary or desirable to be.

568  Carpets figured in occasional rather than in general use and were especially associated with dressing (Woolgar 1999: 72) and arming. Arms are likewise loaded on a tapiz, with the spreading of which the arming scene commences, in Chrétien’s Chevalier de la charrete (6757) and in the First Continuation (4333, 10672, 12076). With the tuly tapit specified here cf. the ‘tapiz de Limoiges’ on which Erec’s arms are placed prior to his arming (Erec 2624). tuly (which, with tarse, figures elsewhere in the poem as a favoured fabric for interior hangings: 77, 858) was a luxury cloth of rich red colour; forming a background to the gilde gere (569) piled on it, it anticipates (as does 603) the gules which provides the field for the gold pentangle of Gawain’s armorial device (619–20); the whole scene is thus emblazoned in colours which identify Gawain with civilized court life and provide a counterpart to the green and gold of his opponent. tyght is almost certainly a participial adjective rather than a finite verb with passive sense (‘was spread’); lapped (575) and Gurde (588) are also participial and similarly create free-standing syntactical units without finite verb (which is also lacking at 578); for this is list syntax, organized by sequence markers (First … And sithen, 572; then, 578; And, 582, 584), in accord with a logic common in this context and reflected in the comic repetition of ‘and over that’ in Chaucer’s parodic arming scene (CT VII.861–6).

569  gilde gere was a collocation often used of armour, which, though made of stele (cf. 570), was often overgilt with gold for visual effect: cf. the ‘guldene gere’, ‘gilden ger’ and ‘gilten gere’ of Alexander A 522, SJ 550 and Sege of Melayne 1098.

571–3  The emphasis is on the luxurious softness of the two fabric undergarments – the one made from Tharsian silk (tarse), the other fur-lined with bryght blaunner (see n. to 154–6) – by contrast with the hard metal of the arms, chafing from which they would help to prevent. These two items Gawain is already dressed in (having required no assistance to don them). A dublet, worn under body armour, is a standard preliminary in armings: cf. Lydgate, Pilgrimage 7232, ‘Next thy body shal be set … a doublet … Theron thyn armure for to dresse.’ This garment could be rich and ornate (cf. the scarlet and gold-worked ones in MA 902, 3457), as the fabric of dere tarse (where dere indicates quality and price) shows Gawain’s to be. ‘Doubletis of damaske & sum of dere Tars’ are cited by the ascetic Brahmans in WA as examples of decadent luxury in dress (4800). crafty [artfully designed] probably refers, not to this specific garment, but to the capados generically (see n. to 186) and its distinctive feature of providing the snugly seamless fit round head, neck and shoulders that suited it for use beneath head and neck armour; closed alofte is usually glossed ‘fastened at the top’, but the sense is probably ‘not open at the top’, i.e. terminating upwards in a coif.

574–605  Since armour overlapped downwards, knights were armed upwards: cf. ‘von vuoz ûf wâpent in’ [armed him from the foot up] (Parzival 560.17; cf. Song of Roland 289–95; Erec 711–7, 2633–57). Texts from the first half of the fifteenth century provide the closest parallels to Sir Gawain as regards precise items and sequence; cf. Ordinances 43–4: ‘Firste ye muste sette on Sabatones … And then griffus and then quisses’ (with which cf. the arming that begins, as in G 574–9, with ‘Sabatouns, grevis, cusschewis’ in Lydgate’s Troy Book 3.50), the directions continuing through body armour (cf. G 580–81), bras and gloves (cf. 582–3), the cote (cf. 586), the helmet (cf. 605).

579  throwen in the sense ‘curved, coiled’ is not recorded as used of body parts other than curly hair in MED, but in Scots English there are references in Douglas’s Aeneid to the one eye of the Cyclops ‘under his thrawn [bulging or perhaps twisted, i.e. distorted] front [forehead] large’ (III.ix.89) and to the wooden horse with ‘thrawin [curved] wame [belly] of tre’ (II.i.70).

580  brayden bruny, of bryght stele rynges: the hringed byrne occurs in OE verse (e.g. Beowulf 1245), where the alliterative collocation brogden byrne also first appears (Cynewulf, Elene 575), re-emerging in Layamon (10543), the only alliterative verse narrative in early ME, and also in the poems of the alliterative revival (cf. ‘Brenyes browdden’: MA 2807).

581  Umbe-weved: the verb with this prefix is recorded only once elsewhere in ME. Umbe [around, about], as simplex or prefix, is something of a favourite with this poet, and occurs three times as prefix in this passage (cf. 616, 628), reflecting the emphasis on interlocking encirclement in the description both of the arms (cf. closed, lapped, knaged, Gurde, hasped) and of the heraldic device of the knotte (630) in which the account of them culminates. stuffe is regularly used of a kind of padding worn as or under armour: cf. ‘hitte hym … Thorghoute the stuff and the thikke maylle’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 4.1374).

586  cote-armure, worn over the armour (cf. ‘Oppon is armure was he clad with a cote-armure clene [splendid]’: Sir Ferumbras 552), displayed the same identifying heraldic device as did the knight’s shield (see 636–7 and cf. Keen 1984: 126).

587  gold (i.e. gilded) spures spend (cf. gilt heles, 777): cf. ‘Thay spende hym with his gilte sperres’ (Rowlande and Ottuell 361). These golden spurs, conferred at dubbing (cf. ‘honeret hym … with order of knight … Two spurres full spedely spent on his helis, That were gaily overgilt’: DT 10937–43), were a badge of knighthood, a rank that could be referred to as consisting of ‘them that were spooris of briht goold’ (Lydgate, St Alban 560).

591  lachet over loupe: over is generally emended to other [or], but the MS reading suggests a greater degree of (characteristic) precision, with the gilding being confined to the lachet. The metal lachets thus gleaming over every loupe might here refer to aglets (the metal tips of laces) – or to slots or buckles through which the ties or loupes were passed; for lachet used of such a receiving part (for bolt or tie), cf. the metal slots or eyelets implied in the reference to a girdle ‘with lacchetes ynow’ (SJ 752). Armour fastenings could certainly often be, as here, expensively ornamental: ‘the buckles, strap-mounts and rivets of fine-quality armours were often … covered with or made of gold or silver’ (Blair 1958: 170), and aglets could be enamelled or jewelled (Ordinances 45).

592–3  herknes his Masse: the possessive pronoun is common – cf. ‘Thei … herden holly here masse’ (William 1298), ‘wende him forth to heren … is masse’ (Legend of Becket 1740) – and indicates a part of a normal routine. Line 593 is taken by A&W as referring to the Masse ‘offered and celebrated at the altar’, but this would state the obvious, and Offred and honoured are better read as past tenses than as participles: i.e. Gawain participated in the Offering and paid worship to his God (a well-attested intransitive sense of honouren: see MED honouren 1f), the two verbs amounting to a hendiadys for ‘expressed his reverence by making his offering at the altar’ (cf. WA 164, ‘Honourd [a god] with offyrings’, and 1197, ‘Offirs to his awen god & honours him faire’).

597–604  The magnificent brydel, sadel, arsounes, payttrure and cropure form a counterpart to those of the green horse (164–78), though Gringolet has no bells, a fact consistent with the contrastingly military and civilian aspects of the two matching descriptions of knight and horse: the armed knight in gold on red and the unarmoured one in gold on green (the colour of peace: see n. to 265–6 and cf. Malory 1196).

599  naylet: saddles were generally of wood, and nails were an essential part of a saddler’s equipment: see MED sv sadelere(e (a).

600  On decorative bridles and the use of (often metal) bars in ornamentation, see notes to 159 and 177.

601  For apparayl used to refer to a decorative design, colour or fashion: cf. ‘full shene to shewe, Uppon her steed … Her paraylle all of one hew, Of a grene welvette’ (Stanzaic Morte Arthur 2612–15), ‘ane helm … Of precyouse stanes the apparayle’ (Rowlande and Ottuell 413). The uniting apparayl is here gold on red (603), the colours of Gawain’s heraldic device (619–20), which have thus been extended into his harness and which have been anticipated by the gold armour on the red carpet (568–9).

605ff  The helmet, assumed only when the knight was ready to mount, was always the last piece of armour to be donned. His shield (619) and lance (667) were handed to him once he was in the saddle. Hence these three items are here separated from the rest of the (indoor) arming ceremony. The point at which Gawain mounts Gringolet is not specifically mentioned: it presumably comes in the gap between this stanza and the next, since it must have occurred before Gawain receives shield and lance, and after he dons the helmet (with the fastening of which a knight was often assisted). Helmet and lance, and sometimes shield, would be borne by a squire or other attendant, if the knight travelled with one. When Gawain dons the helm, therefore, it becomes clear that he is to travel unesquired and thus – as is repeatedly stressed in the ensuing account of the horrors of his journey (693, 695, 735, 749) – alone; when he later once again arms and mounts, he receives helmet and lance from the guide only at the point when the latter leaves him (2143).

606  Cf. Gologras 984 (of a stroke that cleaves a helmet), ‘Throw the stuf … stapalis and stanis [gems]’. Staples were ‘used to strengthen the helmet, especially at joints’ (T&G). On the essential stuffing or padding for helmets, cf. ‘Thai stuffit helmys in hy’ (Gologras 738), busy preparations for battle likewise including ‘stuffyng of helmes’ (SJ 426), while a ‘helme well stuffyd’ heads the list of accoutrements needed for a judicial joust (Ordinances 40).

607  high on his hed: a tall, pointed helm figures in the two MS illustrations that show Gawain on horseback at the Chapel (fol. 129v) and kneeling before the king and queen at his return to Camelot (130r). Its style is consistent with the assumed date of the poem (c.1390): the tall basinet, ‘drawn out to an elegant point to the rear of the centre’, was common throughout Europe from 1380 to 1420 (Blair 1958: 69).

607–11  The neck-protecting aventayle was a mail tippet attached to the base of the helmet by a complex arrangement of vervels and cords (Blair 1958: 52, 58; Lacy 1997: 167; White 1953: 113–14). It is included in an arming scene in MA (910) and is sometimes mentioned in battlefield contexts as protection against potentially lethal or decapitating sword strokes (Sir Ferumbras 5497, 5651; Waldef 3797). The urysoun, however, figures nowhere else in chivalric narrative, and is the only recorded anglicization of French horson/hourson. It was a decorative band attached to the sides and back of the helmet and covered the mechanism by which the helmet was joined to the aventayle. See the last entry in Godefroy’s Dictionnaire sv horson, concerning a helmet which is to have attached to it a horson of wool, cotton or silk (cf. sylkyn borde at 610) and figure 3 in Matsui 2010.

609–14  Similar embroidered devices picked out with inlaid jewels occur at 78–80 (Guinevere’s canopy), 166–7 (the green clothing), 2026–8 (the heraldic cognizance). For the decorative motif of birds in foliage in embroidery and metalwork, see Evans 1952: 42, 49, 55, and cf. the table vessels and temple vessels at C 1409–11, 1464–76 (and nn.), where papejayes also occur (1465); the periwinkles they are coupled with in Sir Gawain occur elsewhere among floral decorative motifs, as at Romaunt of the Rose 903, as do true-love flowers (cf. e.g. P3A 120, Awntyrs 510), here aptly coupled with turtle-doves (which symbolized true love), the collocation finding a parallel in the quaint collective ‘a truelove of turtles’ (see MED turtel (a)).

610  borde is also used of a fabric band or strip at 159, though not recorded in this sense elsewhere in ME. With bryddes on semes [birds in stitchwork] cf. the enbrawdede semes [embroidered stitchwork] of the surcoat displaying Gawain’s cognizance (2028). On both occasions, seme is generally understood to mean ‘seam’ or ‘border’; but it is unlikely that the elaborate designs described are crammed into the seams or edges of either the borde or the surcoat. Semes (derived from the verb ‘sew’: cf. ‘sempstress’) in both instances means simply ‘stitchwork, sewing’, a sense not recognized by MED but clearly attested in Octavian 1865, ‘And taught her maydenys werk of sem.’

613–14  The fine clothes prepared for Siegfried’s expedition are similarly the work of ‘lovely women’ who ‘sat day and night with scarcely any rest’ (Nibelungenlied 25). Clothwork was the preserve of women, and ornamental embroidery the characteristic accomplishment and avocation of the well-born woman or burde (cf. PP B.6.13, Octavian 1865). The exquisite cloth on which the romance of Emaré centres is the work of an Eastern princess and includes just such ‘Flowres and bryddes’ inlaid with jewels (166–7) as figure on Gawain’s urysoun. That cloth was ‘Seven wynter’ in the making (118), the same period of time required by the craftsman for Enide’s saddle (Erec 5302) – a rhetorical topos here outdone: the embroidery on this small strap is so intricate as to suggest that many women have been employed on it for seven years.

615  References to the golden and/or bejewelled cercle or coronal occur especially in arming scenes (Erec 2654–5, Rowlande and Ottuell 416, MA 908), and in the smashing of helms during combat, to which the falling gems of a cercle ‘worth a toun’ may add a spectacular touch (Sir Ferumbras 623; cf. Ami et Amile 1495, Second Continuation 30816–17). An ascending degree of pris here links the otherwise unconnected cercle and urysoun, the description of the helmet thus climaxing in its two most sumptuous features.

619–65  These lines on the pentangle are signalled as significant both by the explicitly indicated pause (624) and by MS layout: 619 begins with a decorated capital three lines deep, which (while distinct from the four-line capitals that mark the fitt divisions) acts to asterisk certain passages. Though the five-pointed mullet or estoile could occur as an armorial charge (Mann 2009), the term pentangle scarcely figures in heraldry, and is not a device borne by Gawain, or by any other knight, in Arthurian tradition. Outside the specialist field of medicine, in which it was a symbol of health, the figure was more generally familiar as an emblem to ward off evil (Bennett; Loomis 1943: 168; Schouten 1968). Its attribution to Salomon (625) follows a widespread tradition (Hulbert 1916: 722–3), and the device was commonly called ‘Solomon’s knot’: T&G cite the reference in Kircher’s Arithmologia (Rome 1665: 217) to ‘what is called Solomon’s knot’ (nodo quem Salomonis vocant). The term was familiar enough to occur figuratively in vernacular and secular contexts: Dante twice used nodo Salamone as a witty hyperbole for the moral enmeshment produced by, respectively, love and gluttony (Lyric Poetry 72a.9–10, 73.1). It is plainly by the term knotte, rather than by the Latinate pentangel (620), that the present poet assumes his audience will know the figure, for pentangel (rare even in Latin, and otherwise unattested in ME) is glossed at 630 by what is declared to be the more common English designation of ‘knot’ and described at 662–5 as the learned and Latinate equivalent (664–5) of knotte (662). This endeles shape (629–30) and its basis in the number five are here used to give geometrical and numerological expression to the moral-chivalric ideal of trauthe (626), and are obviously comparable with the circular gem in Pearl, endeles rounde (738), and the associated ‘twelves’ that express heavenly perfection in that poem – the circularity and its associated number being in each case confirmed in the circle performed by the poems themselves, in the repetition of their opening lines at, respectively, line 2525 and 1212, and in their 101 stanzas. It is not immediately clear, however, what special qualification or tytle (626) the pentangle has to symbolize truth, though it is precisely this question that For (627) purports to address at 627–30 and which Forthy (631) assumes to have been answered. The explanation is claimed to lie in the popular designation knotte (630). For both the noun and the verb had strong metaphorical and idiomatic connections with covenants, as in the expression knit a covenant/accord (G 1642 and C 564; cf. DT 11460, 13098 and MED knotte 3(c) and knitten 7(a) and (b)); conversely, to break faith was to loosen the knot so formed, hence the opposition at G 1783–4 between the fastening and loosening of one’s faith. It is obviously its nickname of knotte that explains the relevance of the pentangle to the story and to Gawain’s trauthe, for it is the knitting of his faith (1642) to covenants that test his truth that figures importantly in the narrative, not fives or pentagons (which are not again mentioned). The link formed, via knot, between fives and faith (632) may not have originated with this poet, who seems at 626–7 to appeal to an existing association between these things. All three terms occur in close interrelation in the speech of Shakespeare’s Troilus, as he watches Cressida ‘loosen’ the ‘bonds’ that ‘tied’ her to him by pledging herself to Diomed: ‘And with another knot, five-finger-tied, The fractions [broken parts] of her faith … are bound to Diomed’ (Troilus and Cressida V.ii.157–60). The speech plainly alludes to the knot as a designation for a five-membered figure, and to an association between that word and that figure with the pledging of faith; the five-membered figure is there the troth-plighting hand, and the word pantacle could be used in the sixteenth century precisely of the ‘hand’ (Hulbert 1915–16: 725), a fact also relevant to Troilus’ complex metaphor.

619–20  The rules of heraldry required the alternation of metal and colour between charge and field (i.e. colour could not be placed on colour, nor metal on metal); and in formal emblazoning the field had to be first specified, followed by the charge (Keen 1984: 129). These lines are thus heraldically correct in both form and content.

619  schewed (cf. 2061) corresponds to brohte in arming scenes in non-alliterative verse (cf. Rowlande and Ottuell 356, 421, 1208): cf. ‘scheus me myn hache [axe] and I schal note [use] hit today’ (Joseph of Arimathie 587–8).

624  thogh tary hit me schulde: cf. ‘I schal speke a litill more of the dyamandes all though I tarye my matere for a tyme’ (Mandeville (Cotton Titus) 106).

625–6  With this syngne and bytoknyng contrast 2433, 2488 and (especially) 2509.

627  holdes fyve poyntes: for the verb used in the context of mathematical analysis, cf. C 1387, Pe 1029.

630  Overal here is usually glossed ‘everywhere’, but it seems more likely that the word pentangle is being glossed by the term by which it is most ‘generally’ or ‘especially’ known (MED overal 2). Endeles-ness is a quality often attributed to knots: cf. ‘endelesly … knytte to hir blessed sone’ (Mirrour 35), and the designation th’endelese tharmes and the endeles gut used of the knot-like coils of the entrails and colon (MED sv endeles 4). In Sir Gawain the epithet likewise indicates, not the knot’s continuousness of outline (which almost any geometrical figure would have), but the intricate interlacings that leave no ‘loose end’ by which it could be unravelled: the repetition of endeles at 629–30 follows a reference to the interlocking lines (628) and is matched by the iterative non ende hade and Withouten ende (657b, 660) following a similar reference in 657a.

631–9  The treatment of Gawain’s device is consistent with heraldic theory, according to which arms should ideally be ‘an outward indication of inner capacity’ and should ‘bear witness to a virtue in their bearer’ (Keen 1984: 162).

631  armes is usually glossed ‘coat of arms’, but it makes little sense to say that the pentangle acordes to Gawain’s armes in that heraldic sense, since it is his armorial device; 631b means ‘(the heraldic device of the pentangle) is a fitting complement to his shining armour’.

633–9  The comparison of moral purity with refined gold is found in the Bible (Malachi 3:3, Zechariah 13:9). It is also used with reference to Gawain in Parzival 614.12–14: ‘I would compare you with gold … refined in the glowing fire.’ For the moral application of void, cf. ‘voide of vices’ (Troilus II.173) and for the metaphor with vertues enurned cf. ‘enowrnyd with vertues chaste’ (Pauline Epistles 1 Timothy 3:2). Here assembled into three parallel participles (pured, Voyded, enurned), the usages constitute a composite simile that recalls the pentangle that Gawain Forthy (636) bears in schelde and cote, also painted in pure golde (620) on the former and Enurned on the latter (2027); the two aspects of the simile are continued in the two superlatives relating to the sterling veracity and graces of Gawain’s speech (of tale most true and gentylest … of lote), i.e. his truth to his word and his courtesy.

636  new has not been satisfactorily explained: ‘newly-painted’ (T&G) asks too much of the adjective, and a ‘new’ cognizance adopted by Gawain for this venture (Bennett) is improbable. The pentangle is certainly ‘novel’ heraldry for Gawain (Evans 1968) and ‘novel’ as an armorial charge at all, but it seems overstrained to read new as an acknowledgement of either fact. It possibly means ‘different’ in the sense of ‘distinctive’ (cf. 118, 132; Pe 879).

637  Cf. ‘Everyche his armes depeynt uppon his scheld, Brouded [embroidered] or bete [inlaid] vpon his cote armure’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 1.4070–71). Though the present account of the pentangle is occasioned by the device as it appears depaynt (620) on the shield, the only other subsequent (much briefer) reference to it concerns the cognizance as it appears enbrawdede and beten (with jewels) on Gawain’s cote-armure (2026–8).

640–65  The five sets of five introduced here occupy a stanza which itself consists of twenty-five alliterative long lines. The argument that truth is pentangular requires only divisibility into five, subdivisibility into further fives being a piece of supererogatory virtuosity – though the square of a number always has special significance in numerology (as that of twelve does in Revelation and Pe 786). The fives are interestingly grouped in such a way as to suggest the multi-dimensional nature of man, who must make proper use of his faculties as a physical (640–41) being, and as a spiritual (642–50) and social (651–55) one.

640–41  The importance of guarding the five senses is a recurring topos in confessional and moral contexts, in which wrong-doing figures as the abuse or ‘mis-spending’ of those senses (see e.g. Donet 102; PP C.15.255, 16.235).

649–50  The detail is modelled on the shield attributed in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History to Arthur, on which was painted (inpicta) a likeness (imago) of the Virgin Mary, ‘to keep her memory always before his eyes’ (198). Both the English and the French versifications of the History, by Layamon and Wace respectively, emphasize that the image was on the inside of the shield (Brut 10555–6, Roman de Brut 9293–6). The theologian Robert Holcot attributed to the image (Lectio 36, p. 127) a morale-boosting effect in battle; his words were Englished in a vernacular sermon (quoted, as is Holcot, by Gollancz) of about the same date as Sir Gawain: ‘recitat doctor Holcote …that Kyng Artoure had in the innare parte of ys shelde [interiori parte scuti sui; inner half of his schelde] an ymage [ymagin-em … depictam; image depaynted] of Oure Lady Mary … the wiche ymage he wold behold [quam quotiens … aspexit; when he blusched thereto] when that he was werry in batell [in bello fatigatus; in melly, 644] and feynte; and anon for conforte and hope that he had in hure he waxed freshe and herty ayeyn [spem recuperavit et vires; his belde never payred] and in … good poynte for to feyghthe [fight]’ (Middle English Sermons 325–6). The final detail attributes to Gawain that invigoration of his prowess the knight more typically receives from the presence or remembered image of his mistress (cf. WW 428–32, Malory 723–8); the fact that Gawain is thus ‘Mary’s knight’ is later appealed to in deprecating the moral danger he faces from a woman who herself appeals precisely to the romance logic of heterosexual love as the conventional inspiration for chivalric heroism (1512–19).

651–4  The virtues listed are those often associated with gentillesse and the ideal knight. None of them except courtesy is ever mentioned again or has any significant part to play in the poem. Fraunchise differed from ‘largesse’ in that the ‘free’ or ‘large’ generosity denoted by both words always involved a material object in largesse, whereas the magnanimity displayed in fraunchise did not (for a distinction and conflict between the two, see Chevalier de la charrete 2836–51). The virtue that thus stands opposed to Gawain’s later self-interested retention of the girdle is not fraunchis, but (as Gawain states: 2381) largesse – which does not figure in the present pentad. As to clannesse, a chaste hero is often assumed, the comically formulaic Sir Topas being thus ‘chaast and no lechour’, despite being attractive to women (CT VII.742–5); and Gawain does resist the role of romantic lover his hostess tries to force upon him, but he does so to avoid treachery to his host (1773–5), not to preserve his chastity, which is not an issue in his mind or the narrator’s. The need to preserve courtaysye to the lady certainly is an issue (1773) and is the virtue Gawain was famed for, both outside the text and (914–27, 1297–8, 1525) within it. But this virtue is not here picked out for any special emphasis, which falls instead on pyty (654), which has no relevance to the story, though the stress given it here is consistent with its status elsewhere as the supreme attribute of the gentil disposition: Chaucer follows Dante in emphasizing (in a reiterated line: CT I.1761, IV.1986, V.479; Legend of Good Women F.503) that ‘pitee renneth soone in gentil herte’. The poet is plainly assembling these pentads with an eye not to the story – which is in suspension (624) – but to general notions of excellence and how they can be set out on a base of five. What is relevant to the story is the notion of truth as an essentially comprehensive and composite virtue: the hero is from the start (343–61, 536–65) required to observe tact and courtesy when doing the honourable thing – for, in the moral taxonomy of the poem set out at 640–54, courtaysye is not a virtue separate from truth, but a subsection of it. Hence Gawain’s dilemma in Fitt III when caught between discourtesy to his hostess and treachery to his host: to fail in courtesy is not a lesser sin than to fail in truth, but a failure in the social aspect of truth itself, which requires keeping faith with others and respecting their feelings and their dignity.

657  halched (on which see n. to 185) completes a series of verbs – umbe-lappes and loukes (628), happed (655) – that match a similar sequence with respect to the armour (575, 577, 578, 581, 590, 607, 616), of which the virtues are an internal counterpart. See Mann 2009.

659  For the opposition samned … sundrede, cf. ‘Of merke and kinde and helde and ble, Sundring and samening tagte he’ (Genesis and Exodus 457–8).

660–61  At 660b, the MS has jquere fynde, the first letter being very indistinct. Editors usually follow T&G in emending to ‘I oquere fynde’, construing ‘[end] which I find anywhere’, and interpreting 661 as a concessive clause (‘Wherever the device started or came to an end’). But 660 alliterates on n (cf. Pa 66), so noquere (Gollancz and Cawley) is the more satisfactory emendation of MS jquere. However, a concessive clause beginning ‘Wherever’ in 661 is ruled out on grounds of both content and form (Stokes 2009). First, it would concede precisely the point so strenuously denied in the repeated assertion that the device has no ende (629–30, 657, 660a). Secondly, the wh- indefinites never appear in this corpus as wherever, whoever, whenever, whatever, but always as wh-so or wh-soever (or are represented by the wh- word alone). ever (661) must therefore follow where as an intensifier: cf. Who … ever at 682, meaning ‘Who in the world’ (= no one). Where ever in 661 therefore means ‘Where in the world’ (implying ‘nowhere’). Line 661 must therefore be an indirect question introduced by 660b, which we have emended accordingly.

661  game: here in the otherwise unrecorded sense ‘something devised, device’.

662–5  knotte … pentangel with the peple called With lore: cf. 629–30 and n. to 619–65.

662  Therefore: the analysis of Gawain’s truth as a pentangle has taken the form of a logical demonstration, not a fanciful conceit. The first stage of the ‘proof’ (For, etc: 627–30) is an account of the pentangle, the second (For, etc: 632–5) is an account of Gawain which involves a proposition (632) that itself then requires demonstration (640–55); and all three stages in the argument conclude in a quod erat demonstrandum (Forthy 631 and 636, Therefore 662) relating back to the proposition introduced by why (623).

663  red gold: this common ME expression is explained by MED sv red adj 1f(a) as a reference to gold proved pure ‘through becoming red when heated’. Whatever its origin, the collocation was of long standing: ‘the reddest gold’ and ‘the whitest silver’ occur in OE as typifying worldly wealth (Old English Homilies 201). The repetition of red in the present line attributes to the otherwise contrasting gold and goules some underlying tonal congruity. Both gold and scarlet (a dye used for royal garments: Evans 1952: 39, 44) were associated with magnificent wealth (cf. PP B.2.11–16) and their common redness is here alliteratively collocated with Ryally: cf. Sidrak L 11089 (‘the reed signifieth realte’) and G 2036, where, with reference to the scarlet ground of Gawain’s device, ryal again collocates with red (and rich).

670  sperred (not a plausible form of ‘spurred’ or ‘speared’) seems to represent the sole recorded survival into ME of OE sporran in the sense ‘strike’ (ME sperren/sparren having elsewhere the meaning ‘dart, spring’, as at Pe 1169); the spurs find a parallel in the claws to which there is a recorded application of the verb in OE (clifra spyrringe).

671  Firestone [stone for striking sparks] was current as a term for flint, but stonefire [sparks struck from stone or flint] is a concise compound not recorded elsewhere.

674–83  The lines seem to be a reworking of a passage in DT in which Achilles condemns the war as a waste of life in a foolish cause and asks, with reference to Palomides (recently killed): ‘Hade not Palomydon … prevet the bettur, To have lengit in is lond and his lyf hade, And have deghit in his duche as a duke noble, Than be britnet on bent with a buerne strang’ (9755–8); their similar wording expresses in both texts a briefly anti-heroic perspective on events. The conferral of a dukedom on Gawain is represented – not simply as a fate self-evidently preferable to being butchered (680) – but primarily (as the collocation in 677 of wyt and Warloker emphasizes) as an act of political prudence: since the term duc often implied a sovereign ruler (duche in DT renders regnum in its source, Guido’s Historia), precisely the same reasons which had prompted him and the other knights to extricate Arthur from the game (362–5) would have weighed against its transference to him, and would have prevented him from claiming that he was unimportant and that his life would be little loss (355).

680  brittened to noghte: cf. ‘Oure burghe … that bretted is to noght’ (WA 2383). The verb (whose etymological meaning is ‘to divide’) occurs in this MS only in Sir Gawain, where it is used in all three of its commonest applications: to the destruction of cities (2); to the cutting up of an animal carcase (1339, 1611); to the butchering or hacking of a human body by a sharp weapon (cf. DT 9758, quoted in n. to 674–83).

681  alvisch: cf. the ‘elvysch knyght’ of Guy of Warwick (2) 11317–61, where the word translates OF faé and is used, as in Sir Gawain, of a knight antagonist with supernatural powers who, as is also the implication in Sir Gawain, exploits his own invulnerability to assault and entrap other knights. angardes pryde: angart is a word of uncertain etymology, word class (it occurs as noun, adjective and adverb) and even phonology, since it can appear as ang-d/t or aug/awg-d/t, and, owing to the similarity of u and n in medieval scripts, it is not always clear which form was intended. Pre-1300 instances are northern and show a clear sense of ‘pride’: the devil fell ‘thorw his awgart [var. pride] unto hel’ (Cursor F 478); post-1300 instances are confined to alliterative verse, where the word is often found in collocation with pride. B-verses similar to the present one occur at DT 9745 (‘thurgh angard of pride’) and 5015 (‘your angard desire’) and WW 267 (‘in angarte pryde’). The reference is plainly to pride of an excessive kind (consistent with the sense ‘very, extremely’, borne by the word when used as an adverbial intensifier in the form angerly or augerly); it is presumably the alvisch man who is being accused of it (i.e. of an arrogantly aggressive use of his powers).

683  cavelouns: often emended to cavelaciouns (cf. cavelacioun at 2275), a word used to characterize the specious cavils of lawyers, etc. But caveloun may be an authentic form showing influence from haveloun, which (while its primary sense related to the circuitous course run by a hunted animal: cf. 1708) often had a similar meaning, and is used of oversubtle reasoning (which is the accusation here) at Laud Troy Book 7882 and PP B.10.131.

684  Cf. e.g. ‘And I wepte water warm and wette my wonges’ (Joseph 647).

689  wylsum way: the adjective wil meant ‘off the beaten track’ (as at 2084) and wilsom wayes indicated unfrequented and dis-orienting terrain offering no clear paths to the traveller; the collocation often occurs with reference to ‘desert’ or ‘wilderness’ (cf. 701); see MED wilsom adj 1(b).

691  Logres is the French form of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Loegria, and it is after the manner of French romance, not after that of Geoffrey’s History, that the term is here used (i.e. to designate the British kingdom ruled over by Arthur); for it evidently here includes Wales (697), whereas Kambria (together with Cornwall) is specifically excluded (History 30, 46, 48, etc) from the kingdom south of the Humber to which Geoffrey gives the name Loegria.

693  ledeles (MS leudles) occurs only here. Though it has been taken to refer to lack of companions, that is a matter dealt with at 695–6, and ‘without attendants’ better suits the focus in 693–4 on the want of the physical amenities a hostel (cf. 776) would provide. Lede(s) also refers to servants at 851, 1119, 1989.

695  fole: as a mere synonym for ‘horse’ the word is confined to verse, where it often figures as a rhyming or alliterative expedient.

696  A similar comment is made with respect to Gawain when he is alone and in danger in Walewein: ‘[there was not] anyone to whom he might complain or to whom he might reveal his thoughts except for God and the Virgin Mary’ (7685–7).

697–701  For the journey that brings Gawain initially into north Wales, a starting point in south Wales is indicated – probably Caerleon, which was commonly associated with Arthur’s court: see Geoffrey’s History 208, MA 64 and the Welsh Triads (Trioedd 85). The geographical specificity of the passage is not untypical of English (as opposed to French) Arthurian romance (cf. the journey, in the opposite direction from that of Gawain, made by Guinevere from York to Caerleon via Chester in MA 3911–18). More distinctive is the topographical specificity of the fordes by the forlondes and the Holy Hed, where the definite article implies familiar points on a known path. Gawain’s route coincides with one recorded as actually taken by travellers. Gerald of Wales’s itinerary (c.1180), described in his Journey Through Wales 115–98, began in the south, took him to Caerleon, the site of ‘Arthur’s famous court’, from where he followed a roughly coastal route up to Anglesey and across the north coast (fording the Conway by boat), crossing the Dee back into England to arrive at Chester (at the southern boundary of the Wirral). A similar route appears on the fourteenth-century ‘road map’ known as the Gough Map: running along the west and then the north coast of Wales, the marked route clearly fords three waterways (the second labelled as the river Conway) opposite Anglesey lying on lyft half when travelling west to east – these crossings occurring near the coastal forlondes or headlands created by the debouchment of the rivers; the route then crosses the Dee estuary at Flint into Cheshire. The word over at 699 and 700 similarly transports Gawain successively over the fords of the north coast and the Dee estuary into the Wirral. He crosses the Dee at the Holy Hed (700), possibly a reference to Holywell on the Dee estuary – where the well in question marked the spot where the head of St Winifred was chopped off and miraculously restored (Gollancz). Holywell, however, lies further seaward than the crossing points in Gerald of Wales and on the Gough Map, which are much further upriver, where the estuary is less wide; but those routes are devised to join a major road (running through Chester) in England, whereas Gawain’s crossing point is dictated by no such next stage of a planned itinerary. If the Holy Hed is not a reference to St Winifred’s holy well, the head is more likely to refer to a headland than a well: in the absence of a first element referring to water, head in toponymy designates land projecting upwards or outwards in the form of what the poet calls a forlond- [headland] and associates with a ford- [crossing place], as with the place actually called Holyhead in Anglesey, which could be referred to as ‘Unum forland vocatum le Holyhede’ (Botoner, Itinerarium 153, cited in OED sv foreland 1).

701–2  On fourteenth-century complaints and commissions respecting malefactors and armed gangs in the Wirral, see Savage 1931. God other gome with good herte is usually assumed to be a variant of the Norse-derived expression ‘God and good man’ (Olszeweska 1933: 81), which can occur as grammatical subject (‘him luveden God and gode men’: Peterborough Chronicle 79) or object (‘forto agulte God or any good gome’: PP B.16.7–8). In Sir Gawain, the caesura (after gome) suggests, however, that with good herte is not an adjectival phrase qualifying gome, but an adverbial phrase qualifying loved – as does standard ME usage, in which ‘of … herte’ would be more normal for adjectival function, whereas ‘with … herte’ is almost always adverbial. It therefore appears that the line contains, not a variant of ‘God and good man’, but an instance of the common collocation of God and gome (cf. 549, 696, 2470).

703–8  The scenario here – a protagonist travelling in search of someone after whom he makes continual enquiry – is not uncommon (cf. Vulgate Merlin 460, Livre d’Artus 268), and it would be perfectly normal for a knight so sought to be referred to by the colour of his arms and armour, as in Cligés 4676–7 (‘ … aloient Demandent le noir chevalier’). Indeed, the frequency of such expressions as ‘le chevalier vermeil’ or ‘le noir chevalier’ makes Gawain’s enquiries about a knight grene … of the Grene Chapel superficially unremarkable. Anyone able to make a positive response would, of course, have understood that ‘the green knight’ meant something more uncommon than it would normally imply; but as it is, all give their solemn negatives (706–8) to almost comic effect, without realizing what they might well have regarded as the lunacy of the question.

706  nikked (from ne ic [not I]) him with nay (cf. 2471): the idiom occurs both within alliterative verse (William 4145, Gologras 115) and outside it (Amis 2188).

709  gates straunge: for the adjective applied to ways that are obscure and unfamiliar, cf. ‘Otho wente oute of Ynglond; and, though he went straunge weyes, yet was he aspied’ (Capgrave, Chronicles 155). These straunge paths (through unnamed territories) are the opposite of the known and familiar route (through named places) implied by the definite article at 697–701. The bob-and-wheel is thus employed to lose Gawain off the geographical map on to which his journey has hitherto been plotted. Though the unspecified gates straunge lead him into a ‘somewhere’ realm that discourages such precise localization as has been attempted by some of the poem’s enthusiasts, the text nevertheless does create the impression, by the specificity of 697–701, that Gawain ends up somewhere in the poet’s own dialect region of Cheshire, the landscape of which certainly provides the setting pictured for forthcoming events (Elliott 1997: 116–17).

710  bene [pleasing] occurs only here with prefix un-. In connection with gates (709), unbene indicates the tough going that is the opposite of what figures elsewhere as the ‘brode strate and thane weg bene’, that opposite being a narrow, unpaved and uphill path ‘ayien the clife and ayien the heie hulle’ (Poema Morale 341, 351).

711  His chere ful oft con chaunge: the collocation of chaunge and chere elsewhere invariably means ‘to alter expression’, i.e. ‘to look distressed or disturbed’ (as at Pa 368; see MED sv chaungen 2(a) and 3). But it appears from 2169 (‘And oft chaunged his chere the chapel to seche’) that the expression here means ‘He often looked this way and that’; though such a usage is not recorded elsewhere, it is consistent with others in which chere refers to the direction of the gaze: ‘lieve la chiere en haut’ [he looks up] (Vulgate Merlin 352), ‘thyderward he caste ys chere’ [he looked in that direction] (Sir Ferumbras 346).

714  For frend and fremed elsewhere in alliterative verse, cf. MA 3343 (‘I [Fortune] hafe bene frendely, freke, and fremmede tille other’), PP B.15.141, Gologras 909.

715–17  Water crossings were typically the sites of duels with knights who had undertaken (often as a chivalric exercise) to ‘guard the ford’: see e.g. Chevalier de la charrete 730–32 (‘En cele lande avoit un gué [ford] Et d’autre part armez estoit Uns chevaliers qui le gardoit’), Lancelot do Lac 179–80, First Continuation 13860–64.

716  bot ferly hit were: cf. ‘So was scho ferd and afright, a ferly ware ellis’ (WA 395), ‘And full fele other folke, als ferly were ellis’ (P3A 310), where the b-verses mean ‘as was not wonderful’. The similar expression in Sir Gawain is used to very different effect: it indicates, not the unremarkableness of the fact at issue (Gawain fighting his way over a ford), but the iteration of drama to the point where it is the unremarkable that would have been (were) remarkable.

719  Cf. the joy that ‘tonge might non telle the tenthe del for sothe’ and ‘It were toor forto telle treuli al the sothe’ (William 4671, 5066). Subsidiary adventures are passed over even more summarily on Gawain’s return journey, where the mony aventure the poet does not intend to record in tale (2482–3) finds parallels in intermediary aventures elsewhere in romance of which the conte will not speak (e.g. Livre d’Artus 268, Vulgate Merlin 457, Lancelot do Lac 178).

720–23  Desertine or terre asalvagie [wild territory] was assumed to have fauna to match, and those travelling through it regularly encounter gent tresfelons (as at 701–2 and 717) and just such a mixture of savage beasts – real and (though probably often credited with actual existence) mythical – as are here listed (the wormes [reptiles] at 720 being either dragons or snakes: the word was regularly used of both): cf. Protheselaus 3890–92 (dragons, serpents, tigers, lions, unicorns, bears); WA 3922–3 (snakes, serpents and warlawes [monstrous men]); Song of Roland 306–7 (bestis and wolves); Moniage 2480–556 (bulls, serpents, huge lizards, toads and a giant); Kyng Alisaunder 4758–9 (‘wormes and othere merveilles’).

721  wodwos [wood creatures], or wild men of the woods, are often mentioned as decorative motifs, and the word is found glossing or glossed by ‘satyrs’ or ‘fauns’ (the half-animal denizens of the forest that figure in classical myth). knarres (cf. 1434, 2166) was used of knotty excrescences or protruberances (cf. ‘knur’); as a reference to a crag, it figured in northern place names such as Knarford, but is otherwise recorded only in Sir Gawain and at Owl and Nightingale 1001 (where it occurs in a characterization of northern territory); the topographical features and terminology in the poem often have such vividly local precision (Elliott 1984).

723  anelede: Latin anelo regularly glosses or is glossed by ‘pant’, but Sir Gawain provides the earliest actual use of the rare verb an(h)ele, which occurs in early fifteenth- and sixteenth-century usage with the meaning ‘pant after (= long for)’; and only in Sir Gawain is it used of the literal panting occasioned by the literal pursuit to which it here gives alarming audibility.

724  On drye, see n. to 335.

726–8  The often-adopted emendations of was (726b) to nas [= ne was] and schadden (727) to schadde may be somewhat anachronistic in the degree of grammatical correctness they assume essential for acceptable ME. Line 726 probably represents a loose, mixed or elliptical construction of a type not uncommon in ME. The lack in 727 of numerical concord between subject and verb is also frequent, especially in the case of nouns which could be thought of as collectives (water = drops of water). Lines 727–8 form a periphrasis for sleet or hail: cf. ‘And whanne that clowde sholde in droopes fall, With colde ben they frosen all, And that sholde have falle rayn to grounde They fallen thenne on stones rounde’ (Sidrak B 4379–82).

728  fale: fallow referred to the fading or withering of greenery: cf. ‘thare groued never gryss … Bot evermore be ded and dry, And fallow and fade’ (Northern Passion R 1902–4).

729  Nere slayn with the slete: cf. ‘neir slane with snaw and sleit’ (Henryson, Fables 1698); the context gives relevance to the latent personification (‘killed by the sleet’): the alliterative collocation of werre and wynter (726) introduces a presentation of winter as a parallel form of assault, the overhead frozen sources of water (727, 732) rushing down from a height, as his animate foes had done (721, 723), on the vulnerable figure below.

736  wye: MS knyȝt results in the only instance of clashing stress in the bob-and-wheel that cannot be solved by assuming historically justified final -e. Emendation to wye restores both iambic metre and alliteration to the line (Putter et al. 2007: 130).

737  The appeal to Mary here reinforces the special relationship between her and Gawain which the poet has introduced (see 649–50 and n.), and as a result of which Mary figures in the poem as a kind of tutelary goddess to the man who is ‘her knight’ (1768–9). For the idiom make mone to [address one’s grievance to, appeal to], see MED mon n^1 4.

740  meryly often has very weakened sense (MED mirili 3 and 4), and, in the context of a journey, may have acquired the vague meaning ‘without mishap, in due course, duly’ (cf. CT VII.301), a usage perhaps influencing C 804, where the adjective would otherwise seem, as would the adverb here, an inert and inept recycling of the collocation with morn(ing) found at G 1691 and C 493.

743–4  Both hasel and hawthorne were commonly classified as types of hedge or bush. The line of vision (obstructed by objects that block the light) is thus descending downwards and inwards to claustrophobic effect, from the high encircling hills (742a), to the massive shade-casting trees (742b) clustered under them, to the densely entangled shrubs beneath. hore wodes and holtes hore were standard expressions, referring probably to shade and blocking of the line of sight, for hore [grey, ashy] was also used to mean ‘gloomy, overcast’; but the word is not elsewhere applied to specific trees. harled is a verb not otherwise attested in ME, though its sense is deducible from ME herlyng [wattling] and from post-medieval dialectal and agrarian harl [twist].

745  rogh, raged mosse rayled aywhere: in connection with moss, the adjectives have the sense they bore when applied to hairy animates (MED ragged 2(a) and rough adj 3), and thus mean ‘forming a crudely shaggy covering as of unkempt, matted or tangled hair’: cf. ‘I sigh hire [an old woman clad in leaves] al mossy and of mosse al rouh’ (Pilgrimage I, 91). rayled is typically used (cf. 163 and 603) of a pleasing aesthetic effect that is the antithesis of what is suggested by rogh and raged (cf. the oppositions at 952–3): i.e. the tangled or harled (744) vegetation is an antitype of the artful interlace the poet elsewhere delights in (see e.g. 190, 609–14).

749  misy is not recorded elsewhere in ME, but mizzy occurs from the seventeenth century as a dialect word for ‘quagmire’. It is apparently cognate with OE and ME mos [bog], which is twice recorded in collocation with myre and marsh (MED sv mos n^1 2).

753–4  In invocations, Mary, alliterating with mild (a fixed epithet for the Virgin: see MED mild(e adj 2(c)) and/or mother, regularly follows God: cf. the prayer for succour ‘to the King of heven And to his milde moder’ in William 3026–7 (cf. Amis 2360; MA 3998, 4040–1; P3A 664–5); but the usage has a special appropriateness to Gawain (see n. to 737). The superlative form in which mild here appears is metrically motivated: it enables the caesura to fall between adjective and noun (cf. 938).

755  highly is sometimes glossed ‘earnestly, devoutly’ (a sense it has at 773), but Gawain’s point is, not that God cannot be worshipped devoutly in the wilderness, but that honouring Him with the ritual dignity proper to that ‘high feast’ (cf. 932, 1033) requires herber. For highly = ‘honourably, nobly’, see MED heighli adv 1.

755–6  For the attendance at midnight Mass (the first of three Christmas Day Masses) by the laity, cf. Amis 2251ff. After the midnight Mass, the congregation was also expected to remain for the immediately following service of Matins (see Young 1933: I, 21).

757–8,  762  The prayers are rudimentary ones, for Gawain is a layman painfully aware of his want of the clerical professionalism which civilization would give him access to (755): the Pater Noster, the Ave Maria and the Creed were the three devotions which children had to be taught by the age of seven (cf. Pe 483–5) and which formed the first texts encountered in acquiring literacy from ABC primers (Tarven 1988: 137–8). Crist cross/cros Crist me/thee spede – a formula known even to the simple shepherds of the Towneley Plays (12.419) was also a distinctly unerudite locution: cf. ‘How long agoo lerned ye, “Crist crosse me spede!” Have ye no more lernyd of youre a b c?’ (Prohemy 425–6).

760  This is one of several acts of confession performed by Gawain, inside and outside of Christian ritual (cf. 1880–2, 2385–8, 2501–4), though his acknowledgement of the specific sin relevant to the plot occurs only in the latter context (2378–88).

763  The stanza begins with a three-line-deep capital (see n. to 619–65). Concatenation on sayned underscores the miraculous answer to Gawain’s prayer the castle seems to constitute. For the ritual repetition of the talismanic gesture of crossing thrye [three times], cf. Bible en François 74 (‘Seint Peter … blissid hem thrice with the signe of the cros’), Legend of St Edmund 78. The prayers of a travelling knight are answered with similarly wondrous immediacy in Sir Ferumbras 3955 (‘Nad he noght that word ful speke …’), Generydes 56–60, Walewein 248–56.

764  For the inceptive sense of was ware (‘became aware’), cf. Pe 1096, Pa 249. An alliterative flick of the wrist transforms wilderness into civilization, wode into won, in a skilful adaptation of the collocation of ware and won (for which cf. ‘Syne war thai war of ane wane wrocht with ane wal’: Gologras 237).

764–70  The encircling ditch with drawbridge, the raised site (on a lawe), the situation on a launde amid a prayere, and the enclosure by a palays are all typical features of the ideal castle (often, as here, declared to be the best to be found) as it appears in romance: cf. ‘Une fermeté, La plus bele c’ainc mais trovast …En une lande estoit assise … Et se fu close tot entor … de molt bon palis … bon pont fort torneis Sor le fosse qui molt ert grans Et toz plains d’iaue’ (First Continuation 11770–82; cf. 15154; Livre d’Artus 289; Gui 12227, 12321). The palays [fence] often encloses a park (cf. Marie de France, Eliduc 800–801), a much-prized amenity (William 2845, Sir Degrevant C 70), since it contained woodland (G 770) which served as covert, the park being in fact often a game preserve (cf. Douglas, Aeneid XII.Prol.176–7); the palisaded park here (768–9) heralds the hunts that occupy so much of Fitt III.

769  pyned [empounded, enclosed] qualifies park (768), not palays [fence]. The surrounding palays serves to impound the game in the park; cf. ‘Bot pyned thare in a parroke [enclosure] inparked as bestis’ (WA 4829).

771  on that on side seems to state the obvious, whatever sense of side is involved. The footgloss assumes side = ‘direction’ (MED side n 7a). But it could mean ‘lateral face of a house’ (cf. Pa 451), in which case the phrase = ‘on the one side of it’ [the castle]; side = bank (MED side 3b(b)) would give ‘on its side of the moat’ or ‘from his side of the moat’.

772  schyre, schene and bright are often used in alliterative verse of trees, boughs and leaves (cf. C 605, Pe 284, MA 1760, DT 345–5), apparently in reduced sense (‘fair’), any residue of their primary meaning perhaps implying ‘sunlit’. schyre is, however, here attracted by schemered and schon towards its literal sense of ‘shining’, the trees looking less grim than they did (743) because partaking now in the flickering shine of the castle intermittently seen through them. In the counterpoint between this resplendent civilization and the grim wildness of the terrain traversed to reach it, the poet is developing an opposition that exists in more embryonic and incidental form in other romances: cf. the deep forest (‘walt … lanc unde wît’), high mountains and marshy moors that bring Gawain to a castle that also emits a splendid shine (‘werden glast’) in Parzival (398.10–27). Undulled by traffic smog, and often whitewashed (see n. to 796–801), stone castles are regularly represented as shining white and bright (cf. ‘li mur … reluisoient encontre le soleil’: Vulgate Merlin 363), in the visual as well as the verbal arts: see, e.g., the chateaux of Saumur and Mehun-sur-Yèvre (contemporary with the poem) in the illustrations for September (fol. 9v) and the Temptation of Christ (fol. 161v) in Très riches heures.

773–5  highly: in view of the gesture of reverence, the sense ‘devoutly’ may be shading into that of ‘ceremoniously’ (cf. 755 and n.). For the removal of the helmet as a gesture of gratitude and respect, cf. 2407–8: Gawain’s social and devotional instincts are remarkably integrated – as are those of the poem, which here (hendly, gentyl, courtaysye) characterizes piety and divine grace as aspects of ‘courtesy’.

775  courtaysye (MS cortaysly) had him kyd is correctly glossed ‘had shown him courtesy’ by previous editors, who have not, however, emended the MS, though kithen in this sense is invariably constructed with noun object, not adverb (MED kithen 3b and c): cf. 263 (‘here is kyd courtaysye’); Ywain 3660 (‘And curtaysi ye have me kyd’) and 3764; WA 2868. Kithen is likewise transitive (with that as pronoun object) at C 1435a (‘That schal I cortaysly kythe’, meaning ‘That shall I demonstrate in a courtly way’); it thus provides no support for the unemended MS.

776  Cf. Royal Historie of Generides 166: ‘A faire place there he sigh … And praid to God of goode hostell’. Since God was normally addressed in prayer by thou (cf. 753–6; Pa 282ff, 413ff), yow indicates Gawain’s prayer is to both Jesus and Saint Julian (774) – the saint specially invoked by travellers in prayers for good hospice (‘qui ab itinerantibus pro inveniendo bono hospitio invocatur’: Jacobus de Voragine, ch. 30), variously termed ‘guod in [inn]’, ‘guod hereborewe’, ‘gud herbry’ in Legend of St Julian in the South English Legendary (88, 102, 152) and the Scottish Life of St Julian (17). The French equivalent used by Gawain also occurs at Chaucer, House of Fame 1022 (‘Seynt Julyan, loo, bon hostel!’); in French romance, bon hostel is of course the regular term for the good hospitality frequently met with by knights, l’ostel Saint Julien figuring as a description of peculiarly excellent hospitality (e.g. Second Continuation 26946; cf. CT I.340).

777  gederes is usually emended, perhaps rightly, to gerdes (= girds [strikes]), in view of 2062 and 2160, with the former of which the emendation makes the present line nearly identical. Such exact repetition of whole lines is not characteristic of this poet – who does, moreover, use the verb gaderen in ways not otherwise attested, as at 421, 2160, 2260 and Pa 105, where Gederen to provides a close parallel with gederes … to here (both instances involving application of a part of the body, hands or feet, to an object in order to control its movement). The gilt heles here and at 2062 are a reminder of Gawain’s status as a knight (see n. to 587; contrast 2153).

778–80  With the prayer followed by the path chauncely taken, cf. the experience of the benighted traveller of Generydes: ‘To God he prayd to send hym some remedy. And as God wold, hym happyd in a waye Which brought hym streyte to a goodly place’ (56–8).

781–2  breme clearly parallels faste and means ‘firmly’, not ‘speedily’, as it is mis-glossed in MED, which also misleadingly cites the line as the only instance in which the verb upbreiden is used of drawing up a bridge, thus obscuring the match in idiomatic style, sense and construction between the two lines: breiden up (here inverted for metrical reasons) was as regularly used of the raising of the drawbridge (cf. ‘Braid(en) up (the) brigge(s)’ at DT 10464, SJ 619) as was steken [close, fasten] of the securing (by bars, chains or ‘staples’) of the gates (cf. Pe 1065; WA 1205; Douglas, Aeneid VI.i.81).

784  reflects close familiarity with French romance, the sturdy defensibility of whose many fine castles is often indicated by a semi-personification involving the negated verb craindre or duter [fear]: cf. ‘Ne dute engin ne nul asalt’ (Protheselaus 6336), ‘si forz que nule rien ne dote’ (Conte du Graal 5691); First Continuation 1826.

785  Editors sometimes transpose bonk and blonk, since 786 clearly refers to the former. But 785b can be read as a parenthetical relative clause; and, with regard to hoven, though preposition + place figures more frequently as an adverbial modifier than does ‘on horseback’, the latter is well attested: cf. ‘on blonkis huffit’ (Douglas, King Hart 171), ‘hovedd on his stede’ (Sir Tryamoure 1428), ‘hoved on horsbak’ (Layamon 489).

786–7  The ideal castle typically has surrounding ditches said to be parfont (or haut) and filled with water (which the words mote, dich, etc, did not necessarily imply). The double dich has parallels in the ‘doubill dykis’ of Gologras 239 and Douglas, Aeneid X.i.54, Troy’s ‘depe dikes and derke, doubull of water’ (DT 1566), Malory’s ‘towre … double-dyked’ (308) and the excellent castle ‘a double fosse tous plains d’iaue’ (Vulgate Merlin 402). Though there were castles that actually had two moats, the term ‘double ditch’ itself probably refers to an extra-wide moat, created by digging two ditches close together (Thompson 1997: 125).

789  For the collocation cf. ‘Harde stones for to hewe wyt eggit toles’ (StE 40).

791–2  For such projecting towers or garytes as a feature of a defensive wall of hard-hewen stone (789), and for the collocation with gay, cf. ‘And all strong ston wall sterne opon heithe, With gaie garites and grete’ (Pierce the Ploughman’s Crede 213–14). With respect to their loupes [arrow-loops], louked ful clene is explained in T&G as a reference to shutters, but the example they cite actually concerns a moveable shield structure, not a castle wall; see Matsui 2010, who thinks it unlikely that shutters (emergency measures put up in time of siege) are involved here (133). The poet is commenting on the artful design of the loupes (which had to provide an opening for archers while nevertheless remaining securely enclosed: McNeill 1992: 95–6).

793–4  The barbican acted as an outer or forward fortification for a city or castle: cf. Promptorium 23 (‘Barbican byfore a castelle: Antemurale’), Lancelot III, 341. It thus stands here in opposition to the halle, seen innermore [further in], the move from the outer barbican in the perimeter wall to the inner residential quarters of the castle proper bringing with it a pronounced shift in descriptive emphasis, from strength and solidity, hard-hewen stone (in 782–93), to an elongated elegance (in 794–802) that prompts a comparison with paper (802). See the illustrations in Très riches heures for March, June, August, September and October, which all similarly show a white, crenellated castle with intricate clusters of pinnacles and chimneys rising behind an outer fortified wall, which, for October, is itself battlemented, enbaned at intervals and has inset windowed turrets.

795  Towres telded bitwene: cf. ‘Tilded full of turettis and toures of defence’ (WA 1274). troched ful thikke is paralleled by Troched towres bitwene at C 1383. Elsewhere in ME, derivations from French troche [cluster] occur only in technical reference to a deer’s antlers or a cluster of pearls. The relation, if any, between these usages and the architectural application of the term (which occurs only in Sir Gawain and Cleanness) is not clear.

796–801  The fylyoles … ferlyly longe, chymnees and pinacles correspond to the fylyoles longe and Pinacles appearing on the lids of the cups as casteles arayed in Cleanness (1458–64), the lids representing the structures that rise above the castel carneles (G 801). fylyoles (< French fillole [column, pillar]) is, like troched, recorded only in these two texts. fyed: MED assigns MS fyȝed to feien [join] and glosses ‘matched in style’; but it seems rather to have a passive version of its more normal sense: Gawain’s eye is moving up the towers (795) to the pillars or spires that ‘were attached to’ or rose up out of them. Also rising up beyond the roofline are the Chalk-white chymnees (798): cf. ‘Chirches and chapells chalke-whitte blawnchede [whitewashed]’ (MA 3039); whitewashing is also referred to at PP B.3.61 (‘Wowes do whiten’). The ideal castle certainly typically gleams white, as does that of Livre d’Artus 186 (‘vous avez veuz ces murs blanchoier’) and the one in the Second Continuation 22568–9 whose stonework is ‘plus blans que nois negie’. that blenked ful white (799) probably refers back to the chymnees, seen white against the bastel-roves: in the Très riches heures illustrations for September, October and the Temptation of Christ, the pinnacles rising from the towers are painted gold – and are presumably the equivalent of the mony pinacle paynted (800), which are the third category of the spires in which the description culminates.

801–2  clambred (cf. 1722) is a Norse loan recorded only in Sir Gawain. The lavishness of elongated detail prompts the comparison with a model castle made out of material (paper) more pliable than stone. The simile provides an interesting elaboration of the one in the Second Continuation, where Perceval comes across a similarly veritable ‘picture’ of a castle, in which ‘Tor i avoit haute et bien faite, Ausint con s’ele fust portraite [depicted, portrayed]’ (24261–2). The castle-cups of C 1458–63 testify to the popularity of model castles as decorative motifs (Ackerman 1957); paper ones would have been encountered by the poet among the elaborate paper coverings provided for dishes (described at C 1407–8), where castles were a favourite motif: ‘bake-metes and dissh-metes … peynted and castelled with papir’ are condemned as wasteful display in the Parson’s Tale (CT X.445).

807–15  The wal (809) from which the porter speaks is that of the barbican (793) or gate-house, not that of the castle behind it. Cf. ‘Sir Gareth rode unto the barbycan of the castell, and prayed the porter fayre to lette hym into the castell’ (Malory 352). With 809–14 cf. ‘ “Porter, our errand I pray thee say” … “I shall say your errand full well” ’ (Carle of Carlisle 156–8). See also Gui 12164–84 and Livre d’Artus 236 and 274, where a similarly civil and friendly porter, not venturing to give admittance on his own authority, readily conveys a request for herber (805) to the master or mistress – and where it is similarly assumed that uns chevaliers erranz has especially good claim on herbergage: the equivalent knight erraunt of 810 provides the first recorded instance of that expression in English.

814  wye: usually assumed to be here a parenthetic term of address. The alliterative synonyms for ‘man’ do occur as vocatives (cf. 258, 2274, 2284; Pa 199, 492), but only where the speaker is being deliberately unceremonious, and they would be unlikely to be so used by a civil and plesaunt inferior (808) to a superior. See n. to 1039. wye alliterating with welcom does occur as a vocative (uttered by an equal whose ‘welcome’ is ironic) at 2240; but the same collocation figures at 938, where the lord gives precisely the reaction here predicted by the porter, and where wye is, as we assume it to be here at 814, complement of the verb ‘to be’; wye as noun complement often occurs without article (cf. 1039, 1087, 1244).

815  The MS reads ‘þen ȝede þe wyȝe aȝayn swyþe’. But wye (like the other poetic synonyms for ‘man’) always figures as an alliterating stave and has here clearly been occasioned by eye-skip to wye in the previous line (this second wye appearing, in the MS, directly under the first). The line alliterates on y, and the most obvious y-word for which wye is an error is yateward or yateman (terms for ‘porter’). See Stokes 2009: 265–7.

817–21  For draght = ‘drawbridge’, cf. ‘The porter lete the draught [var. bryge] doun falle’ (Partonope 3462). The brode gate (which is here opened after the drawbridge has been let down) would be (looking towards the castle) behind the drawbridge, the folk (816) having exited presumably through a wicket (a smaller door set within the gates: cf. C 854, 857), which would not be large enough to admit a mounted knight. When Gawain exits from the castle, the same order is observed: the drawbridge is first lowered, and then the brode yates are Unbarred and born open upon bothe halve (2069–70) – the brode gate being evidently a double and hinged gate (which may thus be referred to by singular yate or, as at 782, by plural yates). yarked up (820) does not mean ‘raised’ (which would imply a portcullis), but was the opposite of yarked to [closed] and simply meant ‘opened’ (MED yarken 2b); cf. n. to Wayves up at 1743.

817–19  welcom was a verb often used with reference to occursatio [going out to meet a guest or arrivant]: cf. Layamon 8532–3, William 1264 and 4390 (‘with a real route he rod hire ayens, / and worthily hire he wolcomed’), which shares with Sir Gawain the same collocation with worthy (for which see also G 1477, William 673). Occursatio is here accompanied by kneeling on the part of the folk [castle staff: 816], but not in the case of the higher-ranking inmates of 824, 830 and 833.

822  The civilities of herbergage included helping the knight to dismount, though the aid here specified seems realistically updated to suit a knight more heavily armed than in the earlier French romances, where the assistance takes the form of holding the stirrup (see e.g. Lancelot do Lac 435, Béroul 1974–6).

823–8  Hospitable services regularly begin with relieving the knight of his horse and armour (and giving him a mantle to replace the latter: cf. G 878): Conte du Graal 1416–18, 1772–82, 3059–65; Second Continuation 28423–9; Yvain 4675–6; Ferguut 768–9. The wording of 823, 826 and 852 also recalls French romance: cf. Livre d’Artus 114 (‘il fu assez qui les chevals estable’), 173, 198 (‘se fist desarmer … si fu assez qui lor aida’), 236, 274.

824–5  Where the folk had gone out from the castle to escort Gawain into it (816), the higher-ranking Knightes and swyeres now comen doun from the hall to escort Gawain into that. With 825 cf. C 82 and Sir Eglamour C 765: ‘Wyth blys [ceremonious celebration] they gon hym hom brynge [escort]’.

828  blasoun: the development of the sense in French was from ‘shield’, through ‘painted device on shield’, to the ‘coat of arms’ itself; thus the word is here being used in its original sense.

832–3  The communal hall was often heated in the earlier manner by a central hearth or brazier. Fireplaces with chimneys (referred to at 798) were a later development (Trevelyan 1973: 71–2), associated with the gradual growth in chambers from one of which the lord here issues, in the climax to the socially gradated occursatio the stanza depicts (rising through folk, Knightes and swyeres, mony proud man, to the lord himself). The alliterative metre enhances the distinction between the two kinds of room and the heating distinctive of them, the (lexically Germanic) fire upon flet (832, 1653, 1925; cf. 1368) characterizing the traditional public hall, and the chymne associated with the more intimate chamber (978, 1030, 1402), both French-derived words. The terms of the ensuing game are agreed upon in the chamber (1030, 1402, 1667), but the exchange ceremonies take place in the sale or halle, where the fulfilment of those terms thus has a more public setting (1372, 1620, 1925).

835–7  have been variously punctuated and glossed, with a pause placed after That her is in T&G and A&W, who treat the words as object of welde in 835 (which creates an untypical enjambement followed by an unlikely caesura in the middle of the a-verse). welde at 837 is treated as a noun by T&G and Burrow; but only emendation of al to at in Awntyrs 666 (‘at wil and al wolde’; Thornton MS ‘to welde and to wolde’) provides any evidence of an idiom ‘at will and at wield’, whereas ‘wield (verb) at will’ is well attested: cf. ‘slewe the kynges dere And welt them at his wyll’ (Gest of Robyn Hode, 1464), ‘Wenys to wild hire at will and away lede’ (WA 1063). Under any interpretation, the repetition of welde in 835 and 837 seems inartistic, and welde at 835 is emended to wone [dwell] by Cawley and Burrow (following Gollancz). The social gesture the lines express (‘Treat the place as your own’), however, is unproblematic and common: cf. ‘This howse is all atte your comaundement’ (Generydes 77), ‘S’est tost a vostre volenté’ (First Continuation 8410–12), ‘bien viengiez vos; Li sires estes de çaienz’ (Yder 4932–3; cf. Erec 6544, ‘an sa meison me fist seignor’). In our reading of G 835–7, the lord says two related things: ‘you are welcome to be lord here’ (as in Yder and Erec) at 835; and ‘its amenities are your own to use as you please’ (as in Generydes and First Continuation) at 836–7.

838  Grant mercy, though a little more marked than merely ‘thank you’, was – like Gawain’s other French phrase, bone hostel (776) – not uncommon among the gentil classes: Gawain’s famed linguistic sophistication (916–27, 1251–5) is not a matter of any Gallicism that goes beyond such phrases as were already naturalized.

840  This line – well glossed by A&W as ‘in the manner of joyful men’ – does not imply any distinction between what semed and what was, but it does pause on the moment as a pleasing spectacle (reflecting the value attached in the poem to public expressions of good will and good faith).

841  Cf. ‘Entre ses bras molt tost le prent, Si li dist debonerement, “Sire, vos soiez bien veignans” ’ (First Continuation 8371–3; cf. Waldef 3394–5). in armes con felde was a common expression, though felde (not the normal form of the infinitive in this dialect) is a rhyming expedient found also at Three Dead Kings 86.

842  glyght is apparently from glien [to squint]; the sense ‘look’ (cf. 970 and Pa 453) or ‘shine’ (Pe 114) – a sense combination it shares with glent [glance] – occurs outside this MS only at Chester Plays 7.332 (‘aye glye on the glee’) and is perhaps an alliterative usage.

843–9  huge could mean either ‘of monstrous size’ (and was thus not infrequently applied to giants) or simply ‘big of its kind’ (MED huge 2(a)). It here has the latter sense, though its potential to signal the former is consistent with other reminders of the Green Knight: the full beard (cf. 182), here brown (845), not green, and the stalworthe schankes, not here giving such uncanny support to their (headless) owner as do the stif schankes of 431. The adjectives bold (here ‘fine, goodly’: cf. C 789), Sturne, stif, Felle, though not quite drained of their battlefield connotations, all similarly have here slightly toned-down senses. The result is a normalized, domesticated and less threatening masculinity, suggesting to Gawain the powerful manliness and authority of the ideal head of a household (848–9) rather than the unsurvivable opponent (201–2).

844  high elde [age]: for high signalling the mid-point between too early and too late, see MED heigh adj 6b.

845  For the rich brown beard as a feature of the vigorous manliness of an ideal leader, cf. the beveryn hair (MA 3630) and beard (Awntyrs 357) attributed to Arthur and the ‘Bery-brown … berde’ with which the scribe (mistakenly writing berde for bleaunt) credited the ideal king in WW 91.

846  Cf. ‘Thenne thei styrte up on hy with staloworth shankes’ (Chevelere Assigne 326).

847  Felle face as the fire occurs at WA 5048, also with reference to an impressive male figure. Felle in such contexts equates with French fier [fierce] as applied non-pejoratively to the pride and spirit of the non-servile – cf. the countenance of authority and the comparable comment in Gui: ‘ … fier le vis, Ben resemble sire d’un grant pais’ (6939–40). With fre of his speche cf. ‘of facund [verbal address] full faire, fre of his speche’ (DT 3747), which indicates that it is its courtliness rather than lack of restraint that is at issue. In Sir Gawain, this fre [noble, generous] speech has been exemplified by the high-bred liberality of 835–7.

850–51  him charred is usually interpreted as reflexive; we have assumed that the usage is transitive (see n. to 1030) and reflects a rule of hospitality: a host about to deliver a guest or visitor into someone else’s charge will normally keep that person with him or her until that is done. chefly (cf. 978) is the emendation normally adopted for MS clesly. The assignment to Gawain of his own special servant is closely associated with the provision of a bedroom (853); the man is later referred to as his ‘chamberlain’ (1310, 2011), bringing him clothing or armour when he requests it and helping to arm him.

853–9  Sir Gawain is, as usual, more detailed and systematic in its use of a common descriptive topos; for other references to luxurious bedding in episodes of herbergage, see Ferguut 949, Lanceloet 744–68. In ME a ‘bed’ included the bed-cortynes and wall-hanging Tapites as well as the sheets and covertores, and it was normal for these to be of folwande sute: cf. the references in medieval wills (cited by MED sv tapet(e (a)) to ‘a bed … with alle the tapites of sute’, ‘a coverlet wyth a tapete of rede of the same sute’. Gawain’s ‘noble bedding’ (853) includes the scarlet cloth or tuly (858; cf. 568) and pure gold trimmings (854, 857) characteristic of luxury interiors, but peculiarly appropriate to this guest, since these are his heraldic colours (619–20).

855–6  The covertour was often furred: hermin [ermine] covertur and martrin [marten] covertur are referred to in Romance of Horn as typical of aristocratic beds (477, 726, 964); see also the entries sv meniver (a) and (b) and coverture 1(a) in MED. On the fur referred to as blaunner in Sir Gawain (cf. 155, 573, 1931), see n. to 154–6.

857  On these rail-hanging curtains with rings and cords (clearly visible in the MS illustration of Gawain in bed at fol. 125), see Woolgar 1999: 77–8. The term Rudeles (< French ridder [to pleat]) is here associated with the suspending device of rynges (which the term could also be used to refer to: MED ridel n^2 (c)): cf. ‘To se the riddels hynge With many red golde rynge That tham up-bare’ (Sir Degrevant L 1514–16). The shift from the word cortynes (854) to Rudeles thus marks the moving out of the focus in 854–7 from the soft furnishings on the bed proper (including the cortynes qua fabric) to the associated appurtenances overhead, around and underfoot.

859  Cloth underfoot was used only for dressing (Woolgar 1999: 72–3) and was therefore associated specifically with the bedroom and with arming. The poet has thus no regular term for ‘carpet’, such a floor-covering being referred to simply as a tapit (= ‘cloth’, usually wall-hanging) spread over the flet or under fete (568, 859).

860–63  Hospitality rituals in romance include removal of the knight’s armour and the provision of a mantle and/or robe [set of clothes]: cf. Chevalier de la charrete 2534–7; Livre d’Artus 292; Vulgate Merlin 307, 344. The added detail of a choice of clothes, to change between at will, is (in an age when clothing was proportionately much more expensive than today) a distinctive luxury.

860–61  ‘Despoil’ was regularly used of the removal of clothing, including armour (often termed ‘weeds’: cf. 271, 2013, 2025).

863  charge, chaunge: for the collocation, cf. C 1258 and (with reference to the Christianization of heathen temples) StE 18 (‘And chaungit chevely hor nomes and chargit hom better’). Resort to this collocation may have prompted in alliterative verse a weakened sense of charge [load fully, burden]: i.e. ‘furnish or supply [oneself] with’ (the sense required here and in StE; cf. the mercantile sense ‘have in stock, be supplied with’ recorded in MED sv chargen 2c).

864–72  The replacement of the knight’s armour by civilian clothes regularly gives occasion for comment on his comeliness and soldierly physique: cf. Lancelot do Lac 127, 445 (‘a merveilles estoit biaus et bien tailliez, et a mervoilles sanbloit preu et hardi chevalier’); Livre d’Artus 288; Yder 606–7; Parzival 228.1–5, 307.7–12. The Gawain poet has combined the trope with another: the comparison of personal beauty to spring: cf. ‘sîn blic ist rehte ein meien glast’ [to look at, he is a piece of May sunshine] (Parzival 374.24), ‘vo bealté semblable au Mois de Maii’ (Gower, Cinkante Balades X.22). That conceit is here reinforced by an indirect allusion to the common idea of flowers as the rich new ‘vesture’ of Spring (cf. Troilus I.156), or what Dunbar called ‘Flora’s mantle’ (Golden Targe 48), an idea reversed in 866–8 into a comparison of fine-hued clothing with the bright colourfulness of spring. his visage at 866 is the equivalent of sîn blic in Parzival and means ‘the sight of him’ (cf. MED vis n^22) rather than ‘his face’, since it is Gawain’s clothed form, not his countenance, which prompts the comparison with ver.

873  prince withouten pere: cf. ‘Ye [the Infant Christ] are a prince withouten pere’ (York Plays XV.122).

875–83  A seat by a fire together with a mantle are likewise provided for a guest at Ferguut 783–4 (‘Hi sat bi enen groten viere Ende hadde omme heme den mantel diere’); cf. also Livre d’Artus 114–15.

875, 883  Cf. ‘A chimné with charcole to chaufe the knight’ (Awntyrs 446), ‘We chaufe vs at na chymmnays for chelis of wintir’ (WA 4416).

877  Whyssynes upon queldepoyntes: a chair was a rare item of furniture at this period (Danziger and Gillingham 2003: 17) and the wood would have required such cushioning. For the attention of providing a cushioned chair for a guest, cf. ‘Fech me a schayer and a coyschen And make this palmere to sytte therin’ (Sir Isumbras 579–80).

879–81  A bleaunt was normally a garment (cf. 1928), but could also indicate a fabric. With the broun bleaunt here, T&G compare the ‘robe … of a blihand broun’ at Sir Tristrem 410. For a mantle furred with the luxury pelt of ermine, cf. ‘His mantell was of skarlett fyne, Furryd wyth good armyne’ (Ipomadon 370–71).

883  For his chere mended = ‘he cheered up’, cf. William 845, Cursor 4232.

884–6  Similar preliminaries to a meal are rehearsed in e.g. Seven Sages of Rome 4199–202; cf. the meal likewise produced especially for a guest in Awntyrs: ‘Sithen they braide up a borde and clothes con calle, Sanapes and salers, semly to sight’ (449–50). On the protocol that dictated the provision of a special meal for distinguished guests not arriving at a time when they could be included in the household meal, see Woolgar 1999: 25.

884  telded up a table: MS tapit is usually emended to tabil, but the word is invariably spelled table elsewhere in the MS.

885  clene cloth … clere white: for the poet’s appreciation of this element of table etiquette, cf. C 634, 1440. On the use of white table linen, see Woolgar 1999: 148–9.

889–93  The poet had earlier strictly observed the stylistic ban on the vulgarity of stooping to particularity in culinary matters (see 130–31 and n.). There is a contextual reason for the present itemization: since meat was forbidden on Christmas Eve (see Miles 1912: 287; Woolgar 1999: 90), there is some virtuosity (on the part of the poet and/or his fictional kitchen) in the appetizing variety produced. A fast day prompts a similar breach of the ‘don’t-list-food’ rule at Erec 4237–40.

889  sesounde of the beste: the usual word for ‘seasoned’ in the culinary sense was savoured (as at 892 and C 825). The verb ‘season’ commonly referred to the mixing or tempering of ingredients. Hence the sense of the verse is ‘cooked with the best ingredients’, not ‘with tasty seasoning’, a matter dealt with at 892–3.

890  Doublefelde, as hit falles: see n. to 483, where the verb fallen also occurs in connection with double portions. as hit falles presumably means ‘as is proper or appropriate’, i.e. appropriate to the occasion, Christmas Eve, which, though strictly a fast day, was celebrated in court circles with such an elaborate choice of tastily prepared fish as is described here (Matsui 2010: 87) and which makes for no more than token observation of penaunce (897) – a compromise between celebration and asceticism of which a poet who had characterized Lent as crabbede (502) naturally approves.

891  baken in bred: since references elsewhere to birds ‘baked in bread’ (as at MA 190) indicate that bred here means ‘pastry’, this would seem to be fish pie. brad on the gledes: the expression was used of cooking both meat and fish, grilling over a charcoal fire being a common way of cooking fish: cf. ‘Hi seye ther hote glede And ffisch therup hi ledde’ (Southern Passion 2195–6).

892  For these ways of serving fish (boiled, or in a sewe), cf. the references in contemporary recipes (cited in MED sv sethen v^1 1(e) and seu n^1 (b)) to ‘Vihs isodeen in win & water & saffron’ and to pouring a sew (of vinegar, sugar and onions) over cooked fish.

895  when seems to mean here ‘at which point, whereupon’, though the conjunction is not recorded in that sense in MED.

896  As hende is treated as vocative in T&G, where the inverted commas are opened before, not after, those words. But the common expression as hende – often as the hende when it refers to a single person (cf. 1104) – means ‘like the courteous person(s) he/they was/were’ and is not recorded as a vocative (see MED hend(e 1(b)). A&W gloss ‘equally courteously’; but as in this idiom does not mean ‘equally’, though the expression is here plainly meant to pick up Ful hendly at 895 and thus to imply that the household’s courteous depreciation of the meal matched Gawain’s courteous compliments upon it.

897–8  For penaunce as a dietary term (‘penitential fare’), see MED penaunce 6. The verb amend also occurs with reference to a second item that excels the first in the Romance of Horn 2779 and in Ipomadon, where it is twice used of a generous gift politely depreciated as a simple [modest] thing, a mere token which will later be mended [improved on]: ‘And thou wilte take this sympull gyfte, It shall be mendyd, be my thryfte’ (470–71), ‘This sympull gyfte thou take of me; I wille mend it or it be longe’ (2676–7).

899–900  Gawain’s mind is being warmed by the wine, as his body by the fire (893). But, since the fumes of wine were thought of as rising from the stomach to the head (see n. to C 1420–24), in his hed that wende does not have the same force as ModE ‘went to his head’. Cf. the similar comment in Walewein, with similar implications of improved spirits rather than befuddledness: after taking a glass of wine with his food, ‘Doe wart Walewein bat in hoghe Dan hi teerst was’ [then was Gawain in better spirits than he was before] (6765–6).

901a  Then was spied and spured (for the collocation, cf. 2093): it was a rule in hospitality that guests should never be questioned until they had been fed (cf. 254–5). The convention is found as early as Homer’s Odyssey III.69–70: ‘Now that our visitors have regaled themselves, it will be no breach of manners to put some questions to them and inquire who they may be.’ Further examples abound in the French Arthurian romances which are the models for this poem: Lancelot do Lac 301; Chevalier de la charrete 2073–5; Cligés 4985–96; Erec 4890–2; Vulgate Merlin 345; Livre d’Artus 115, 246 (‘et quant vint le soir apres souper, si li demanda li preudons dom il estoit & que il aloit querant’), 271 (‘si li demanda la dame apres souper ou il aloit en tel maniere’); cf. Second Continuation 32496–7. See also Ferguut 1290–91 and Scott’s note to The Lady of the Lake I.xxix: ‘The highlanders … are said to have considered it as churlish to ask a stranger his name or lineage, before he had taken refreshment.’

901–2  The household is clearly oblique and discreet in its queries. But ME had no equivalent for either of those epithets, and some creativity has been needed to convey a correspondent meaning. In ME usage, spare as applied to speech would mean ‘infrequent’, and so here implies ‘non-insistent’ questioning. privy can have here none of its usual senses (the most applicable, ‘covert’, being always elsewhere derogatory); the usage is an extension of MED prive adj^1 3, ‘unseen, obscure’, implying poyntes whose purpose (to elicit information) is not obvious. Line 902 figures in MED sv putten 24(c) as the only example of put pointe = ‘ask a question’; but that expression normally means ‘make a point or observation’, and 902 therefore probably indicates that the household did not ask questions as such, but ‘made observations’ (e.g. ‘bad weather for a long journey’) intended to prompt Gawain into volunteering information that is not directly asked of him.

903  The queries so courteously timed and put meet with the answering courtesy of a frankly open response: with he beknew cortaysly cf. the reply made ‘mult franchement’ by a guest similarly not questioned as to his identity until after being given a meal in Protheselaus (5041–3); for the converse discourtesy of not responding to a request for one’s name in such circumstances, see Moniage 2214–15. It is, in any case, a point of principle with the Gawain of French romance never to give his name until asked and never to conceal it when asked: ‘onques mes nons ne fu celez / en leu ou il me fust requis’ [my name was never concealed wherever it was asked of me] (Conte du Graal 5566–7).

906–27  For Gawain’s reputation as the perfect knight within this, as within many another, romance, cf. 387–91 and see pp. 252–3. The excitement caused by the revelation of his identity is conveyed by a move into free indirect speech at 904–7 (lines which obviously represent how the news was heard rather than how it was expressed by Gawain) and 912–14, suggesting an animated buzz that gradually forces itself from indirect into direct speech (916–27), which good manners suppress to a whisper (915).

906  Wawan: see n. to 559.

908–9  This is sometimes seen as a minor narrative cheat or lapse, since, as the host and the Green Knight are one and the same, the former has already, in his role as the latter, met Gawain, and so must have lerned as soon as he saw him that he the lede hade. But, though lerned might suggest ‘found out’ on a first reading, it is protected against inapplicability on a second reading by its not uncommon meaning of ‘was informed, heard’ (MED lernen 2). so lef hit him thoghte has, of course, a much richer meaning on a second reading than the unremarkable one it bears on a first, it being entirely in accord with the norms of French romance that the lord should be delighted to learn he is entertaining any knight (let alone Gawain himself): see e.g. Chevalier de la charrete 2551.

912  all pris and prowes: cf. ‘The prowis and the grete pryse that he aprevyd eftire’ (WA 614). Cf. also 1249, where the lady echoes with her own usual slant on it this general eulogistic summary of Gawain’s reputation for excellence; cf. notes to 916–17 and 927.

916–17  sleghtes [skills, arts], termes of: ‘terms of’ is a locution generally used – as in ‘termes of philosophye/phisik/astrologye’, etc – to refer to a technical or specialist register (MED terme 5(b)); the household characterizes Gawain’s graces as a real social skill which they can be ‘taught’ by him (cf. lerne: 918, 927) – as later, with her own more flirtatious emphasis, does the lady (1525–34).

919  fader of nurture: ‘father of’ occurs elsewhere in the sense ‘author [founder of, authority on]’; and the compliment here paid Gawain occurs also in the envoy to Chaucer’s Womanly Noblesse: ‘Auctour of norture, lady of plesaunce, Soveraigne of beautee … ’ (27–8).

927  luf-talkyng does not refer to gallant dalliance (as assumed by Gollancz), though the reference could just be to conversation about love (A&W) – which was considered to be a courtly skill (see CT I.2203), a skill which Gawain at one point displays (1506–7) and one which the lady too (1523–4) assumes is implied by his reputation as the fader of nurture. But love probably has here its older sense [anything that causes delight: cf. e.g. 1893 and 2054]: in the only other recorded instance of love talkynge, the expression refers to ‘A blestfulle songe’ (by a bird: ‘Lovely Lordynges’ 2). The easy slippage of the word love from its older sense to its narrower and later one is certainly relevant to the lady’s expectations precisely of ‘love talk’; but it is also important to distinguish the non-romantic pleasures anticipated by the courtiers from the specifically romantic emphasis she later gives (1520–34) to Gawain’s reputation for verbal and behavioural skills.

929  The line combines, to somewhat tautologous effect, three alliterative collocations: for neghed and night, see 1998 and Pa 352, 465, C 1754; for negh and night, see 1922 and C 484, 803; for neghed and negh, see 697.

930  chapeles: ‘A castle normally had a main chapel and several smaller ones’ (Thompson 1997: 128). But thereto (933) and thider (935) certainly narrow the focus to the main chapel.

933  loutes: cf. 833; only in this poem does the verb lout [bend] figure as a generalized verb of motion. It is either a rare example or an independent extension of an alliterative licence which permitted a number of verbs (e.g. helden [sink]: 1922) to be so used.

934  The sexes ‘would sit (or stand) separately during the service’ (Bennett), as do the lord and lady in Sir Gawain, and women of status sometimes enjoyed a private closet, a pew partitioned off by a screen or grill, often situated adjacent to the choir. The present closet is also near the choir, since it is ‘through the chancel’ that the lady, on emerging from it, makes her way in order to greet Gawain (942, 946). Some famous medieval love affairs begin when the lady is first seen at a religious service (the likeliest occasion, at this period, for seeing and being seen): Criseyde is first seen by Troilus in a temple (Troilus I.162ff), as is Paris by Helen – and, in one version of the story, Helen too is imagined as enjoying the exclusivity of the closet associated with ladies of status: ‘Fayre Elyne … Taking hir place on the one side of the temple … being in here closet, seing this fresh lusty Paris …’ (Siege of Troy 279–80). Sir Gawain observes its usual decorum in little and large: unlike Paris, Helen and Troilus, neither Gawain nor the lady give any attention to each other until the service is over (cf. 940–41) and Gawain refuses to play the role of the lover-knight of the classic romance ‘text’ (1515, 1541) which both the lady and narrative convention invite him to play.

936  The collocation of lappe (= ‘loose fold’, probably that of the sleeve: cf. MED sleve (f)) with laches and ledes occurs elsewhere: cf. ‘ledde hire by the lappe’ (Troilus III.59), ‘Be tho lappe he laght his wyfe’ (Sir Gowther 86). Chivalric guests are elsewhere similarly led by their hosts by a lap (the sleeve at Walewein 826, the pan [edging] of a mantle at First Continuation 8450), the gesture being comparable with that of taking by the hand (see n. to 947) in order to provide a courteous and friendly escort (Burrow 2002: 144); with the present line cf. ‘Li sires l’a pris par la destre [right hand]; A la chapele sunt venu’ (Yder 851–2).

937  For the reinforcement of couthly [as a friend] – etymologically connected with what is ‘known’ or couth – by the personal name, cf. ‘He toc to frofrenn [comfort] hire anann [thereupon] Cuthli bi name’ (Ormulum 2203–4). knowes: ‘shows himself happy to acknowledge acquaintance with’; contrast ‘hir cuntremen wolde not knowyn hir’ (Margery Kempe 74). The line implies a special regard for Gawain personally beyond what politeness might dictate to any guest.

943–4  Cf. ‘He was fair of flechs and felle’ (Early South-English Legendary 47), ‘Faire of flesche and fell’ (Rowlande and Ottuell 81). For colour = ‘facial colour/complexion’, see Pe 215.

945  T&G point out that Geoffrey of Monmouth declares Guinevere to have been the most beautiful woman in the island (p. 204) and that maidens are described as ‘lovelier than Gwenhwyfar’ in the Mabinogion (157). The comparison here acquires an epigrammatic quality by virtue of inventive wordplay: wener is the sole attestation in ME of an adjective wen(e) = ‘fair’ (perhaps associated with OE wenlic [fair]), the poet’s normal w-adjective for ‘beautiful’, wynne (2430, 2456), having the wrong vowel for punning identification with Wenore, itself an inventively plausible form of the name which, as noted by Silverstein, otherwise appears in the MS as Guenore, Gwenore, Gaynour (74, 109, 2460) – but which (like Gawain: see n. to 559) had W- variants (Wanore in Lancelot of the Laik 230) that were useful to alliterative poets: cf. the variation between G- and W- forms in Awntyrs (13, 159, etc) and MA (84, 233, etc).

946  cherisch [extend patronage or favour to] was a social word with a special sense as applied to guests, referring in that context to attentive respect: cf. 2055 and DT 13340–41 (where it also refers to an initial approach in order to extend a greeting): ‘welcomet hym faire, Mykell cherissht the choise kyng with a chere noble’.

947  The other lady is later identified as Morgan le Fay (see n. to 2446–66), sometimes represented as ugly in the French prose tradition. Leading by the hand was a gesture of ‘taking under one’s wing’; it was considered a sign of good breeding in the leader (Gottfried von Strassburg 5745–9) and a courtesy to the person led (WA 3042), a courtesy most commonly extended by a host to a guest (cf. Conte du Graal 5724). To take by the lyft hande of the person led (leaving free their, not one’s own, right hand) was the more polite form of the action (Burrow 2002: 48–9) and it is that convention which here indicates to Gawain who is leading whom. This in turn signals that the older woman stands to the younger, not as guest to hostess (in which case she would enjoy rather than extend the attention), but as senior to junior inmate: cf. Conte du Graal, where a very elderly queen leads a younger one (her middle-aged daughter) by the hand (7850) when the two go to greet their guest (Gawain).

948  auncian occurs only here as a noun, the word recurring as an adjective with reference to this same lady (1001, 2463). Plainly intended as a term of respect, it occurs both here and at 1001 with olde, but implies something distinct (cf. ‘An old auncien man’: Mum and the Sothsegger 956), and is on both occasions coupled with signs of seniority in status as well as years: marked respect from attendants especially assigned to her (949) and the position of honour at the head of the table (1001).

951–63  feature adjectives associated with youth and beauty and its opposite. yep (951) is an epithet closely linked (alliteratively and semantically) with ‘youth’: ‘so yonge and so yepe’ (DT 357), ‘yong and yeep’ (PP B.XI.18), ‘yong in my youthe and yep of my dedys’ (P3A W 270). Rosy red skin (952) was a fixed attribute of female beauty, whereas a wrinkled old woman is typically yolwe (951) or ‘yelowe in hir visage’, ‘ful salowe’ of face (Romaunt of the Rose 4496, 355). blake is used twice of the older woman: it has its primary sense at 961 (blake browes), but at 958 (blake chyn) forms a direct contrast with the bryght throte (955) of the younger and exemplifies a usage in which blake indicated want of the lustre of bryght female beauty (cf. DT 8037), a want that is one effect of age: ‘age … makith me oold and blac of ble’ (‘As y gan wandre’ 46). blered (963) also indicates want of bryght-ness (cf. DT 9134), and ‘bleared’ or watery eyes are particularly associated with age (cf. PP B.5.188 and ‘I blind, I bleri’ in ‘Elde makith me geld’ 171).

952  rayled (see n. to 745) suggests the decorative quality of the red skin-tone.

953  Rogh as applied to skin usually implies ‘hairy’: cf. Trevisa, Properties II, 1252 (‘rowhe chynnes with berdes’), Ferguut 2407; see also n. to 745. For rolled = ‘hung loosely’, cf. C 790; for loose jowls as an attribute of age, cf. PP B.5.189–90.

954–6  For the wearing of one or more kerchiefs inlaid with precious jewels or metal, cf. ‘corecheffe clustert with gemmes’ (WA 5375), ‘kevercheves whyt, Arayde with gold wyre’ (Lybeaus Desconus 893–4). The pearls here contribute to and set off the white shine of the breast and throat (955–6) which the chosen headdress leaves displayed. At 956, the b-verse gives freshness to a traditional simile: cf. ‘his clothes white of hue As hit were ffallyn snow newe’ (Sidrak B 10271–2; see further Whiting S437).

957–62  The poet is characteristically more technical on female costume than is usual, and the lines include some rare and obscure usages. gorger elsewhere refers to throat armour and occurs in ME only here of female dress, though gorget occurs in similar application from the sixteenth century on. Chymbled (surmised to be related to OE cimbing [joint] and/or ON kimbla [bundle]) is likewise recorded only here. The gorger here supplements vayles [head cloths] arranged to cover chin and forehead (958–9): see figure 28 in Newton 1980: 88, and plates 12, 15, 65 in Evans 1952. enfoubled – evidently from AN afubler/enfubler [dress] – also occurs only here and seems to introduce further veiling at 960, the key terms of which are, however, obscure: Toret and treleted occur only here, and it is not clear whether the trifles are decorative designs of some kind (as at 168) or the accessory (which may be some kind of head cloth) implied by the bequest to a female domestic of a goune and a truffle (MED sv trufle 3a). T&G associate Toret with the tourets [embroidered edgings] mentioned by Evans 1952: 57, 64, but the illustration they refer to (plate 55) shows a fez-like cap that heightens the forehead quite unlike what is implied by G 959 and 961; and, though they describe that touret as treleted, the term – apparently from French treleter [lattice] – is not recorded of headgear in French or English; and the explanation leaves the grammar of Toret (noun) and treleted (past participle) obscure. A&W and Burrow (accepting T&G’s explanation) treat Toret as a past participle, as in T&G (who emend to toreted), and Burrow glosses the line ‘edged and latticed all round with ornamental details’. But the need to posit a participle formed from an unrecorded verb formed from a noun unrecorded in English to match a verb occurring nowhere else in English and of doubtful contextual significance reflects the unfirm ground editors find themselves on here.

958  chalk-white (cf. 798 and n. to 796–801) is the emendation to (non-alliterating) MS mylkquyte first proposed by Onions 1924: 245 and adopted by most editors.

961-2  The veiling here summarized – coming right up to the lips and down to the eyebrows – would be unusual except as mourning dress (see Evans 1952: 36, 58); in romances, certainly, headgear which, as here, conceals all but the brows, eyes, nose and lips occasions special comment and occurs always with the purpose and/or effect of a mask – as with the girl who ‘was wympelyd’ so as to be unrecognizable at Generydes 6858 and the various damsels so veiled that nothing appeared ‘que sol li oil’ (Lancelot do Lac 495), ‘fors solement les paupierres des elz’ or ‘fors solement le nez et la boche’ (Livre d’Artus 168, 175). Though what is being hidden in Sir Gawain appears to be simply age and ugliness, the concealment suggested by such veiling corresponds with the concealment of Morgan’s identity, which is not revealed until 2446–66.

964  mensk occurs only here as an adjective, but the line is clearly a sarcastic application of the epithet menskful often used to characterize an attractive young woman: cf. the menskful used of the younger lady at 1268, and the ‘menskful maiden’, ‘semly … on syght’ in Harley Lyrics 14/7, 31 (cf. P3A 114).

966–7  thik … buttokes balwe (MS bay) and brode: cf. the ‘buttokes brode’ of the ‘wenche thikke and wel ygrowen’ of the Reeve’s Tale (CT I.3973–5), where ‘wel ygrowen’ [well covered] is a transparent euphemism for ‘overweight’. There is no record of an adjectival bay with the sense required here, and T&G’s emendation to balwe [swelling: cf. 2032] is supported by similar collocation elsewhere (with reference to male physique) of balwe and brode: ‘Balgh, brade in the brest’ (WA 5050), ‘balgh in the breste and brode in the scholdirs’ (P3A 112).

968  lykkerwys applied to persons usually means ‘sensual’. When it means ‘appealing to the senses’, the application is nearly always to food (i.e. ‘delicious’); so the use of the word here in that latter sense implies the metaphor of food (i.e. ‘tasty’), a metaphor supported by lik [savour, taste] and evident also in Chaucer’s use of the word in the Miller’s Tale: ‘[Alison] was so … swete and likerous, I dar wel seyn, if she had ben a mouse, And he a cat, he wolde hire hente anon’ (CT I.3345–7).

971–4  Cf. Waldef 3459–60 (with reference to the sister of the host): ‘Encontre li atant leva E par congé beisier l’ala’ [he then rose in her presence and, having received permission, went to kiss her].

971  lut: MS went, which leaves the b-verse without an alliterating stave, is usually emended to lent. But lende – though it can be used of arrival, or being or coming to rest, in a place or state (C 993; Pa 201; G 1002, 1319, 2440) – does not usually mean simply ‘go’. For louten as verb of motion, see 833, 933.

973  Cf. ‘With ladies full lovely to lappyn in myn armes’ (P3A T 247).

975  To ask for acquaintance indicated a desire to get to know better or to become intimate or friendly with: cf. Conte du Graal, where Perceval says, on meeting Gawain for the first time, ‘Et l’acointance de nos deus / desirroie mout a avoir’ (4466–7); see also Lancelot do Lac 352.

977  Cf. the courtesy shown by ladies in William, ‘curtesli the king of Spayne bitwene hem thei ladde’ (3966), while other women lead ‘other lordes loveli hem bitwene’ (3968).

978  To chamber, to chymne: the collocation is common (cf. 875, 1030, 1402); see n. to 832–3 on the distinction between the newer method of heating the smaller private chambers and the old-fashioned central hearth indicated by the expression fire upon flet used of the heating in the main public hall (832, 1653, 1925); cf. PP B.10.100, where ‘a chaumbre with a chymenee’ is distinguished from ‘the chief halle’.

979–80  Spices and wine were a post-prandial and/or pre-retirement collation – cf. ‘Aftre soper they hade carralles, daunces, and songys to mydnyght, And aftre they dranke and ete spyces’ (King Ponthus 61–2) – often served informally in the chambers rather than in the public hall (cf. MA 231–5). The custom is referred to frequently in both English texts – with the wording here in Sir Gawain, cf. William 4324–6 (‘spices … and the wines therwith’) – and in continental ones: cf. Christine de Pisan 61 (‘After the spices have been taken, and it is time to retire …’), Walewein 11006–8, Ferguut 857–9.

981–90  Gaiety (cf. mirthe: 982, 985) and hilaritas (cf. laghande lotes, 988, a collocation that recurs in connection with the festive hospitality extended to Gawain: 1623, 1954) were a prime rule of hospitality (and would be especially important at Christmas). It was thought proper for hosts to behave even a little foolishly or extravagantly in fulfilment of this obligation (Trudgill 2001: 212–16), and the element of willing buffoonery in the present host’s efforts earns him the implicit approval of the poet (cf. luflych, 981), as his general determination to glade Sir Gawan with gamnes (989) earns him the explicit compliment of his guest (1111).

983–5  The hood is to be the prize for devising the best amusement. Clothing was proportionately more valuable than today, and a hood as a measure of value figures in the sport described in PP B.5.320–37 (cited by Bennett), where the price of a round of drinks acts to even up the difference in value between a bartered hood and cloak.

988  The expression ‘make it tayt [enjoyable, “fun”]’ occurs only here and appears to have a sense opposite to that of the well-attested and similarly structured ‘make it tough’ (‘be obstinate or aggressive or importunate’).

992  lord (MS kyng) – the term hitherto, and regularly hereafter, applied to the host – provides the ornamental alliteration that is normal in the bob-and-wheel. On the provision of men to light the way to the bedchamber, cf. Ferguut 939–40 (‘The lord summoned two pages to light his way for him: he wished to retire’), Parzival 641.16–17, Generydes 148–9.

999  messes in the b-verse refers to the separate dishes of which each course consisted (see Woolgar 1999: 159–61).

1000  Burrow translates ‘with doughty men arrayed on the dais in the best fashion’ (A&W ‘in the best manner’), but of the beste is not elsewhere adverbial, but adjectival or pronominal (cf. 38, 863, 880, 889, 986; C 170, 1179), referring back to or implying a noun; and – since food is the focus of 998–1000 (the diners at the dais being introduced only at 1001–6) – we have taken it with messes (999), and assumed line 1000 refers to the waiters who place the dishes on the dais. The Derf men serving the dishes perhaps find a parallel in the kene men who serve the food in Camelot (482, though kene there might mean ‘able’): service at table (one of the chief duties of a squire: see n. to CT I.100 in Riverside Chaucer) was a ceremonial rather than a menial duty, and one in which well-born young men (to whom epithets meaning ‘doughty’ would be appropriate) were employed.

1004–6  The host (who sat at the centre of the dais) was served first (Danziger and Gillingham 2003: 26), the dishes then progressing down the side tables and simultaneously down the social ranks. The poet’s attention to the etiquette governing precedence at meals has parallels both in his own poem (cf. 73) and in feasts elsewhere in alliterative verse, where the detail is a marker of grand style: cf. ‘real rinkes … at the heighe dese … and alle other afterward on the side benches … eche digneli at his degre’ (William 4564–7).

1004  The line is problematic. T&G gloss 1003–4 ‘Gawain and the fair lady sat together right in the middle (of the dais), where the food fittingly came’. But (a) the host and hostess would be in the middle of the dais, flanked by the old woman (next to the former) and Gawain (next to the latter); (b) come must have sounded -e (to provide the line-ending unstressed syllable) and must therefore be subjunctive – ‘would come’ suggesting that service is imminent here (and just completed at 1006); (c) as does not elsewhere mean ‘where’ (for which the usual forms in this MS would be ‘where’, ‘there’ or ‘thereas’).

1006  gome at his degre: MS grome is usually retained. But servants normally ate separately, and there is no clear instance in MED of grome having the general sense ‘man’ rather than either its original sense of ‘boy, young male’ or its subsequent one of ‘attendant’; it is more likely to be an error for gome, especially in view of William 5031 (where the reference is to splendour of dress), ‘as eche gom in his degre godliche ought’, and in view of the fact that scribes were prone to confuse the two words (see e.g. the MS variation at P3A 475 and at PP A.2.56). For the expression (at his) degree with reference to the hierarchical principle observed in the seating at feasts, cf. C 92 and William 4567 (‘eche dingeli at his degre’).

1008–9  Such declarations of inadequate powers of description are common (see 719 and n.), and the reflexive verb pined me finds a parallel in Ferguut: ‘Ine soude cunnen Sine doget vertellen niewer naer, Al pijndix mi, ic hadt te swaer’ [I could not come near to telling his bravery; even if I gave myself real pains (i.e. did my utmost), it would be too difficult for me] (4172–4). But 1009 is problematic: whether And means ‘if’ or ‘and’, the precise force of yet (if it has not been inadvertently picked up by the scribe from the following line) and the sense of poynte are all disputable matters. T&G gloss ‘even if perhaps I took pains to describe it in detail’, but the only evidence for such a sense of poynte would be Troilus III.497 (‘His wordes alle, or every look, to poynte’) – where, however, it is in conjunction with alle and every that poynte means ‘describe in detail’; and the position of yet in G 1009 might imply that poynte actually means something less than telle in 1008 (‘And I would perhaps even be hard put to it just to poynte (= outline) it’). MED gives ‘summarize’ sv pointen 2(a), citing, however, only the much later Pecock’s Donet. But the opposed glosses ‘describe in detail’ (Troilus) and ‘summarize’ (Donet) indicate that in both cases the meaning is in fact simply ‘set down in writing’, and that well-attested sense of the verb is the one our footgloss assumes.

1012–13  Line 1013 operates to exclude from the strict sense of dalyaunce [conversation: 1012], derne [secret, hidden: 1012] and play [entertainment, pleasure: 1014] the sexual applications those words often had (see MED sv daliaunce 3, derne love sv derne 5 and plei(e 5). Cf. the narrator’s comment on Horn and the princess playing chess in Romance of Horn: ‘Qu’il n’i out un mot dit qui notast vilanie, Mes quant ke dit i out, turna a curteisie’ [there was no word spoken which indicated grossness, but whatever was said was in the way of courtly good manners] (2761–2).

1014  That (MS &): though incomplete or changed constructions are common in ME, a correlative for Such at 1011 is desirable, and the emendation seems put beyond doubt by T&G’s points: that the scribe’s ampersand may well have been prompted by þt in his exemplar and that the same error seems to have occurred at 1032 and 1386.

1021–2  These lines occur in reverse order in the MS, in which both would have to refer to 27 December (St John’s Day), which would thus also be the last of the layk (1023), leaving Holy Innocents’ Day (28 December) unaccounted for. Holy Innocents’ Day must be the last of the layk, because (a) that, not St John’s Day, was the third of the three days following Christmas (St Stephen’s Day on 26 December, St John’s Day and Holy Innocents’ Day) which had been designated festa ferianda (feast days laymen had to observe by abstaining from worldly business and travel: see n. to 536–7); and (b) the guests depart on the same morning (following the last of the layk) as that on which the first of the three hunts takes place (1126–36), and, in the carefully exact calendar of the poem, those hunts clearly occupy the last three days of the year (1062–78, 1950–67) and therefore begin on 29 December, not 28 December. Editors have suggested that a line (preceding 1023) dealing with Holy Innocents’ Day must have dropped, but the numerology of the poem is as exact as its time frame, the narrative coming full circle (when the first line is repeated in the last alliterative long line) at 2525 – a number obviously significantly related to the five fives emphasized in the account of the pentangle (632–61) and one which thus rules out any possibility of a lost line. The simplest solution seems to be the transposition here adopted. The scribe may well have understood that other in 1020 in its then common sense of ‘the second’ (other pron 1(a) in MED) and thus assumed that the line referring to the thrid should come next. In fact, other bears the sense ‘next (day)’ (see other dai sv other adj 3a(b) in MED) and the thrid refers to the third of the three festa ferianda following Christmas, which were often spoken of as a trio of days devoted to a trio of comites Christi [companions of Christ], saints who underwent their own version of His martyrdom and whose days therefore appropriately accompany His (Putter 2001: 134).

1022  For the collocation of thro with thringen or the associated noun throng, cf. C 180, 504, 754. Verbs of motion are characteristically used in alliterative verse in a sense looser than their strict one, and MED gives ‘proceed’ as the sense of thringen in this line and at DT 10831 (‘Thre yere thriftely throngen to ende’), where the verb is likewise used of the passage of time. But in collocation with thro, and in application to a season crammed with revelry, thringen obviously retains some of the energy and intensity of its stricter sense (‘squeeze’).

1028  MS stronge represents ‘strange’ (not ‘strong’), as at C 1494 (n.). strange meaning ‘not a resident or inmate’ is well attested: MED straunge adj 1(e).

1030  Charres: the MS reads ledes, but cf. him charred to a chamber at 850, which most editors read as reflexive, but which probably has the same transitive sense as would be required here (where him must refer to Gawain). For charren = ‘turn’ used transitively, cf. ‘that mon thone unwisen … to rihte wege cyrre’ (Twelfth Century Homilies 58; cf. 132).

1031  drawes him on drye (an expression apparently involving the adjective drie [lasting, long]) is usually glossed ‘takes him aside’. But the phrase is elsewhere reflexive and intransitive and consistently means ‘draws back (especially from engagement in battle)’, ‘retreats’ (see e.g. MA 3968, 4219); cf. C 71. This would indicate a sense here of ‘retreats (to a corner)’. The lord has already taken Gawain out of the public hall into his own chamber (1030), in order to express his especial thanks and to press him to stay longer (something not to be done in the presence of other guests to whom the same compliment was not being extended); the gesture thus perhaps here indicates, not the confidentiality but the sincerity and earnestness of the thanks and the invitation – uttered out of hearing range (of the attendants) so as not to be interpreted as merely a matter of public form. Since Gawain has not referred to the reason for his journey, the lord may also feel that any questions on that matter (1046–9) should be put with similar privacy.

1032  worschip that (MS &: see n. to 1014) he him wayved hade: cf. 1976 and WA 846 (‘Thof I this wirschip the wayfe’).

1034  honour his house (1033) is here repeated in, but lifted out of the ordinary by, enbelyse his burgh, the splendour of the French loan word enbelyse (‘to make bel, beautify’) being itself reinforced by the French phrase bele chere, which punningly refers back to it, and which is used with an application possible in French, but not otherwise recorded in English (in which it always elsewhere refers to the hospitable comforts afforded by a host or hostelry: MED bel adj 2(a)). The Frenchness of the line creates a register appropriate to Gawain’s social skills: cf. the phrase frenkysch fare [French behaviour] used at 1116 to refer to graces and refinements of manner.

1037–8  Cf. 1964. With the honour is your owne cf. 1267 (‘Hit is the worschip of yourself’), where the lady’s compliment on his bel chere is similarly turned back on her by Gawain. On the prayerful wish the High-Kyng yow yelde – so often heard from Gawain (even when he has no audience: 2055–7) with respect to the hospitality extended to him – cf. e.g. 839.

1039  wye is treated by some editors as a parenthetical vocative, but that would be inconsistent with stylistic distinctions drawn in the poem. Words meaning ‘man’ are a form of address used by Bertilak (both as Green Knight and as host: 258, 379, 1072, 1675) and are part of the bluff manner that characterizes him, but not by Gawain, who, when addressing his host, consistently uses the more deferential sir (1037, 1050, 1056, 1091), using sir and knight to the same man even as Green Knight, whom he addresses as ‘man’ only once, and with deliberate curtness (2284), at the Green Chapel. See also n. to 814.

1046–9  Cf. ‘Et Trahans li requiert porcoi il chevalche si armés par si haute feste comme est la nuit de Pentecouste’ [and Trahans asks him … why he is riding out thus armed during such a major festival as the eve of Pentecost] (Lancelot IV, 96). Other hosts similarly question their guests as to what need or occasion (‘quel besoign’) has brought him or her so ‘loing de sa terre’ (Lancelot do Lac 301, 396).

1047  derve: the MS could be read as derne [secret, hidden] or derue [bold, stern, rough], u and n being orthographically indistinguishable. The daylight-shunning shame usually connoted by the collocation derne dede is inappropriate here (especially in view of 1050–51). The scribe elsewhere consistently writes derf (never derve) for derf/derve, but in the present case he obviously misread derue as derne (under the influence of the common phrase derne dede). Editors adopting derve (in preference to derne) in the present line often gloss ‘terrible’, but derve seems to have had that sense only when applied to death, torture, etc. Since Gawain seems to understand derve dede as applying to the mission he is on (1050–51), the phrase has here been interpreted accordingly.

1051  hasty (= urgent) is modelled on French usage; for the application to a chivalric mission, cf. ‘por quele besoigne il va a Arrestuel si hastivement’ (Vulgate Merlin 371). wones: the plural – used of Arthur’s court here and at 685, and of Bertilak’s at 1386 and 2400 – also occurs with reference to the surely unicellular Green Chapel (2198) and at C 779 (where it corresponds to locum suum in Genesis 18:33). These idiomatic usages of plural with singular sense (cf. ModE ‘quarters’) occur in this MS only metri causa (to supply the b-verse with its required long dip or unstressed line ending); where metre does not demand the second syllable, the singular won is used of the dwelling places of both Arthur (257, 2490) and Bertilak (764, 906).

1053  ne has been supplied. The line clearly requires a negative, and T&G point out that ne wot in the world is invariably the form taken by this alliterative expression as it appears elsewhere in both English (cf. Pe 65) and ON.

1056  enquest [inquest, investigation] does not elsewhere in ME occur in the sense ‘request, petition’, though the related quest is once recorded with reference to a formal petition (quest(e 5 in MED). The uncommon usage combines with the French vocabulary of the line, the performative nature of the utterance and its redundancy (‘I request of you this request’) to give a solemn emphasis to Gawain’s conjuration.

1059  the knight that hit kepes: cf. 2148, where the verb is not constrained by the alliteration. The relation of the Green Knight to the Green Chapel is expressed in chivalric rather than residential terms: he guards it (MED kepen v 10), in the manner of those knights of romance who patrol, police or control access to a particular piece of territory (see n. to 715–17).

1060  stabled … statut … steven: through his use of quasi-legal terminology, Gawain stresses that his good faith is on the line, and hence the urgency of his need to find the Green Chapel (though it is noteworthy that, with his usual consideration for others, he does not reveal that the appointment will result in his death, since that might cast a gloom over the festive season). For the legalistic collocation of stabled and statut, cf. ‘The Statutes … her writtyn, And by the kynges auctorite Stabelid’ (English Conquest 65). The term steven [appointment] is repeatedly used of the rendezvous at the Chapel (cf. 2008, 2194, 2213, 2238): a meeting (turning up to it, and at the time and place agreed) was a special test of truth; see 2238.

1067  With regard to the grammar of the line (an absolute construction joined to the previous clause by ‘and’), T&G compare 1826 and Pe 386. falle feye is a collocation found early and persisting long, passing from OE verse (e.g. Battle of Maldon 105) into early ME (Layamon 316) and surviving into late ME (cf. ‘fall doun feye’: York Plays XXXIX.24).

1068–78  T&G draw attention to the mixture of formal ye and informal thou forms in this speech. The inconsistency is not unusual, but is one Gawain never falls into when addressing his host: the latter’s politeness is of a kind that can accommodate more familiarity than can Gawain’s.

1069, 1073  terme, merk: MED, which often confuses contextual application with definition, assigns these instances special entries (‘an appointed place’ and ‘an appointed or chosen place for meeting’), which misleadingly suggests nonce meanings. The instances belong under terme 1c (‘A goal; that which one seeks to attain’) and mark(e 8(d) (‘goal; objective’) respectively, of which they are regularly derived applications.

1072–3  forth-dayes implies ‘after daybreak’ (cf. 1180), which was in fact quite late at a period when it was common to rise at dawn (Bertilak himself gets up before dawn to hunt: 1126ff); Bertilak means Gawain can ‘lie in’; cf. ‘I was wont to lye styll abedde tyll it was forth dais, delitynge myself in slepe and ease’ (Tudor Vulgaria 277). mydmorn appears to signify the midpoint of a morning thought of as beginning with the office of Prime (6.00 a.m.) and ending at noon (‘Toward mydmorwe … Upon the hour whan the cloke is nyne’: Lydgate, Troy Book 1.3203–4); the host is emphasizing the proximity of the Chapel: if Gawain makes a leisurely start on New Year’s Day, he can be there by about mydmorn (though on that important day Gawain actually gets up somewhat before dawn: 2009, 2085–6).

1077  Cf. ‘Ge vos i baillerai conduit, / fet li sires, qui vos manra’ [I will provide you with a guide to the place, said the lord, who will conduct you] (Conte du Graal 5284–5). The ‘conveying’ of a guest (setting him on his right voie [way]) was one of the courtesies regularly extended by hosts in romance.

1078  In the later ballad version of this story, the equivalent line reads ‘Itt is but furlongs thre’ (Greene Knight 344), which makes the Chapel even nearer (three-eighths of a mile away).

1080  thonk … thryvandely: the collocation is peculiar to this poem. Thryvande(ly) usually means ‘worth(il)y’, but, since it is unlikely that Gawain is commending his own thanks, the participle probably here derives its sense more directly from thrive (= flourish) and means here and at 1980 ‘vigorous(ly)’, ‘plentiful(ly)’. The same collocation occurs also at 1380 (‘Have I thryvandely thonk thurgh my craft served’), where, however, thryvandely has its normal sense of ‘worthily’ (since it is there to be construed with served, not, as at 1080 and 1980, thonk). For the b-verse, cf. 645; the precise force of the expression in the present context is not quite clear; A&W suggest ‘beyond all your other kindnesses’.

1081  acheved: for the application of the verb to the achieving, or bringing to a successful conclusion, of a chivalric exploit, cf. Chaucer, Legend of Good Women 1614 (‘this aventure acheve’), 2111; Lancelot do Lac 256 (‘sa queste qu’il a achevee’); First Continuation 12679–80 (‘Li rois avoit achievé L’oirre que il avoit empris’), 13597.

1084  The provision of female company (cf. 1098–9) and access to the womenfolk formed a point of the etiquette of hospitality: cf. Laud Troy Book, where Medea is sent for to ‘comen adoun To glade his gestes of gret renoun’ and ‘bede … go and sitte … His vncouthe gest Iason besyde’ (589–602).

1086–7  The lord’s gaiety is characterized as extreme, but this would not have been considered out of place in a host: see n. to 981–90.

1086  let … lotes: the alliterative phrase – derived from ON làta làtum [make a noise] – also occurs in another northern poem, Cursor (MS C), where it refers at 12496 to wailing; since lote certainly covers non-verbal as well as verbal sounds (see lot(e 3(a) and (b) in MED), it might in Sir Gawain indicate cries and guffaws as well as or rather than words. MED, again unnecessarily (cf. n. to 1069, 1073), assigns a special entry to lotes here and at 988 and 1954 (‘merry words, jests’); it is other words in these lines that denote merriment or jesting, lotes itself simply referring to the ‘sounds’, ‘cries’ and ‘words’ covered in lot(e 3(a) and (b).

1087  The verb wolde is idiomatic in such contexts – cf. Song of Roland 721 (‘As they wold out of wit, they wept that tid’), Ywain and Gawain 2632, William 1509, Sir Eglamour L 1146. For ne wyst what he myghte, cf. Sir Tristrem 414–18: ‘He [Tristrem, set ashore with some food by his kidnappers] no wist what he mought, But semly sett him doun, And ete til him gode thought … The forest forth he sought.’ The sense in Sir Tristrem is plainly ‘he did not know what best to do’, ‘he had formed no plan of action’; in Sir Gawain, the implication is presumably that the lord’s behaviour resembled that of a man whose actions were not thought through in advance, i.e. it was erratic and impulsive.

1089  Cf. ‘For als thay demden to doo thay deden full even’ (P3A T 367).

1090  holde this hest: the collocation – cf. C 1636 (and CT V.1064: ‘Holdeth youre heste’) – marks a theme central to Sir Gawain, and the host’s apparently jovial insistence on the language of promise, contract and troth-plight (1105, forward; 1108, sware with trauthe; 1112, bargayn; 1123, covenauntes) recalls a similar emphasis by the Green Knight (378, 393, 394) and thus indicates the narrative parallel between these two occasions on which Gawain pledges his truth to the terms of what is on both occasions represented as a ‘game’.

1092  Walewein makes a similar response to his host’s suggestion he should take the latter’s place at table beside his wife: ‘You are my host: what you command I will do at once’ (Walewein 2562–3). In both texts, the implication is that the men would demur at the favour shown, but must accept it.

1093–7  The verb ‘travel’ (1093; cf. 2241) had not yet acquired a form distinct from that of ‘travail’ [labour], and the close connection between the two senses of the verb is central to the host’s logic here: Gawain’s long journey, coupled with subsequent late nights, has left him, the host claims, too run down for any game which would require much expenditure of energy from him. He has, of course, his own reasons for exaggerating his guest’s exhaustion (since Gawain has enjoyed three days of lavish sustnaunce and should be no more prevented from early-morning hunting by having waked with his host than is the host himself), but his adjurations to his guest to sleep late can represent themselves as hostly: it is plain from Walewein 11020–27 that a host might well be surprised and concerned if an honoured guest rose, like the household and its lord, at daybreak.

1096  Cf. 1676.

1097  Masse-while (and the similar expression ‘mes-tyme’ in Alphabet of Tales 205) implies that Mass occurred at set times in the daily routine of an household, though other Masses might also be said: Gawain does hear Mass (presumably at the Masse-while) over the following days (1311, 1558, 1876), but Bertilak also hears an earlier one (1135, 1414, 1690), perhaps provided especially (since he will be in the field at the time of the regular one).

1097–1101  The host’s test of Gawain’s behaviour with his wife can be arranged under colour of the conventions of courtesy, which dictated that a host should make the company of the females of the household unconditionally and unsuspectingly available to his guest (see n. to 1084).

1099  comfort yow with compayny: cf. 1011, where the words are likewise applied to the enjoyment gained in each other’s society by Gawain and the lady. The collocation is one of the more richly expressive of those recurrent within this particular narrative (as opposed to those that recur across different poems).

1100, 1102  lende often implies rest as opposed to motion (cf. ‘The herte restes and stille lendes’: Sidrak B 3073) and it occurs in the sense of ‘stay’ in the same rhyming antithesis with wende [go] in the alliterative John Evangelist Hymn 79–80 and York Plays XXIV.202–4. huntyng on holy days was something apparently requiring confession and penance (Danziger and Gillingham 2003: 133). It is presumably a mark of the propriety of this household that no hunting has been undertaken for the amusement of the house party during the three days following Christmas Day over which their stay is extended, for those days were major feast days which laymen were required to observe (see n. to 1021–2). The next day, 29 December, is treated by the host as his first opportunity to engage in that favourite recreation of gentlefolk.

1105–7  Other medieval romances (e.g. Chaucer’s Franklin’s Tale) also turn on the binding obligation to keep a promise or agreement. The plot of Sir Amadace, in particular, features a forward (490, 738) and covenant (731) – cf. G 1105, 1123 – of a comparable nature, the white knight requiring from Amadace a pledge that he will ‘share’ with him all that he ‘gains’: ‘Butte a forwart make I with the or that thou goe, That evyn to part betwene us toe The godus thou hase wonun and spedde’ (490–92). The hero is subsequently required to be ready to cut his wife and child in two (though, like Abraham, he is spared actually having to do so), she herself asserting that his ‘covandus’ must at all costs be ‘holdun’ (731).

1107  what chek so ye acheve: cf. MA 1539, Rowlande and Ottuell 851, WA 3225 (‘And cheued him of cheualry chekis out of nombre’). The phrase is equivalent to French eschec gaaigner/conquerre: ‘si pristrent tout l’eschec qu’il avoit conquis’ [they possessed themselves of all the eschec they had gained through victory] (Livre d’Artus 32), ‘Grans fu l’eskés qui gaaigniés fu’ (Moniage 3920; cf. 4559, 5428, 6189); see also Chanson de Roland 2478. The basic sense of French eschec is ‘booty, prize, what is gained by chivalric effort or battle’ (the term being usable by extension, in French and English, of a battle itself: cf. C 1238), and the context here in Sir Gawain suggests this stricter French usage rather than the looser sense (‘chance, fortune’) which the word regularly had in English (see 1857 and 2195). The host is choosing language that suits his guest’s profession as a knight, and drawing a parallel and distinction between his own winnings in the wode [hunting ground: 1106] and the metaphorical chek Gawain might acheve through chivalric prowess. Parallels – serious or witty – between the two activities were common. An elaborate example occurs in Ipomedon, where wordplay constantly conflates the hunts the hero pretends to engage in with the tournaments he is in fact fighting (see p. 241).

1108  This is the only occurrence in ME of swap (literally ‘strike’) meaning ‘exchange’, a sense not otherwise recorded by OED until 1594; that meaning emerged out of the expression ‘swap a bargain’ (i.e. strike hands together to confirm a bargain), for which the first citation is 1590; the expression here perhaps involves the original meaning of swap [strike] in some expression reduced from ‘swap we our handes so’. Some word(s) have possibly been lost. Since Swete as a substantive used vocatively is a form of address usually bestowed on a sweetheart, one would expect it, in address from one man to another, to be used adjectivally: cf. the Green Knight’s (slightly ironic) sir swete at 2237.

1112  For indefinite Who forming the equivalent of an ‘if’ clause followed by passive verb, see 355 (‘who laytes the sothe’ [if the truth be sought]) and cf. Pe 709. The exophoric this in this beverage indicates that the host is appealing to a cultural norm (sealing contracts by drinking on them) which he shares with those who, whether inside or outside the text, constitute his audience. Cf. Beryn 359 (‘Anoon thay dronk the beverage and were of oon accord’); see also Green 1999: 58, 121–2, 293, 406n., 407n. For the collocation with bargayn in alliterative verse, cf. PP B.5.338 (‘Bargaynes and beverages bigonne to arise’). Bargayn was often a quasi-legal term (= contract: MED bargain(e 1(a)), and the practice of sealing it with drink was especially associated with commercial contracts; see e.g. the entries in MED sv beverage (b). Mercantile terminology (chevisaunce, chepe, porchas, chaffer) is likewise later used by both men to characterize their gains of the day as the goods or purchases acquired by mercantile skills in dealing and bargaining (cf. 1123, 1390–94, 1406, 1646–7, 1678, 1938–41; and see further Blanch and Wasserman 1984, Mann 1986). The status they would enjoy in commercial law is thereby conferred (though apparently in jest) upon the ‘goods’ each man thus contractually ‘owes’ the other.

1113  the lord of that lede is one of the alliterative formulations that characterize Bertilak as the leader of a community (cf. 833, 849, 1124) and so ensure that he cuts a rather more authoritative and less sycophantic figure than the equivalent generous hosts often do in episodes of hospitality in chivalric romance.

1114  dronken and daylyeden and dalten untyghtel: cf. dronken and dalten at 1668, where the context is similar and where dalten seems to mean ‘spoke, conversed’ and to represent a reduction of such expressions as ‘dele dom/wordes/langage’ (cf. C 344). ME tuhtle meant ‘custom, good custom’, and untuhtle always elsewhere carries the sense ‘wrongful or improper action’, but is here evidently used in a weakened sense, perhaps ‘trifling or unserious matter’. dalten untyghtel thus refers to agreeably unweighty talk, the conversational trifles ful hende engaged in by Arthur at 108.

1116  frenkysch fare occurs elsewhere as a sarcastic concessive (‘for all your/his Frankish fare’): see Gospel of Nicodemus 1294; cf. Chester Plays 3.100, John the Reeve 826, Minot 6/20. Though it implies arrogance and airs and graces, nothing characterizable in that way occurs in any of these texts, where the phrase is used without much precision simply to register sarcasm, defiance of a command or claim, or antagonistic posture. The Gawain poet may be using a non-hostile sense of which no other examples survive, or he may simply be reinventing the phrase in defiant disregard of the jeer it usually constituted. It is certainly not the only occasion on which details of aristocratic luxury and sophistication recorded elsewhere in a derogatory manner figure in Sir Gawain in a commendatory fashion (see e.g. n. to 801–2).

1117  stemed appears (pace T&G) to be a different verb from the one that figures at 230 (on which see n.), where stem is MED stemmen v^1, ‘consider’, whereas here (as at C 905) the verb is plainly stemmen v^2, ‘pause (especially from speech), halt’, as the collocation with still confirms: e.g. ‘Speke we wald, might had we nan, For-thi we stemmed still als stan’ (Cursor C 24326–7; cf. York Plays XLV.98). The collocation here nicely captures that socially transitional moment in which, after the livelier talk and laughter of the evening (1113–15), the party rises to its feet, pauses and resumes speech with lowered energy output, prior to dispersal (1118).

1119  lede [man] has here the sense ‘servant’ (as at 851) – the provision of attendants with torches or candles to light the way to the sleeping chamber being one of the luxuries which Gawain regularly enjoys at Hautdesert (cf. 1685, 1989), but which were not available to him when he travelled ledeles through the comfortless outdoor world (693). lyght is, in context, almost a pun. It primarily denotes the hospitably glad and ‘cheerful’ readiness (cf. MED light adj^1 6) with which the service is performed. But the collocation with lemande inevitably suggests the noun or adjective light = ‘bright(ness)’, for this was a standard pairing in alliterative metre (cf. 2010; C 1486; Pe 119, 1043) – the predictable sense interacting with the actual one to support the correlation (between human cheerfulness and material brightness) which the alliteration itself creates.

1123  Recorded covenauntes: the verb occurs as a gloss for French reherce (MED recorden 6) and, in collocation with covenant, was used of the formal reiteration of terms, in speech or writing, of business transactions. Like the beverage that seals the bargayn (1112), the expression thus alludes to the procedures (developed largely in mercantile contexts) that formalized contracts. Cf. ‘it is ordeyned … that the contractes and the covenauntes of that merchaundise ben rehersed and recorded aforn the ballyves … And thanne … entered in the rolle of the ballives’ (Black Book of the Admiralty II.119). The phrase is the equivalent of ‘Refourme we our forwardes’ at 378, the bob-and-wheel giving, through the foregrounding and pairing of the nouns covenauntes and layk, summary emphasis to the two aspects under which the agreement has figured, legal and ludic (cf. 1105, 1111, 1112 and n. to 1090).

1126  The new fitt (see n. to 491) is marked by a six-line-deep decorated initial F.

1127–8  gromes are often mentioned in connection with horses (an association which has survived into ModE): see the citations in MED sv grom 2(a). busken up is glossed ‘hasten’ in MED, which however cites no parallels for the usage. Haste is certainly but adequately conveyed by bylive, and – since the verb is often used with directional adverbs and adverbial phrases (e.g. ‘busk of/to bed’: cf. 1411 and C 834) – as at 1136, 1448, 2476 and StE 112 (‘buskyd thiderwarde’) – ‘arise, rise up (in response to the summons of their masters)’ seems a preferable gloss here.

1130, 1134  to ride all arayed … Arayed for the rydyng: i.e. prepared for a long, fast or important ride; cf. ‘[Alexander] Arayed hym for to ryde’ (P3A 346), ‘Araye the … to ride and to renne’ (Lament 81).

1133  was not the laste: the lord gets up, like the guests, before dawn (1126, 1137), for hunting is always assumed to involve an early start (‘au point du jour’: Livre d’Artus 164; ‘atte the white off the day’: Tretyse off Huntyng 45). For the phrasing in the context of early rising, the influential romances of Hue de Rotelande offer a parallel: cf. ‘Levez est Latins … Ben vus dis, n’est pas li dereins’ (Protheselaus 9629–30), and Ipomedon 5621 and 3545–6 (where the hero, pretending to go hunting, is mockingly represented by the onlookers as ensuring that he will get to the tournament on time: see n. to 1107): ‘Est ja vers le turnei meü, ne voilt pas estre le derain.’

1135  A sop was often taken in place of a meal when time was pressing (as when Cador ‘Tase a sope in the tour and taryez no langer’ at MA 1890), or, as here, to see one through vigorous activity when the preparation of dinner proper (the first meal of the day) cannot be waited for, as before a battle at Livre d’Artus 55 (‘Si mengerent de telx i ot une soupe en vin por lor cuers tenir’). The poet is careful to specify that the lord first hears Masse – which is not the regular daily Mass which Gawain hears when he rises (1311), but an earlier and probably abbreviated one (a missa venatoria said ‘for hunters in a hurry’: Bennett, citing Fortescue 1912: 192; cf. the hunters’ Mass at Sir Gawain and the Carl of Carlisle 27–9).

1136  bent (a type of grass) was a poeticism for ‘field’ in hunting and military contexts and bugles and/or horns were a prominent part of both activities. The poet, by concentrating on features and terminology shared by hunting and battle, presents in the hunting host a more traditionally heroic model of outdoor knighthood to complement the feats of indoor courtesy performed by Gawain. See p. 247.

1137  daylyght lemed: cf. 1180. The different contexts in which the same collocation occurs emphasize the more leisurely and upholstered nature of time and space for Gawain, and the different start times that mark the contrasting activities of the two knights.

1138  ‘High horses/steeds’ (cf. Mum and the Sothsegger 921; P3A 111, 170; Guy of Warwick 1201) implied fine horses (as those used for hunting would be) and the phrase is an implicit class indicator: cf. ‘The kyng of heven … come neyther on hegh hors … bot mekely rydyng on a sympul asse bak’ (Mirk 227).

1139ff  Hunts frequently figure in romance, though only P3A – which opens with a deer stalking and includes a description (by Youth) of hawking – can compare with Sir Gawain in the length and vividly elaborate detail of its hunting episodes. On the poet’s probable debt to Ipomedon in particular, and for the three categories of game represented in the hunts in Sir Gawain, see p. 241.

1139  Cf. ‘The hunter … Vncoupult kennettis [small dogs] as he couthe’ (Avowing 85). cacheres (glossed ‘huntsmen’ by editors and MED) may refer specifically to dog handlers, as catcher in the sense of ‘huntsman’ is not otherwise recorded, whereas cacheken (= one responsible for hunting dogs) is (see MED sv cacchen v 7 and sv chace-cien): he is an official distinguished from the veutrer mentioned in 1146 (the master of the greyhounds), and cacher/cacheken (= driver or handler of dogs) bears an intelligible relation to Promptorium 57, which glosses cacher as minator, abactor [cattle-driver].

1141  bare thre motes (MS þre bare mote): the emendation is indicated by metre (which requires a long dip in the b-verse) and by the parallel construction (bare + numeral) at 1066 (‘bare thre dayes’) and C 1573 (‘Out-taken bare two’), where bare means ‘no more than, exactly’; cf. ‘Receyved of alle our Bretheren of our Crafte … barely ccliiij. vj. s. x d.’ (Grocers Company 272). A mote is a horn call. A call of exactly three motes (three single notes) was normally the signal to unleash the dogs (cf. ‘The mayster hunte … blew thre mot At the uncouplynge of hys houndes’: Chaucer, Book of the Duchess 375–7); but this cannot be the point here, since the dogs have only just been leashed and are uncoupled at 1147. The call seems here to announce the departure to the hunting ground (‘We’re off!’); cf. ‘He & all his men sett hornes to mouth & blew thre motes, that the quene & all the ladies might here, that he went on hunting’ (Ipomedon C 337).

1143–4  on chasyng that wenten probably distinguishes the men or dogs that were to drive or chase the deer from the archers and those who (see 1146) are to wait at the receiving stations to which the animals will be driven. The half line is interpreted as a reference to the dogs (and as the grammatical object of the verbs chastysed and charred) by A&W and T&G, where it is glossed ‘the hounds that strayed away on other scents’. But there is no evidence that on chasyng could bear this sense. Conversely, A hundred of hunteres, which they assume to refer to the huntsmen and to be the grammatical subject of the verbs in the previous line, in fact refers to the dogs; though hunter is not elsewhere used with reference to dogs in ME (as T&G point out), it occurs with that application in early ModE, and is clearly indicated here by grammar (charren = ‘drive’ and chastise are transitive verbs), by the reference at 1597 to ‘A hundred houndes’, and by probability: accounts from the period show that the grandest households maintained some hundred running hounds, but only some twenty huntsmen (Cummins 1988: 21, 174).

1146  The line indicates that the hunt is a deer drive rather than the pursuit of a single deer (only allowed in spring and summer). Participators took up positions at hunting stations or trysteres, in order to shoot at the driven deer, which were pursued by small running hounds; any deer that escaped the archers would be chased back to the hunting area or brought down by the large greyhounds controlled by the vewters at the trysteres. Cf. Awntyrs 35–41 (where Arthur likewise stations men and dogs at tristes in preparation for the deer drive with which that alliterative romance begins) and the vivid analogy employed by Pandarus when he promises Troilus to bring Criseyde to his ‘sick-bed’: ‘Lo, hold the at thi triste cloos, and I Shall wel the deer unto thi bowe dryve’ (Troilus II.1534–5). For the association of vewters and greyhounds with tristes, cf. ‘Triste is ther me sit [where one waits] mid te greahunz’ (Ancrene Wisse 126), ‘twey fewtreres owyn to make faire logges … at her trestes for to kepe the kyng and the quene … and eke the greyhoundes fro the sonne’ (Master of Game 108).

1147  of kest: cf. ‘And when he … is forth … to the felde goon, And when he has of-cast his cowples at will …’ (Boke of St Albans 25–7). Since it is seen as marking the point at which the hunt gets under way, the uncoupling of the hounds is often mentioned in literary hunts: cf. Generydes 42–5 (‘his houndys were oncopelyd by and by’ and all set off ‘with a mery cry’), Awntyrs 44 (‘They kest of here couples in cliffes so colde’), Mum and the Sothsegger 928, Protheselaus 1871, Ferguut 83.

1149  rurd: the word recurs with reference to the roaring fortissimo of the hunt (1698, 1916; cf. 1427–8, 1719–24), which contrasts with the hush of Gawain’s bedroom, in which even the slightest suppressed sound, or little dyn made dernely (1183), can be heard. For forest used (like park and wood) specifically of a hunting arena, cf. ‘whan the kyng wil hunt in foreste or in parke’ (Master of Game 107), ‘the Maister of our game of oure fforest and parke of ffekkenham’ (Coventry Leet Book 405).

1150  For quest [search, hunt] used specifically of the cry of hunting-dogs (as were the verb and verbal noun questen and questyng), cf. ‘For hundis queste it semyt the lyft [sky] ryfe [split] wald’ (Douglas, Aeneid V.v.26).

1151  drof in the dale: since the deer make for the high ground in order to escape, in must here indicate present location rather than direction (which latter would, in any case, more normally be expressed by drive into): ‘in the valley, the deer ran’. Collocational habits may have prompted the a-verse: cf. (in the context of a battle) ‘drof hom into a dale’ at Song of Roland 1029, and Mum and the Sothsegger 924.

1152–70  With Hyed to the high cf. P3A 59, where the deer likewise respond to a danger signal by making for the high ground (‘And thay, forfrayede of his fare, to the fellys thay hyen’). For the counter-goal of the hunters, who drive the deer downhill (1159, 1169) to the tryst below (1170), cf. ‘The wild beistis doun to the daill thai dryve. Lo! thar the rais [roes] … Drevyn from the hychtis’ (Douglas, Aeneid IV.iv.48–50).

1153  stablye (which could also be used of a military encampment) and ascryed (cf. C 1206, 1784) are further words that occur also in military contexts (see n. to 1136).

1154  herttes … with the highe hedes: the collocation is common; it occurs in the deer hunt in Douglas’s Aeneid, in a passage which, having no equivalent in Virgil, indicates the popularity of the deer hunt in contemporary life and literature (‘The herd of hartis with thar hedis hie’: IV.iv.52), and in the deer stalking that opens P3A (‘I seghe ane hert with ane hede, ane heghe for the nones’: 25). The ‘high head’ indicates that the deer is an adult male: the term hart, according to Twiti, strictly refers to a red deer old enough to have at least ten tines on its antlers, its ‘fyrst hed’, i.e. over six years old (C 36).

1155  bukkes … with her brode paumes: the poet’s terminology is technically correct: the male fallow deer becomes a buck only at six years old; the broad part of its antlers should be called the palm (Cummins 1988: 32).

1156–7  fermysoun, a technical term of venery, occurs elsewhere in alliterative verse – at MA 180 and at Awntyrs 7–8 (‘To fall of the femailes [to strike down the females] … Fair by the fermison’) – but is otherwise found only in French and Latin. The first citation (from a Foot of Fines) in OED sv fermison indicates that adult male deer could be hunted only between May and September, that the closed season for males was called fermison, and that the females could be hunted only between November and February, their open season thus falling within the winter months of fermison when the adult males were protected. The hunters here thus allow the males to escape (1154–5) – further evidence of the model household run by this model lord (cf. 848–9).

1157  meve to means ‘move or proceed against or towards’ (MED meven 2a(c)), and does not refer to the flushing of the deer (pace MED and T&G), since (a) meve in that sense is transitive and does not occur in the form meve to; and (b) discrimination in favour of the males cannot occur in the rousing of the deer by the hounds (which will be necessarily indiscriminate), but only in which deer the archers choose to shoot at.

1158b  The MS reads ‘with hay & war’, which yields a b-verse without a long dip. We have emended in the light of 1445, though there are other possibilities (e.g. ‘with “Hay!” and with “Ware!” ’).

1160  slypped: for the application to arrows, cf. ‘[He] lete his Arow Slippe’ (Lydgate, Siege of Thebes 1277). The verbal noun slentyng occurs only here, but slenten was regularly used of a blow with a weapon (= to strike at) and of the glancing stroke of a weapon so aimed (= to fall (on)) and occurs with reference to missiles at Sir Ferumbras 3313 (‘Gret slabbes of styl & yre to the walles tho wern y-slente [cast]’). slentyng of arwes [arrow shot] similarly concerns a weapon propelled, a blow aimed.

1161  wapped (of obscure origin) is used of wind at 2004, and likewise occurs with reference to arrows – ‘quarrels’ which ‘quappid thurghe mayles’ – at WA 2353.

1162  bote (cf. 426): the verb is regularly used of blades, arrowheads, etc. For bigly = ‘firmly’, see Pa 321, SJ 618, DT 7526. with ful brode hedes: the phrase ‘With arwes brode’ occurs in other hunting scenes (see CA 5.1266, CT VII.2258); hunting arrows had triangular heads with long, heavy barbs (Danziger and Gillingham 2003: 131).

1164–73  The pursuing raches of 1164 are the dogs introduced as Braches at 1142: cf. ‘a brache, vel [or] a rache’ (Anglo-Saxon Vocabularies 618). They are running dogs which drive the deer, as distinct from the grehoundes at the trysts which bring the game down. The two sorts of dogs (and their distinct roles) are often referred to – cf. ‘Sexty grewhondes unto the gamen And sexti raches rynnande in samen’ (Sege of Melayne 851–2; cf. Carl of Carlisle 61–4) – and both figure in the deer drive in Awntyrs 58–60.

1166  Cf. 2201 and Douglas, Aeneid V.v.26 (‘For hundis queste it semyt the lyft [sky] ryfe [split] wald’).

1167–8  (cf. 1321–2, 1381–2). Since deer have neither the ferocity of the boar nor the wiliness of the fox, the main achievement of the deer drive lies in the sheer numbers of animals slain. Success is similarly measured elsewhere – five hundred deer have been killed by prime (see n. to 1675) in Sir Gawain and the Carl of Carlisle (112–13). This would have special point in winter, when no other fresh meat was to be had.

1167  atwaped: found only here and in Cleanness (see n. to C 1205–11).

1168  MS to presumably represents the intensifying prefix to- that is common with verbs of destruction (cf. to-fylched at 1172) and has here been assumed as applying to both -raced and -rent; for to-rend see C 368, Pa 96, Pe 1136. Both verbs are normally found with reference to persons. resayte in the b-verse is much the earliest instance of the word receipt in its special hunting application to a ‘receiving place’ or tryst: see MED receit 3(e) (where Sir Gawain provides the only entry) and OED receipt 14 (where the first recorded occurrence is dated 1575).

1169  The deer are ‘teased’ (taysed) by hounds towards the greyhounds; cf. ‘The mayster of game … oweth to sette the greihound and ho so be tesours … As oft as any hert commeth, he schal … lette hem after to teise it forth’ (Master of Game 107).

1172  to-fylched: likewise used of a dog’s attack in a sermon for the feast of Peter and Paul: ‘so frek [fierce] was that uncely hounde, that he him filchid felli thare’ (Altenglische Legenden 79).

1174  abloy occurs only here. Wright 1923 suggested it could represent an AN variant of OF esbloi (past participle of esbloir [darken]) in an extension of its sense of aveuglé [blinded, dazzled] into ‘transported, reckless’. But AN abloir is attested only in the sense ‘make blue, discolour’.

1178  Concatenation on summarizing Thus (1177–8) marks the transition from field to bedroom. lyndewodes is a reversal for metrical purposes of wodelinde (MED lind(e 4(b) and 4(c)), a compound often associated with deer: cf. ‘To chase the herte and the hynde, And to pley under the wode lynde’ (Guy of Warwick C 1205–6). -wodes eves (cf. Merlin 386, MA 1283) is the equivalent of similar references in French to the less dense ‘oraille [edge] de la forest’, the English word occurring as a gloss for the French one in Walter de Bibbesworth 551: ‘hourail: wode hevese’.

1180  Lurkkes: the verb is used in this oeuvre with reference to being or moving under some kind of cover (cf. 1195, Pe 978, Pa 277) and does not necessarily imply the surreptitious skulking with which it is often associated elsewhere and in later usages. daylyght lemed: see n. to 1137.

1182  as in slomeryng he slode: the collocation of slide with sleep/slumber is common, but the reference elsewhere is always to falling or sinking into sleep: cf. Pe 59; Pa 200; DT 6; Douglas, Aeneid VII.Prol.111, VIII.Prol.3 (‘I slaid on a swevenyng, slummyrrand a lite’). It is likely that, here as elsewhere (cf. n. to 1151), the wording has been influenced by collocational habits, the verb being the one that would suggest itself as combinable with slumber and sly (cf. ‘Then slade [the god] slily away, & [Alexander] fra slepe ryse’: WA 2996), but pushed into a new meaning of ‘slide or drift along (in sleep)’.

1183  dernely: MS derfly yields a b-verse with no long dip, and so presumably represents what the scribe read as deruely, but which may have been dernely, since the two words would have been indistinguishable (cf. n. to 1047). The fact that dernely occurs in collocation with dor only five lines later (at 1188) could be used as an argument for or against assuming the same collocation at 1183. A case could be made for dervely: the word does occur in collocation with dyn at C 862, and it could here have the sense ‘promptly’ (cf. C 632, WA 2006). But the contextual emphases on quietness and surreptitiousness favour dernely. As to the medial e required by metre, the situation is complicated: the adverb dernly (< OE derne + lice) could certainly have medial e (cf. dærneli at Ormulum 8476), although this is never elsewhere reflected in MS spelling; conversely, derfly (< ON djarfliga) twice appears spelled deruely (2334, C 632), though the medial e is not historical. On the contrast between little dyn and rurd, see n. to 1149.

1186  waytes warly thiderwarde: in the sense ‘so as to avoid detection’, wareli is elsewhere (with the verb ‘espy’) likewise used of watching: MED wareli adv (e).

1187  on lyve: not in the MS, but supplied to regularize a metrically deficient line in a manner consistent with the poet’s alliterative habits. Ladies almost invariably prompts a collocational life of some sort elsewhere in this MS (cf. 1229, Pe 774), and both words occur with lovely at G 52 (‘And the lovelokkest ladies that ever lif haden’). The association between the two words prompts the tag ‘(up)on life’ [alive, in being] at 2054, where it plainly has much weakened sense (cf. 1717, 1719). Its use here would be not inapt: alive is common with superlatives (cf. ‘Ich shal yeue the to wive The fairest thing that is olive’ at Havelok 2865–6, and see further MED alive 2(a)), and its presence would underline the superlative force of loveliest, recalling the emphatic superlative used to introduce the lady, ‘the fayrest … of all other’, her loveliness surpassing even the legendary beauty of Guinevere (943–5).

1190  Ipomedon likewise feigns sleep when the infatuated Ismeine creeps to his bed in the night: ‘Estrangement s’en esmerveille, En pes se jut, si fist dorveille [= dormeveille]’ [he marvelled very much (cf. G 1197); he lay still and pretended to be asleep] (8827–8); see p. 241 and n. to 1133 above. let as [behave as if] is an ON-derived expression; for let as he slepte = ‘pretended to be asleep’, cf. ‘In bede ful still sco lai, Lett als sco slep’ (Cursor C 8613–4) and Alphabet of Tales 167.

1195a  MS ‘þe lede lay lurked’ is syntactically anomalous and metrically irregular, the simplest solution to both problems being the insertion of ‘and’; cf. ‘a ryuoure … in the which lay and lurkyd an edder or a dragon’ (Speculum Sacerdotale 130).

1196–7  Since u and n are indistinguishable in the MS, Mene in 1197 could be meve and the word has been so read by other editors. But for the collocation of compass and mene, cf. ‘Priamus … in hymsilfe gan for to compasse Ful prudently what it myghte mene’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 4.828–9), and for the alliterative collocation of mene and marvel, cf. G 233. to in 1196b (picked up in 1197b in to mervayl) is slightly puzzling, as neither meve to nor mene to is recorded with any signification that would give good sense here, and to should perhaps be construed only with amount, which certainly does occur with to (cf. Pa 332, StE 160). For case = ‘action/deed’, see MED cas 4.

1201  unlouked his iye-lyddes is usually glossed ‘opened his eyes’. But Gawain has already feigned waking up (1200a) and his eyes must therefore be already open. What he is doing is opening his eyes wider in order to express surprise (and let as him wondered). Cf. Canterbury Interlude, where the Pardoner, chatting up a pretty barmaid, dilates his eyes in order to look her, with suggestive pointedness, full in the face: ‘And pryvelich unlased his both eyen-liddes And loked her in the visage paramour amyddes, And sighed therwith a litel tyme …’ (67–9). In both scenes, the men open their (already open) eyes wider in order to express something to their interlocutors: sexual interest in the Pardoner’s case, surprise in Gawain’s.

1202  The cross had talismanic power to ward off evil (see e.g. PP B.18.432–3, Lancelot III, 191), and crossing oneself was thus a response to the presence of danger; cf. ‘Hi seinde hem daer te deser noet’ [facing such danger, he crossed himself] (Lanceloet 648). It is presumably the moral danger the lady represents that Gawain is crossing himself against, much as Ygerne crosses herself when told of the king’s love for her: ‘ele lieve sa main si se saine & dist: “Diex, comme li rois est traitres qu’il fait samblant de mon signor amer & moi & lui veut honir” ’ [she raises her hand and crosses herself, and says: ‘Lord, what a traitor is the king, who feigns friendship for my husband and wishes to bring disgrace on him and me’] (Vulgate Merlin 60). But Gawain can make the gesture look as if it were simply the one commonly used on awakening (cf. ‘Aryse be tyme out of thi bedde, And blysse thi brest and thi forhede’: Young Children’s Book 11–12).

1204–7  The tags in the wheel typify the lady as the archetypally attractive one. ‘Chin and cheek’ (cf. CA 7.1892) could be used with reference to female charms (cf. ‘Lufflye of chynne and cheke’: Ipomadon 2374); with white and red in blande, cf. ‘Her visage fressh and wele colowred, so entermedled white and rede so naturally’ (Merlin 227); and the ideal mouth was obviously a smal rosebud – like that of Chaucer’s Prioress (‘Hir mouth ful smal and therto softe and reed’: CT I.153) and the lovely portress of Romaunt of the Rose (‘With litel mouth and round to see’: 549).

1208  gay: MS fayr is unmetrical. All editors except Vantuono emend to gay, which is the word repeatedly used when an alliterative link between Gawain and the lady is required: see 1213 and 1248, as well as 970 and 1003 (and note also 1822).

1209  a sleper unslye, that man may slyde hider: the reasoning is military (Stokes 1981). A prudent army would always appoint watchmen to ensure that they should not be surprised while asleep (‘qu’il ne fuissent souspris en dormant’: Vulgate Merlin 383), a principle seen as operating even in the animal world: a male deer in P3A keeps watch for a great stag when the latter sleeps, ‘That none so sleghe in his slepe with sleghte sholde him dere’ (36). For other instances of collocation between, variously, sly, slide and sleep, see WA 2996 and DT 788, 2377, 8224.

1210  A&W translate Bot true us may schape as ‘Unless we can arrange a truce between ourselves’, but omission of the subject pronoun is unlikely in this context. MED assumes the same sense as at 2328 and includes both instances under shapen 7(a) (‘direct, prescribe’). But the present instance probably belongs under MED shapen 4(e) (‘happen, occur’) and has the same sense (‘be brought about, come about’) as at Pa 160 (‘And all to lyghten that lome, if lethe wolde schape’).

1216  bos: we have assumed MS byhoueȝ (which yields an unmetrical b-verse with two long dips) to be a scribal normalization of the contracted form (used metri causa at Pe 323).

1217  mony a blythe laghter: laughter is often the equivalent of ModE ‘laugh’ (which did not exist as a noun at this period) and occurs as a count noun also in MA 2673 (‘With lowde laghttirs’) and DT 5053 (‘a laughter’).

1219  deprece must here have a sense opposite to depresed at 6 and 1770 (‘oppressed, pressed hard’) and depres at Pe 778, and may well be a scribal error. The normal verb in French for ‘relaxing’ custody of a prisoner was disprisoner, for which both disprison and unprison are recorded as English equivalents; a single instance of an apparently nonce-formed despriser [un-take, release from prison] does figure in Godefroy’s Dictionnaire, but MED’s suggestion that deprece is an English coinage from a verb that had no currency in French is improbable and would not explain the spelling.

1222  beau sir: for the ironic or slightly facetious note often struck by this mode of address, see MED beau 2(b) and for OF examples, see Ménard 1969: 701.

1223–4  For happe as being equally applicable to clothes and to bedclothes (and thus here presenting the latter as an alternative to the clothing Gawain had suggested at 1220), cf. ‘he has nouther on bac nor bedd Clath to hap him’ (Cursor G 6801–2). ‘Wrapping’ by definition involves covering both ‘sides’; for the consequent collocation between happe and half, cf. Pa 450. Though riche and happe (cf. 1873, 864) represent the bedclothes as ‘array’, happe in its sense of ‘fasten, tie’ is also relevant: the lady is keeping her ‘prisoner’, contrary to his request (1219), in his ‘bound’ state.

1235  I schal ware my while wel: for waren [spend, lay out] as used of wits (cf. 402) and time (cf. ‘Yche wegh, as he will, warys his tyme’: DT 19), see MED waren (2)b.

1237–8  Ye are welcom to my corse means simply ‘You are welcome to me’, an expression commonly used to a guest (see MED welcom(e 1a(a)). ‘You are welcome to my body’ (an interpretation based on the strict sense of corse [body]) is not possible even as a secondary sense that makes the expression ‘purposely ambiguous’ (Bennett), since in ME (as is pointed out in T&G), you are welcome to + noun was used only in the strict sense (‘well come’), never in the ModE sense of ‘I give you permission to make free with x’. The ModE sense arises only when the adjective takes an infinitive, as here with Ye are welcom … Your owen won to wale (= you are free to do as you will: cf. 814 and Pe 399). The fact that welcom is here used in both constructions (with noun and with infinitive complement) in both senses (‘You are well come to me and welcome to do as you will’) does perhaps force some conflation of the two usages that makes 1237 suggestive. But the suggestiveness is more a matter of context than semantic ambiguity: though very close to the words uttered to his guest by her lord at 835 (‘Ye are welcom to welde as yow likes’), the expression has one effect when uttered by a man to a male guest in a public hall, and quite another when uttered by a woman who has crept into that guest’s bedroom and has there struck up a distinctly arch tone and posture, in which circumstances the graciousness of the hostess must necessarily come over as something of a fig leaf.

1239  In both French and English, of fyne force occurs most typically in the context of combat in the sense of ‘by main force’ (see e.g. Lancelot III, 348, V, 136; William 1217, 4148), but also occasionally, as here, with reference to force of a more abstract kind, in the sense ‘of very necessity’ (cf. Lancelot V, 79, Mum and the Sothsegger 1636).

1241ff  On Gawain’s refusal of the lady’s advances, and its relation to similar incidents elsewhere in romance, see pp. 242–3.

1243  To reche to such reverence: cf. ‘In armes is ther none that to thi renoun reches’ (Mannyng, Chronicle II.4845), where the contextual sense of reche to [extend as far as: cf. C 906] is likewise ‘be equal to’.

1245b–47  There may be some corruption, since the grammar is puzzling. If that in 1246 is relative (‘in words or service which I could devote to you’), then the construction begun in 1245 (‘if it seemed good to you …’) is left unfinished; if it introduces a clause completing that construction (‘if it were agreeable to you … that I could sette, in words or service …’), then sette lacks an object. A&W translate as if a reflexive pronoun were present (‘that I should devote myself to your pris’); Burrow accepts sette as intransitive, translating ‘that I could contribute (= make a contribution) to your pris’, but there is no evidence of such a sense for intransitive set. your pris seems to be an elegant coinage of the poet’s own, formed on the model of such polite periphrases for ‘you’ as ‘your high noblesse’, ‘your noble grace’, ‘your fatherhood’, for it does not figure among those listed in MED (sv your 6b(d)).

1249  The pris and the prowes: cf. 912. In the context of knighthood, prowess usually denotes the outdoor skills in combat as opposed to the indoor ones of courtesy. But the lady is probably using the word in its wider sense (based on Latin probitas) of ‘probity, excellence’ (MED prouesse 2(b)).

1250  daynte: the word – which as a plural noun designates refinements of cuisine (998) – is used in a social sense to refer to graces of speech (cf. Gawain’s daynte wordes at 1253) and to verbal politeness (cf. 1266, 1662); for the negative (little daynte) used to designate want of polite respect and complimentary expressions, cf. ‘ “Haile, modi qwene of Messidoyne!” he maistirlike said. Thare deyned him na daynte “madame” hire to call’ (WA 228–9).

1252  Have thee … in … holde: the lady continues her conceit of Gawain as her prisoner, to which this expression, when applied to persons, always refers: cf. the reference to Daniel (a Jewish prisoner of war) as a man Balthazar ‘has … in … hold’ (C 1597) and William 3690 (‘ye han now on [someone] in hold’).

1253–4  for [because of] has been supplied in 1253. MED interprets the MS line as ‘with whom to dally your dainty words’, treating dally words as a nonce transitive usage of dally with the nonce sense ‘exchange pleasantries, chat’. But, especially since the b-verse as it stands is unmetrical (lacking a long dip), it is likely that a preposition has dropped. daly is not in itself a compromising word. It often meant simply ‘converse, commune’. But skill in dalliaunce [elegant and gracious talk] was an attribute of the ideal courtly lover. The lady is thus referring to a skill seen as a romantic and attractive one, and indeed the vocabulary of 1254 (which would normally suggest love-longing) tips the pleasure it imparts just short of explicitly in that direction – especially since it is specifically ladies (1251) that she represents as likely to prize an opportunity of hearing Gawain dallying.

1255  gat that: the MS reads þat þat. The first that is commonly omitted by editors, but this still leaves an unmetrical b-verse with weak sense. Our emendation assumes the lady is continuing her image of Gawain as a captured prisoner (cf. in her holde at 1252): he is a prisoner more valuable than the garysoun or gold also won (gat) by military success (geten was used of the capture of booty or prizes: MED geten 2b(a)). Geten is the normal form of the past participle in this MS, but yat also occurs (C 66), and, since the poet uses y/g variants for alliterative convenience (cf. ayain at 815 and agayn at 1638), gat is a plausible form, and gat-yat-þat constitutes a plausible sequence of scribal errors.

1259  made him … gret chere: the expression is used especially of the entertainment given by a host or hostess: see MED chere n^1 7(b). The comment is mock naive, but represents the interpretation of his hostess’s friendliness that Gawain himself, in his responses to her, finds it politic to express.

1261  skere [clear] regularly had the sense ‘blameless, innocent’. Gawain keeps himself ‘blamelessly’ unresponsive to the lady (by putting a blameless construction on what he represents as her gracious condescension to her guest).

1262  Since answer and case could both be used in a legal or debating sense, the line suggests the ‘refutation’ of a ‘charge’ and thus points to the upside-down debate that is going on here, in which it is compliments rather than insults or accusations that each speaker anxiously turns back on the other (see e.g. daynte at 1250, 1266; pris at 1247, 1249; comfort 1221, 1254; worschip at 1227, 1267; servant at 1240, 1246, 1278).

1263–7  Cf. ‘ “Graunt mercy, fayre damoysell,” he sayth, “For of your grete curtesy, in fayth, Well more than I am worthy ye me prayse” ’ (Fyftene Joyes of Maryage 231–3). The notion that giving honour or worship is itself honourable (‘Qui fet enor, l’anors et soe’) is found in the courtly romances of Chrétien de Troyes (Chevalier de la charrete 3215–19), and the principle can be invoked, as here, in modest self-depreciation: cf. ‘er êrte sich, / der mich geprîset wider dich … sîn selbes zuht gap im den rât / mêr dan ichz gedienet hân: / er hât ez durch höfscheit getân’ [whoever praised me to you did honour to himself thereby … his own refinement prompted him to more than I have deserved: he did it through his own courtesy] (Parzival 767.11–16).

1266  nis hit: MS nysen (or nyseu) is usually emended, to nys even [is not commensurate] in T&G, to nys ever [is by no means] in A&W; but these suggestions produce unmetrical b-verses (with two long dips). Since we can torture no convincing sense out of nysen (clearly and neatly written in the MS), we have settled for an unobtrusive emendation that preserves metre without altering the plain sense of the line.

1267  noght bot wel connes: Davis (T&G) sees this as a form of the expression ‘can (his, her, etc) good’, with wel substituted for good for alliterative purposes. But ‘can (one’s) good’ (MED connen 6(c)) meant ‘to know what is what (in a practical, prudential or social-moral sense)’, whereas Gawain’s point here is that the honour shown him does not proceed from sound assessment of objective worth, but from an honourable incapacity to see or say anything but what is ‘well’.

1268  an other: obviously a slightly weaker version of al another [something else entirely], found in e.g. Layamon 364 (see Bennett and OED sv another 8).

1269  A pointedly feminized expansion of the common phrase the worldes won, which can figure in similar expressions: cf. ‘Y nold for al this worldes won Bot y might the traitour slon’ (Amis and Amiloun 826–7).

1271  chepen … to cheve me a lorde: chepen is regularly used in this metaphorical sense (MED chepen 2(b) and (c)), though the idiom has again been adapted to the female speaker: it is elsewhere the man rather than the woman who is the buyer of the wares: cf. ‘Til that she fynde som man hir to chepe’ (CT III.268), ‘She shall have ynow that woll chepe hir ware’ (Idley II.ii.2990).

1272  costes that I have knowen upon thee: for upon used thus of attributes, cf. ‘For fand mann nan thing upponn hemm Thatt mihhte ohht anngrenn othre’ (Ormulum 431–2).

1273  Since an unstressed syllable is required at line ending, we have assumed MS semblaunt to be an error for semblaunce. For the scribal substitution, cf. ‘The bryddes maketh hem good semblaunce [var. semblaunt]’ (Higden, Polychronicon 2.421). Here too the lady is using a logic more often used of than by women: in Roman de la rose, biautez and biaus semblanz are the most deadly first and last of the arrows of Cupid that cause a man to fall in love (1713, 1839).

1276  ye have waled wel better: the verb often occurs with reference to the choice of a mate (again, usually a wife: cf. nn. to 1269, 1271, 1273): ‘That worthy hade a wyfe walit hymselven’ (DT 105), ‘Quhilk wald ye waill to your wif, gif ye suld wed one?’ (Dunbar, Twa Mariit Wemen and the Wedo 530). When Yder is propositioned by his host’s wife, he likewise (though less obliquely and subtly) points to the superiority of her husband over himself (Yder 348–52): he is ten times less worthy than her lord, who outranks him as a king does a garz [scullion], and she would be foolish to seek the love of another man who is worth so much less (‘D’un autre ke valt meins assez’).

1278–9  your knight I becom: knights could make this offer as an expression of obligation and/or devotion to a woman without implying love (cf. 975–6): Lancelot (in love with Guinevere) freely makes it to other women who render him honour or assistance – ‘Dame … ge vos an sai tel gré que je suis vostre chevaliers’ (Lancelot do Lac 299; cf. Chevalier de la charrete 6589) – and Gawain can similarly offer himself as ‘li vostres chevaliers a toz jors mais’ to a woman other than the one he is currently in love with (Livre d’Artus 261); the offer can indeed be made (as, in effect, here in Sir Gawain) by a man to a woman whose offer of love proper he has refused, as in Ami et Amile 641–2 (‘Mais je serai, ma dame, li vostre hom, Servirai voz a force et a bandon’). It here enables Gawain to respond in a way that is gallant without being amorous, and preserves, as he is anxious to do (1773–5), both his truth and his courtesy.

1280  mydmorn: the term refers to the point (about 9 a.m.) at which it is fully day and the day’s activities start (see n. to 1072–3). Hence it signals the hour at which Gawain and the lady will soon be claimed by the daily routines of the castle and when those who were still in bed (1232) will now be up.

1281  The MS reads ‘and ay þe lady let lyk ahym loued mych’. ahȳ (the regular abbreviation for a following nasal) is emended to as hym by nearly all editors. But more seems to have gone wrong. The idiom is in fact let as (cf. 1190, 1201, 2257): there is no example in MED of let as being varied to let lik(e) as. Whatever lyk represents probably belonged with the a-verse, which is overlight if the caesura is taken as falling after let. mych is usually assumed to be an authorial variant of much, but the spelling occurs nowhere else in the MS, and the poet noticeably avoids using much at line end, where an unstressed syllable is required, and where swythe provides the equivalent sense (see e.g. C 987). The line is evidently corrupt, though the alliterative collocations themselves look authentic: for let-lady/lord-love, see 1086, 1206, 1733; C 1434.

1282  ferde with defence: the verb defines the situation more explicitly than either of the interlocutors care to do; for its use in the context of a refusal to respond to sexual advances, cf. Ygerne’s reaction to the love and proffered gifts of Uther (‘Ygerne s’en desfendoit & n’en vaut nul prendre’: Vulgate Merlin 60), and the refusal of the narrator to condemn the kick given by Yder to his host’s wife (‘Jo nel sai pas de co reprendre, Kar il ne se poeit defendre’: Yder 379–80). For faren with = ‘practised/engaged in’, see MED faren 8(b). Fete [fashion] in the sense of ‘act/behave’ is only otherwise attested as a rhyme word in Laud Troy Book 3955, and exemplifies the poet’s metrical resourcefulness.

1283  MS ‘þaȝ I were burde bryȝtest þe burde in mynde hade’ is retained in T&G and construed with 1282 (‘ … “even if I were the most beautiful lady”, the lady thought’). Same-word alliteration would, however, be highly irregular, and most other editors treat the second burde as an error for burne (a word with which burde frequently collocates: see 1232, 1779; C 80; Pa 388) and I as an error for ho [she] and construe with 1284ff.Though we emend I to hit, not ho, the translation in our footgloss is substantially the same as Bennett’s.

1285  Bout hone: hone is otherwise recorded only in the phrase withouten hone (used exclusively as a metrical expedient at line ending in rhymed verse); Bout hone is the poet’s independent variation for metrical reasons: the bob must consist of only one single-stressed iambic foot scanning x/(x).

1291  Both stounen and stor could be used in a non-physical sense, stounen to mean ‘shock, surprise’ (cf. 301), and stor to refer to words that are harshly uncomplimentary (MED stor(e adj 1b(b)); but the underlying metaphor is from battle, implying a strong or stor blow (cf. ‘stith strokes and store’ at DT 1192) that literally ‘stuns’ (cf. ‘Bot he was stonyed of the stroke that he myght not stonde on his feet’: Merlin 265).

1293  The MS reads ‘bot þat ȝe be Gawan hit gotȝ in mynde’, which yields puzzling sense and an unmetrical b-verse. hit gotȝ is sometimes emended (following Gollancz) to hit gotȝ not, but there is no record of such an expression in ME – and any emendation needs to address the fact that the a-verse is, as it stands, also unmetrical. Inserting ungayn (which restores a-verse metre) and transposing hit gos to gos hit (which restores b-verse metre) yields a metaphor from paths and passages that makes sense here: paths were termed ungayn if they were difficult to traverse (contrast G 1972–4).

1296  Editors vary in whether or not they treat By this skylle as direct speech, and also react variously to the puzzling blessed. For blessed … and sayde introducing parting words that do not in fact include a blessing as such, cf. C 470. A blessing (and/or a sign of the cross, which blissen was often used to designate) is perhaps to be imagined as prefacing the words that follow. Bot suggests that the lady’s response allayed Gawain’s fears, and, since the words quoted would not seem to do so, the reassurance must take the form of whatever is conveyed by blessed. Her saying ‘God bless you’ would provide such reassurance. blessed is actually glossed ‘reassured’ by Gollancz (following Thomas 1913), ‘probably in the sense of “reassured by her look” ’; but, though Bot implies the blessing acted to reassure Gawain, the word is unlikely to mean ‘reassure’, that sense being inappropriate to the similar verse in Cleanness.

1297  The second good has been supplied, since the a-verse is metrically defective as it stands (lacking a long dip), and scribal omission of it would be readily explicable as correction of apparent dittography. Whatever has dropped, the line must allude to Gawain’s sobriquet, as that alone gives any point to gaynly (= ‘directly, i.e. explicitly, specifically’, or perhaps, as at 476, ‘aptly’) and explains why good, as well as courtaysye (1298), is relevant to the lady’s reference to the public image of Gawain.

1303–4  prestly is our emendation of MS fire (1304a), which has usually been assumed to represent firre [further], and these two lines have been variously glossed on that basis. Davis (T&G) gives ‘I shall kiss at your command, and more, as is the duty of a knight lest he displease you.’ Burrow (1972) takes fire with plede (comparing Pe 563), and assumes 1304 means ‘so don’t argue for anything more than that, lest (this knight) should be obliged to displease you (by refusing)’. But, since 1304a also lacks a second alliterating stress, we have preferred to replace the problematic fire with an unobtrusive emendation that does not alter the essential point of the line: Gawain evades replying to the lady’s logic by effectively telling her there is no need for her to justify or plede what her mere wish can command from him.

1308  dos her forth at the dor: for this use of reflexive don + adverbial phrase, cf. ‘Hii dude hom vorth in to the se’ (Robert of Gloucester 933) and MED don 5d(a). For the idiom withoute dyn more [without more ado, promptly], cf. ‘And were ded in the depe withouten dyn more’ (DT 5764).

1315  Cf. Will at the house of Clergie: ‘Was neuere gome upon this ground … Fairer underfongen ne frendloker at ese Than myself’ (PP B.10.226–8; cf. also Stanzaic Morte Arthur 3503).

1319  lent on his gamnes: for lenden [come, arrive] on used in the sense ‘be engaged in (sports)’ and used of hunting, cf. ‘The Kyng to scherwod gan wend, On hys pleying for to lend … The grete hertys for to hunte’ (King and the Hermit 16–19).

1324  querre, the term for the ceremony of rewarding the dogs by feeding them on the flayed skin (OF cuiree) of one of the dead animals, was also used (as here) of the place where the game was collected prior to that ceremony; cf. ‘All the while that the huntynge lasteth schulde the carteres go aboute fro place to place, to brynge deer to the quirre’ (Master of Game 107), ‘To the quyrry then the Perce went, to se the bryttlynge off the deare’ (Hunting of the Cheviot, stanza 8).

1325–8  For the asay the deer was turned on its back and an incision made in its breast to test the thickness of the flesh. Conduct of the assay was an honour and privilege. Cf. ‘The best man in the companie must come in and take the assay’ (Cockaine 10), ‘the chiefe huntsman doth holde the Deare by the forefoote, whiles the Prince or chief, cut a slyt … This is done to see the goodnesse of the flesh, and howe thicke it is’ (Gascoine 134). The prestige attached to the ceremony is probably reflected in the plural summe at 1328 (= selected persons from among those present) and The best at 1325 (= all those of social standing). The best cannot here refer to the lord himself, since it is followed by plural verbs and pronouns (diden, summe, were, thay).

1329  Even the leanest deer is found to have Two fyngres breadth of fat: cf. ‘And I slitte hym at the assaye to see how me semyde, And he was floreschede [lined with fat] full faire of two fyngere brede’ (P3A 70–71).

1330  ‘Making the erber’ involved tying up the gullet (erber) to prevent its contents from spilling.

1332  rytte = ‘slit (the skin of)’ (not ‘cut off’: the legs of the deer were normally left on to facilitate carriage; see n. to 1357). Cf. ‘And than the herbere anone aftir I makede; I rauhte the righte legge byfore, ritt it theraftir, And so fro legge to legge I lepe thaym aboute, And the fell fro the fete fayre I departede’ (P3A 74–7).

1337–8  Cf. ‘We use some ceremonie in taking out the shoulder …he cuts an hole bytwene the legge and the brysket, and there puts in his knife, and looseneth the shoulder from the syde …untill he have quyte taken out the shoulder, and yet lefte the skynne of the syde fayre and whole’ (Gascoine 134–5).

1340–42  The process of ‘dressing the numbles’ (removing the offal between neck and leg) begins with the avanters, the neck offal, which is reached by slitting the throat (gargulun) right to the byghte, the fork of the front legs. Cf. ‘Than dresst the Nombles: first that ye reke Downe the avauncers; kerue that cleves to the necke’ (Boke of St Albans 1792–3).

1344  ryde: forms with short and long i occur in MED sv ridden, but we have not regularized to ridde, since the variant forms may represent separate items, deriving from OE *ryddan/ON ryðja and OE *rydan respectively. As noted by Holthausen 1934: 376, ryde with long vowel probably once occurred in the deer-breaking episode of Sir Tristrem, where rhyme suggests that MS right at 474 is an error for ride.

1345  Even doun: we take MS euenden to be a shortened form of or error for even doun. Cf. ‘And slytteth hym down even to th’assay [i.e. the breast]’ (Boke of St Albans 1758), ‘And from the assay even downe the ball ye shul slytte’ (Boke of St Albans (Rawl. Poet. 143) 277). The art consisted in freeing the numbles from the carcase in such a way that they remained intact and in one piece (that henged all samen): cf. ‘And heve up the nombles hoole … In thyn hond than hem holde, and looke and se that all that longith them to togeder that thay be’ (Boke of St Albans 1801–3).

1349–50  Cf. ‘Then shall ye kutte the skertes [folds of skin] the thies [thighs] even fro’ (Boke of St Albans (Rawl. Poet. 143) 335).

1355  corbeles fee: a piece of gristle (from the end of the breastbone) thrown to the crows or ravens for good luck. Cf. ‘[I] Cuttede corbyns bone and kest it awaye’ (P3A 80), ‘The raven he yave his yiftes’ (Sir Tristrem 502). On fee, see n. to 1358.

1357  by hoghes of the fourches: the legs were used to truss up the venison. Cf. ‘And hardeles hem fast The sides and the fourches togedre that thei last With the hinder legges’ (Boke of St Albans 357–9), ‘It must be remembered … that the feete be all foure left on. The hynder feete must be to fasten (or hardle as some hunters call it) the hanches to the sydes, and the two forefeete are left to hang up the shoulders by’ (Gascoine 134).

1358  fonges: MS for yields a locution that lacks a main verb. For the collocation of fong and fee, cf. 1622. The person who killed the deer, the one who undid it, the forester, the lord and others could all claim a part of the carcase as their perquisite or fee. Cf. ‘The hunter shall have his fee and everyman aftur his ryght’ (Twiti 27).

1359–60  In Sir Tristrem the dogs are similarly rewarded ‘With hert, liver and lightes, And blod’ (497–8), which are similarly placed Upon a felle (‘on hyde’: Sir Tristrem 500). The dogs thus learned to associate their reward with the scent of the deer’s skin.

1362  prys (< OF pris [captured]) was blown not only to signal that the deer was taken, but also during the cuiree, the ceremonial feeding of the dogs on the deer’s skin. See Phébus 183.

1364  Strakande: to ‘strake’ is to blow a repeated horn-signal, announcing the homeward journey. Cf. 1923 and Chaucer, Book of the Duchess 1312–13 (‘They gan to strake forth; al was doon … the hert-huntyng’).

1372  syre (cf. 1083) is the emendation (of MS lorde) suggested by Gollancz.

1377  The tayles [tails] of the deer were not removed. Cf. ‘let the taylle of the beest stille theroon byde’ (Boke of St Albans 1770). They here seem to indicate the several individual carcases, though an actual pun on taille [tally], suggested by A&W, seems unlikely, since that word referred to a tally-stick, and is recorded in the sense of ‘number’ only in the set expressions each taile, in taile, and would in any case figure in the singular if the reference were to the full tally or number of the carcases.

1379  To win pris was to gain credit or acknowledged pre-eminence in a class or field (MED pris n(1) 8(c) and 9(b)). The lord is asking if he has deserved top marks as a hunter, and Gawain’s reply (1381–2) assures him that he has.

1403  wale wyne: cf. C 1716.

1405  To fylle the same forwardes: cf. ‘this forward to fille’ (DT 602).

1406  chaunce … acheves (MS bytydeȝ): for the collocation, cf. 1081, 1838, 2103 and C 1125 (‘if hit cheve the chaunce’). For intransitive use of the verb, cf. ‘auntres to telle Of chivalry & chaunce that chevyt him before’ (DT 517–18; cf. Awntyrs 269).

1407  For the partitive genitive, cf. (with reference to the Creation) ‘Ilc kinde newes … was broght’ (Genesis and Exodus 250).

1408–9  The jovial pledges are nevertheless accompanied by all the formalities that authenticated serious contracts. Commitment to the terms of the agreement (covenauntes) is declared before witnesses (before the court alle), and the deal is formally sealed with a drink (beverage): cf. 1112 and n.

1412  cakled bot thryes: i.e. before the cock resumed its daytime crowing routine; it was believed to crow three times during the night (at midnight, at three o’clock and one hour before sunrise). Cf. ‘Til that the thridde cok bigan to synge’ (CT I.4233).

1415  sprenged: ME sprengen [sprinkle, scatter] occurs only in this poem (cf. 2009) in the sense of ‘to dawn’ (for which the normal verb was springen, past tense sprang, sprong); it is an ingenious stratagem for avoiding an unmetrical masculine line ending.

1419–20   Uncoupled … Raches: the smaller running dogs or Raches ran free (cf. 1425–6), while the larger blodhoundes were held on a leash and released either to force the hunted animal from its shelter or to pick up the scent if the running dogs had lost it (cf. 1436).

1419  The aficionados to whom all three hunts are addressed would know in advance the animal involved. The setting among tho thornes indicates a boar hunt: boars ‘lie moste commonly in the strongest holdes of Thornes’ (Gascoine 151). A boar hunt is also consistent with the temporal setting (the Christmas season): ‘The seson of the boore is from the Nativyte [8 September] Tyll the purificacioun [2 February] of owre lady so fre’ (Boke of St Albans 1434–5).

1421  On the three-line-deep initial capital here, cf. 619 and 763 and notes. kerre is a rare dialect word which survives in place names from the North-West Midlands, e.g. ‘Sowcar’ (sow’s marsh) in Cheshire (Elliott 1984: 77, 147).

1422–4  Cf. Twiti 21 (describing the hare hunt): ‘yf ye sen that any hound fynde alonlyche [by himself] of hyr, and he hathe a name as Recher or Bemound, ye schull sey this: Oyez a Bemound le vaylaunt [Listen to the brave Bemound] … ! And so for to draw all other houndes to hym.’

1426  glaverande glam: glaverande is written as one word in the MS (with -er- abbreviated). The emendation to glaver ande glam, adopted by some editors, is unnecessary. The verb glaveren [to speak loudly or deceitfully] is well attested; the noun glaver is not, the only evidence for it being WA 5630, ‘A grete glauir & a glaam of Grekin tongis’, where glauir & a could represent original glauerande.

1436  blodhoundes: see n. to 1419–20.

1438  The adverb unsoundely is recorded only here and at C 201: ‘Ne never so sodenly soght unsoundely to venge’.

1440  The boar leaves the sounder [herd] when fully grown: ‘And when he is of iiii yere a boore shall he be, From the sounder of the swyne then departtith he, A singuler is he so, for alone he will goo’ (Boke of St Albans 1314–16). soght was (MS wiȝt): cf. Pa 116.

1441  borlych and brod: MS illegible. The solution adopted here is that of A&W, who cite P3A 32: ‘And therto borely and brode’ (describing a hunted hart).

1442  gronyed: a realistic detail. The boar grunts when attacking: cf. Master of Game 29 (‘he playneth nat ne crieth not bot whan he renneth upon the men than he manesseth, strongly gronyng’) and Avowing 192.

1444  boute spyt more: previous editors have understood spyt as the noun ‘spite’ [malice, ill-treatment] and construed the verse ‘without doing further harm’. But the contextual emphases make a phrase downplaying the harm done by the boar improbable, and spyt seems rather to be an (otherwise unrecorded) aphetic form of the noun respit, boute spyt more thus being a version of ‘without more/longer respite (i.e. immediately)’; cf. ‘With that word, withouten moore respit, They fillen gruf and criden pitously’ (CT I.948–9), ‘Evene thus, withoute more respit He spak to him’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 4.4727–8).

1446  rechated [summoned the hunt]: cf. ‘donqe devez vous corner en ceste manere, une mote et pus rechater: Trou-rout – trou-rou-rou-rou-rout … Vous venour, purquey cornez vous yssi? Pur ceo d’avoir les gentz qe sont entour la chace a moi, et rechater les chens que sont passez hors de bonde’ [then you must blow the horn in this fashion, one blast and then recheat: Trou-rout – trou-rou-rou-rou-rout … Hunter, why do you blow like this? To bring the company around to me, and to call back the dogs which are out of bounds] (Twiti 8–9).

1450  Ful oft he bides the bay: the boar (unlike the timid deer) often turns to face hunters. Cf. ‘Quant on les chasce, ilz se font voulentiers abayer au partir dou lit pour l’ourgeuill qu’ilz ont’ [when one chases them, they readily let themselves be brought to bay after leaving their lair because of the aggression they have] (Phébus 90).

1452  He hurtes of the houndes: for hurtes of cf. ‘And hurtes of the hardieste that one the erthe lenges’ (MA 3830) and, in the context of a boar hunt, ‘He has … hurte of my howundes’ (Avowing 35–6); cf. ‘Des chiens i fait damage grant, Plus de cent en ad ocis’ (Gui 6822–3). MED sv hurten 5(a) misconstrues hurtes of as meaning ‘drive away’.

1453  yomerly yaule and yelle: cf. ‘a yomerly yarm of yellyng’ (C 971).

1456–8  On barbed hunting arrows, see n. to 1162; they similarly fail to bite into the boar’s hide at Sir Eglamour L 390. scheldes designates the tough hide of the boar at the neck and shoulders: ‘Thei [boars] han an hard skyn and stronge flessh, and specially vppon the shuldire, that is called the sheeld’ (Master of Game 28). Cf. the boar in Avowing 195–8: ‘Ther may no dyntus [blows] him dere [hurt], So sekir was his schilde. The grete schafte that was longe All to spildurs [splinters] hit spronge.’

1457  barbes of his browe bite non wolde: i.e. the head is as protected by the tough browe as the body by the tough scheldes (1456). A&W’s interpretation (‘and none would penetrate the barbes [bristles] of his brow’) is improbable. of goes with bite, bite of having the same sense as bite in/on (see G 426 and the boar hunt in Sir Eglamour L 389–90: ‘His nobill spere on hym he brast It wolde nott in hym bytt’): cf. ‘And in my hand a brighte browne brand That will well bite of thee’ (Robin Hood’s Death, stanza 19).

1463  allyte: as the line has vowel alliteration, MS on lyte [in delay: cf. 2303] is probably best represented by its variant olite/allyt(e) (cf. C 599): stress on a prefix is a licence commonly met with in alliterative verse (Duggan 1990).

1465  As burn bold upon bent: see nn. to 353 and 1136.

1466  rechated: see n. to 1446.

1467  schafted: the verb occurs only here, but cf. the noun shaft in the sense of ‘beam of sunlight as seen as the sun becomes lower in the sky’ recorded in Scots (DOST sv shaft 6).

1468  The expression was common; cf. e.g. ‘& so driven forth the day til the derke night’ (William 3526).

1481  As in 1226, the lady exploits Gawain’s reputation as a paragon of courtesy and gallantry (see pp. 253–5). Her point is that her guest has behaved so ungallantly that he cannot be the famous Gawain.

1485  that yisterday I taghte: see 1297–301. MS taȝtte has been assumed by A&W and others to represent taght te/the; but the lady normally addresses Gawain with the polite pronoun you.

1491  courtaysye, in the lady’s usage, comes to mean not simply ‘good manners’ but also ‘the art of playing the lover’.

1493, 1497  devaye, from OF desveier [refuse], occurs only in Sir Gawain in these two lines. Metre requires stress on the prefix at 1493, but on the stem at 1497.

1497  The lady’s logic has parallels in Arthurian romance, where women can argue of a model knight that ‘cele ne seroit mie courtoise ne sage qui a tel chevalier refuseroit s’amor’ [she would be neither courtly nor right-minded who could refuse her love to such a knight] (Vulgate Merlin 324; cf. 157).

1499   in thede there I lende: that women are not to be taken by force is said in many romances to be a principle specific to Arthur’s land. See e.g. Chevalier de la charrete 1302–10, CT III.889–93.

1502  leve has been understood by previous editors to mean either ‘desist, leave off’ or ‘depart’. But the verb was often used as a negative of a preceding one (see MED leven v^1 1(f)), and for lach … leve meaning ‘take it or not take it, take it or leave it’, cf. ‘But fastynge is … To take or leve whether we wil’ (St Euphrosyne 151–2), ‘Here I tythe this unthende sheff; Lete God take it or ellys lef’ (N-Town Plays III.101–2). For thinkes meaning ‘seems good, pleases’, see MED thinken v^1 2(a), where examples include ‘Godd … doth all thatt himm thinkethth’ (Ormulum 12439).

1506–7  Talking about love was a courtly accomplishment and pastime; see n. to 927.

1510  yong and yep formed a standard collocation; cf. 60, 951 and nn. and C 881.

1512–19  The sentence begun at 1508 is interrupted by a parenthesis dealing with what knights usually do in romances: they risk their lives for the sake of love, finally bringing ‘bliss’ into their ladies’ chambers. On the repeated reference to books (lettrure, tytelet token, tyxt), see pp. 253–4. The lady implies that Gawain is not living up to the image of the ideal knight of chivalric romance.

1515  tytelet token: the lady is thinking of the rubricated headings announcing the contents of forthcoming portions of texts. her werkes could refer to the deeds of knights but also to the works (of literature) about them. This blurring of life and chivalric fiction is consistent with the lady’s purpose.

1516–17  This is an accurate description of the plot of many romances. Cf. ‘And sum has langinge of luf layes to herken, How ledis for thaire lemmans has langor endured’ (WA 6–7). Cf. also ‘[There is no man] Qui tantes dolurs ait enduré Pur une femme cum jo ai pur lei’ [who has endured so much grief for a woman as I have for her sake] (Gui 7606–7).

1518  care often refers in ME specifically to love-longing; cf. 1254 and MED care n^1 2(a).

1519  For the collocations, cf. ‘That brought hire to boure with blisse’ (PP B.3.103). Bounty regularly had the sense ‘valour, prowess’ in chivalric contexts, and the previous line, together with the whole emphasis of the lady (whose model knight is more of a romantically macho figure than was that presented by the poet at 631–55), indicates that bountees refers to chivalric prowess, the plural form suggesting the sense ‘chivalric feats’: cf. ‘He thocht … To do ane owtrageous bounte’ (Barbour, Bruce III.130–32).

1521  Cf. Minot 8/29 (‘The word of him walkes ful wide’) and see Hall 1887: 80–81 for further examples of the expression.

1525–6  ye … Oghe: in the sense ‘ought’ (as opposed to ‘owe’), the verb is elsewhere impersonal and construed with dative pronoun. The intervening relative clause has probably permitted a construction (with nominative ye) which would otherwise, in the normal adjacency of pronoun and verb, appear as yow oghe.

1529  On dalyaunce [conversation] and daly [converse], see n. to 1253–4. The lady’s usage suggests the common application of the word to love talk, though the suggestiveness is veiled behind the more innocent strict sense of the term.

1532  game: MED creates a special entry (game 2b, ‘courtly accomplishment’) for this passage, and for one in Sir Tristrem 1249–73 (where the sense is ‘skill in music’). But the lady is in fact using a broader sense of the word (‘amusement, pastime’) as a decorous veil for its narrower one (‘love-making’: see MED game 2d); cf. n. to 1529.

1540  torvayle (from ON) is not recorded elsewhere.

1549  The normal meaning of frainen is ‘ask, enquire’, and Burrow glosses ‘put questions to’. We follow A&W and T&G, who gloss ‘made trial of’, a sense which (though not recognized in MED) is suggested by the collocation with fonded [tempted, tested] and which seems attested at Pe 129 and supported by G 489 (both instances figuring in MED sv frainen 5 (‘seek’)).

1550  MS woȝe has here been interpreted as the noun woghe (cf. Pe 622); T&G read it as the verb ‘woo’, of which it is indeed a possible form.

1552  non evel on nauther halve: by treating the lady’s coquetry as the gracious condescension of a hostess (see e.g. 1536–9), Gawain ensures that no ‘fault’ semed [was apparent: 1551] on her part or on his own; that is, not sacrificing his courtesy to his truth (cf. 1773–5), he rejects her advances, not by snubbing or abusing her, but by putting an innocent construction on her words. The line alliterates on n. The first stave is supplied by linking alliteration on non evel, the second and third by the word nauther used in different senses: as the adjective (‘(n)either’) and, correlated with preceding Ne, as conjunction (‘nor’).

1559  diner, the first meal of the day (the second being supper), was eaten at around noon, and here follows straight after morning Mass. Cf. 71 and n.

1562  For uncely [unblessed, harmful] applied to an animal in the sense of ‘dangerous, vicious’, cf. ‘So frek [fierce] was that uncely hounde that he him filched [fell upon] felli thare’ (Altenglische Legenden 79).

1570  rasse: the word is otherwise found only in Cleanness, where Noah’s ark comes to rest ‘On the rasse of a rok’ (446). Most likely related to OF raser [to raze, clear], ras [level (ground)] apparently refers to a level shelf or ledge of rock in Cleanness, and here in Sir Gawain to a patch of level ground caused by an inlet (hole, 1569) in a rocky bank that bounds the water: an inlet which provides a defensive position, being approachable only by crossing the water from the opposite shore (which the lord does when he decides to tackle the animal: 1585). For other explanations of the word, see Anderson (who derives it from OF rase [ditch] and glosses ‘cleft, crevice’) and Elliott 1984: 78–9 (who reads it as ON rás [water course]).

1573–6  The boar-hunters in Douglas’s Aeneid likewise do not dare to attack the animal except on-ferum [from a distance]: ‘Bot standand far on dreih wyth dart and speyr …’ (X.xii.64).

1573  Whettes his white tusches: this signals a forthcoming charge; cf. ‘Thenne his tusshes con he quette, Opon the kynge for to sette … Wyth wrath he begynnus to wrote, He ruskes [tears] uppe mony a rote Wyth tusshes of thre fote’ (Avowing 185–9).

1578–9  thoght … ful lothe Be … torne: for think loth (+ infinitive) meaning ‘be reluctant to contemplate, be unwilling to face the prospect of’, cf. ‘The bischop … Thoght lathe to abyde that pyne’ (Life of St Cuthbert 7126).

1581–4  The vocabulary – knight, blonke (a poetic word), corsour (always used of a knight’s steed), Braydes out a bryght bronde (cf. 1901) – serves to present this encounter as a heroic act of chivalric prowess. Cf. Arthur’s struggle with the boar in Avowing 209–14: ‘Thenne the King … wightely wan on his fete … Did as a dughty knyghte, Brayd oute a brand bryghte.’ The boar was one of the most dangerous beasts of the chase, and killing it on foot required a courage and skill similar to that needed on the battlefield (with which the hunting field was often aligned: see n. to 1136 and p. 247). The bravery and doughtiness of the lord in Sir Gawain and of Arthur in Avowing are thrown into greater relief by Gaston Phébus’s advice: to fight the boar not with a sword, but with the boar lance (to keep the animal at arm’s length), and not to dismount: ‘Et, si’l veult descendre aux abaiz enmi les fortz, ce ne sera mie de mon consoill … quar, s’il faut a le bien ferir … le sangler ne le faudra pas a tuer ou blescier’ [and, if he wants to dismount at the bay in the thick of the fight, that will never be my advice, for, if he fails to strike him well, the boar will not fail to kill or injure him] (234); the boar can only be killed by the sword in a head-on confrontation, with a blow that requires decisiveness and precision: ‘Et c’est bele maistrise et belle chose qui bien scet tuer un sangler de l’espee’ [and it is a good skill and a good thing for anyone to know how to kill a boar with sword].

1586  was ware: for the inceptive sense (‘became aware of, noticed’), see n. to 764.

1593  The boar in Gui de Warewic is similarly dispatched when Gui dismounts and thrusts his sword en l’esclot (6854–8); the slot, the hollow at the base of the throat, is the vulnerable point at which Arthur also aims in Avowing 249: ‘He bar him inne atte the throte.’

1600  to deth endite is an inventive variant (for rhyme) of ‘dight to dethe’ (cf. Pa 488, Avowing 136). endite [charge, accuse] is a legal term, here used in an extended and metaphorical sense (‘condemn, consign’) not elsewhere recorded.

1601  blowyng of prys: see n. to 1362 and cf. Phébus 235: ‘Et quant il l’aura tué, il doit corner prise’ [and when he has killed it (the boar), he should blow the horn to signal this].

1605–14  The dismemberment of the boar, like that of the deer, follows a prescribed order. On the correct procedure, see Boke of St Albans 1731–47.

1605  wodcraftes [skills relevant to the woods and the chase]: cf. Chaucer’s Yeoman: ‘Of wodecraft wel koude he al the usage’ (CT I.110).

1607  on high: the boar’s head was carried in triumph on a stake or a spear; cf. ‘The King couth of venery: Colurt [beheaded] him full kyndely. The hed of that hardy He sette on a stake’ (Avowing 257–60), ‘The bores hed he dyde forth bere And sette hit vpon a spere’ (Sir Eglamour C 541–2).

1608  all rogh: the boar, unlike the deer, was cut up without being flayed (Rooney 1993: 175); all rogh is therefore an adjective (qualifying the boar) rather than an adverb qualifying the process of dismemberment, as previous editors have assumed. Cf. ‘Whenne tho boor is tan, he schalle be undon al roghe’ (Twiti 11). For rogh = ‘hairy, shaggy’, see n. to 745. by the rigge: cf. ‘The knyght is to the bore gon, And cleves hym be the rygge bon’ (Sir Eglamour 496–7).

1609  Cf. 1359–61. When the prey was boar, the offal given to the dogs was first cooked. As Phébus explains (188), boar’s meat is much tougher than deer’s, but ‘when it is cooked it is more palatable and the dogs eat it more readily’.

1610  rewardes is used in the precise sense indicated by Twiti: ‘And whan the boor is itake … ye shall yif to your houndys the bowellis broyled with breed, and it is callyd reward’ (18–19). Twiti distinguishes the word from cuiree (cf. querre, 1324 and n.), which applies only when the dogs are fed ‘on the skyn’ of the animal (as in the case of deer). It is thus the former term that is correctly used when the hounds in Sir Gawain are fed after the boar hunt and (1918) the fox hunt.

1611  scheldes is used here and at 1626, not (as at 1456) of the tough shoulder hide of the boar, but of slabs or cuts of boar’s meat, which was measured by the scutum in Latin or by the sheld in English: see MED sv braun 3 and sheld 4(b), and cf. C 58.

1612  hastlettes: cf. ‘And yf he [the boar] be vndo as it his ryght, he schall have xxxii hastelettes’ (Twiti 24). These ‘hastelettes’ were valued culinary items. The word derives from hasta [spear] and had a general sense (food that was spit-roasted), and a narrower hunting one (the choicest parts of the carcase of a wild boar). These eminently edible hastlettes have been assumed by previous editors (and MED and OED) to be portions of the entrails, but that sense of the term is post-medieval, and the boweles [entrails] have already been fed to the hounds (1609–10): see Scott-Macnab 2010, who cites Twiti and Boke of St Albans, where the thirty-two hastelettes or bredis [roasting parts] itemized are not offal, but cuts from loins, limbs, etc.

1613  halches: see n. to 185.

1615  swythe, not in the MS, has been supplied for metrical reasons.

1616  The boar’s head (usually borne on a stake or a spear) was ceremoniously presented to the household. Scenes of this kind are depicted in contemporary MS illustrations (see Cummins 1988: 43, 105) and lie behind a number of late-medieval Christmas carols: ‘Boar’s Head Carol, II’ begins ‘The boris hed in hondes I brynge … I pray you all, helpe me to synge …’ (1–3).

1623  laghede is Gollancz’s emendation of MS & laȝed. See further Putter 2009: 38–43. The emendation more usually adopted, and laȝter, is unmetrical. mery is here an adverb, as also at line ending at C 1516.

1628  werre: regularized from MS were, which is sometimes construed as representing a different noun (MED wer(e n 5: ‘danger, confusion’). But the spelling werre for were occurs elsewhere in the MS (e.g. G 271).

1636  fyne forward and fast: cf. ‘Yore forward was full fyne’ (Sir Amadace 738); fyne has in these contexts a legal sense (derived from Latin finalis concordia [finalized agreement]) and means ‘absolute, formally valid’; see Alford 1988: 59 and MED sv fin adj 8. forward and fast are often collocated (as at 2347 and C 327).

1639  We follow most previous editors in inserting hent (not in the MS).

1642  covenauntes … knit: cf. C 564 (‘He knit a covenaunt’) and see n. to 619–65.

1644  saynt Gile: St Giles or Aegidius (c.700), patron saint of the prosperous guild of goldsmiths, and one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers.

1648  tables were ‘boards’ placed on trestles at mealtimes (cf. 884, C 832) and removed afterwards. Fixed ‘tables’ in the modern sense of the word were rare enough to attract special comment: see CT I.353–4.

1649  clere white: if retained, MS clere lyȝt would have to be read as the subject of Wakened, with waxene torches as grammatically in apposition with it (‘clear light then, waxen torches, were kindled along the walls’); Gollancz’s interpretation of waxene torches as the object of set (1651) is implausible, since set and served [seated and served] was an established collocation (see n. to 1651). The emendation here adopted is consistent with the poet’s avoidance of enjambement and is supported by 884–5: ‘Sone was telded up a table on trestes ful fayre, Clad with a clene cloth that clere white schewed.’

1650  waxene torches: candles and torches were made of either tallow (cheap) or wax (expensive). The adjective thus indicates wealth and status.

1651  Segges set and served: Segges refers to the diners (as in 115), who are the direct object of set [seated] and served; cf. C 1401 (‘When all segges were there set, then servyce begines’). For ‘set and served’, cf. William 4906 (‘thei [were] semli served and sett’); Alexander A 979 (‘As soone as thei were sett and served’); CA I.252, VI.499, VIII.716. set cannot here mean ‘set the table’ (T&G), for that in ME would refer to the setting of the table boards on trestles, which has already been described at 1648.

1652  glam and much gle: MS glam & gle yields an a-verse without a long dip.

1653  fire upon flet (cf. 832 and 1925): see n. to 832–3.

1654  Alliterative stress on the preposition At is justified by the contrast with after.

1655  coundutes: part-songs, originally liturgical (Latin conductus), but soon associated with domestic festivities and with Christmas in particular: ‘to Cristesmasse Wane riche and poure, more and lasse Singeth cundut night and dai’ (Owl and Nightingale 481–3).

1657  our luflyche lede: cf. 1469. lede is an emendation of MS knyȝt. See Putter et al. 2007: 127, 130 for discussion of this common type of scribal substitution.

1659  stille stollen countenaunce: for the use of stollen in amorous contexts (with the sense ‘furtive, secret’), cf. ‘The stole touchis, the lokis amerous’ (Lydgate, Troy Book 2.4181; cf. Lydgate, Siege of Thebes 1669), ‘a stille stollen steven’ (C 706).

1660  wroth with himselven: wroth has here an extension of the sense it bore when used of a division or difference arising between a couple normally ‘at one’, but who fall at variance (cf. Pe 378–9 and see MED wroth adj 1(e)); a single person here similarly suffers from conflicting impulses that likewise put a normally united self at variance with itself.

1662  howso: MS how se euer yields a four-syllable dip, which, in the b-verse, is unmetrical (see Inoue and Stokes 2012). Cf. ‘howso [var. howsoeuer] I turne it’ (PP B.17.186b, ed. Kane and Donaldson).

1663  To wrast: MS towrast has previously been construed as a past participle of wresten (with prefix to), meaning ‘twisted, awry’. But, since the verb is not elsewhere attested with the prefix, wrast may be the noun wrest, which does occur in figurative application (‘an ill turn’: see MED wrest(e 1(c)). In either case, the point is that Gawain’s courteous response could work against him by being misconstrued as a favourable response to the lady’s ogling.

1669  The verb norne is recorded only in this MS and in StE. It designates a speech act in all cases (G 2443; C 65, 669, 803; StE 101, 152, 195) except G 1661, 1771 and 1823, where it seems to have an underlying sense of ‘turn (oneself, someone or something) in a certain direction’. The precise sense of norne on the same note is unclear, and the phrase has been variously glossed: ‘carry on the same business’ (Burrow), ‘do the same’ (A&W), ‘propose the same terms’ (T&G).

1675  longe before pryme: prime, a protean term, could refer to the 6.00 a.m. office of that name, to sunrise, to the whole period before Terce (i.e. 6.00–9.00 a.m.) or to the beginning or to the end of that period (see MED prim(e n 1a(a)). Consistency with 1073 and 2085 rules out all but the last. See n. to 1072–3.

1677  holde the touches: the is the normal spelling of thee in the MS, so the phrase may be read as either ‘hold touches with you’ or ‘hold the touches’, but no recognizable sense of touch suggests itself in either case. The expression is glossed ‘keep a covenant’ in MED (sv touch(e 1(d)), where the only other entry is ‘Than take ther oth next, bi touche of honde’ (Lydgate, St Alban 173), which clearly refers to a handshake. But the suggested connection between the two citations is too elliptical to be entirely convincing, and the exact logic of holde the touches is not clear, though ‘keep covenant’ must be the general sense.

1680  thrid tyme throwe best: cf. ‘Men sais the thrid time thrawes best’ (Seven Sages of Rome 2062).

1681  Cf. ‘He [the grasshopper] mas him miri whils he may, of mischef has no mynde’ (Lament 19).

1682  Hope is advocated on similar grounds in Flamenca: ‘que desconort / aconsec hom assas per tems’ [for one can obtain grief soon enough] (4105–6).

1688  his craftes kepes: cf. Cursor T 625–6, where the reference is to God, who has just paraded the animals before Adam and is about to create Eve: ‘This kyng that con his craftes kepe Sleghly he made Adam to slepe.’ This suggests ‘keeps his crafts’ means ‘continues to ply the (skilled) pursuits distinctive of and chosen by him’. Plural craftes often has the general sense ‘activity, conduct’ rather than the narrower one of ‘skills, arts’ (cf. C 549), but both senses would be appropriate to the expression as used in Cursor and Sir Gawain.

1695  Cf. ‘Rogh rakkes [clouds] there ros with rudnyng anunder’ (Pa 139), ‘Ruddon of the day-rawe ros upon ughten’ (C 893).

1697  unhardeled: a hardel was a group of leashed hounds: ‘than shuld the sergeaunt of the mute … make alle hem of the office … hardle her houndes, and in every hardel suffisen ii or iii couple of houndes atte the moost’ (Master of Game 108).

1699ff  The fox-hunting season ran from 25 September to 25 March, and a fox hunt is thus consistent with the date (31 December). The fox was best hunted after Christmas ‘because the wood is clearer, since the leaves have fallen, and one can better see and observe one’s dogs … And also the pelts of foxes are worth more then than at any other time. And also the dogs do better because they see it more often and can chase it from closer by’ (Phébus 244).

1699  fel in the fuyt there the fox bode: cf. 1425, fellen … to the fuyt.

1700  MS atrayteres is usually emended to a-traverce; cf. ‘So trayled and trifled a-traverce were alle’ (C 1473).

1701  kenet: ‘Ther ben also rennyng houndes, some lasse [smaller] and some moor [larger], and the lasse byn clepid kenettis and thes houndes rennen wel to al maner game’ (Master of Game 61). the hunt on him calles: the hunter would cry out the name of the dog that picked up the scent (see n. to 1422–4).

1707–8  tournayes … Havilounes: these tricks are characteristic of the fox. Cf. ‘he will have a very good chase, because the fox twists and turns [tourniee] on his home ground before he ventures into the open’ (Phébus 245), ‘to hauylon as doos the fox with his gyle’ (Boke of St Albans 1509).

1707  MED records no other instances in which any adjective derived from tene [harm, trouble] is applied to a place, as here and at 2075 (those places being, in very different senses, ‘productive of physical pain and distress’). But Scots offers a parallel: cf. the inhospitable terrain traversed by Arthur in Gologras: ‘torris and tene wais, teirful quha tellis’ (33).

1709  spenne occurs only in this text (three times), in WA (once) and in a deed cited in MED sv spenne (b). The word here and at 1896 is glossed ‘hedge, fence’ by editors and MED, but the tag usage at 1074 (where In spenne = there) and the instance in WA 4291 (‘Al at [that] was sperpellid [scattered] on the spene & spilt with the blastis’) imply a patch of open ground – which would here give more significance to by a little dich: the fox is aiming to get out of the wood (cf. 1711 and n. to 1712–14), but remains under cover for as long as possible, traversing the spenne by means of a skirting ditch, and stealing out under cover of a strip of marshy scrubland at 1710. For lepes over meaning ‘traverses’ (rather than ‘vaults’), cf. 2154, and for a hunted fox using a ditch for concealment, cf. Couronnement de Renart 771 (‘S’est enbatus en une rasse’). The scenario recurs at 1896: the lord sprent over a spenne in the direction of the fox, which he sees again emerging from the cover of some rough patch of wood, a rogh greve (1898) that is obviously comparable with the strothe-rande at 1710. sprent over parallels lepes over and can again mean ‘sped across’ rather than ‘jumped over’.

1710  strothe [scrubby marshland] occurs otherwise only in place names, and, except in references to a rand or rasher of bacon, rande [strip] is similarly recorded elsewhere only in place names and surnames.

1711  wylt … wode: cf. ‘And sa thai willid into a wod’ (WA 4261).

1712–14  The fox must be prevented from escaping the emparked forest. According to Phébus (244), therefore, hunters with greyhounds (cf. All gray) should be positioned, out of the wind so that the fox cannot smell them (cf. ere he wyst), around the perimeter of the forest – especially where the terrain is dense and bushy and the fox will want to flee from cover (cf. 1710–11).

1716  start astray: DT 6255–7 (‘Abidis here … Lokis well to the listis, that no lede passe. If any stert upon stray, strike hom to dethe’) and Gologras 19 (‘Mony sterne our the streit stertis on stray’) indicate that the sense of the phrase is ‘leave one’s place, set off, strike out’.

1719  lef upon list: the first word is hard to decipher, but appears to be lof or lef, not lif, as is generally assumed. The standard emendation to list vpon lif is open to further objections: it repeats a tag just used (1717), and in that tag, in this MS, the noun always occurs in the inflected -ve form.

1720  menged togeder: the harmonious blending of the cries of dogs on the trail was dear to the ears of hunters (see 1915); cf. ‘Alle men that mut herde of the muri houndes’ (William 2192), ‘My hounds are … matched in mouth like bells, Each under each. A cry more tuneable Was never holla’d nor cheered with horn’ (Midsummer Night’s Dream IV.i.119–23).

1722  clyffes … clatered on hepes: cf. ‘Castels [siege towers] clateren doun’ (SJ 573).

1723  halowed: cf. Cockaine 5: ‘every huntsman his part is to hew him [the fox], or backe him into the Covert againe, when hee offereth to breake the same, and to hallowe him’.

1724  Yonde (MS loude): the emendation, proposed by Gollancz, both regularizes the metre and clarifies the syntactical organization of 1723–5 (Here … Yonde … There).

1725  thef: a term applied to the fox (who ‘steals’ lambs and poultry), not only in the literary tradition of the beast epic, in which he figures as Renart le larron, but also in hunting manuals: cf. ‘theef in the wood’ (Master of Game 106).

1726  titleres: the word (not otherwise recorded in ME) occurs in Cotgrave’s Dictionarie (1611) sv tiltre: ‘a brace of dogs layed in a place to be let slip at a deere as he passeth by’. This is pointed out in T&G, as also is the derivation of the word from OF ti(l)tre, defined in Godefroy’s Dictionnaire as a relay station where dogs are placed so that they can better pursue the animal when it passes.

1729  lad hem by lagmon: the expression otherwise occurs only in the rhyming alliterative poem Three Dead Kings 114 (‘Lykynge of flesche … ledys youe be lagmon’). A lagmon was the last or hindmost man; hence ‘lead by lagman’ means ‘make a person or persons form a tail after one, to lead (him or them) on behind one at will’.

1730  mydoverunder is difficult to construe, since under could refer to noon as well as to the 9.00 a.m. liturgical office of Terce (see n. to Pe 513); in one of its few occurrences, it translates Latin meridiem (see MED).

1734  purpose … payre: the collocation is common in DT: see 7053 (‘Ay puttes of the purpose that it enpaire shuld’), 9784, 11458. For payre … pyght, cf. 1456.

1735  Cf. ‘Then he rises radly and raykes bylive’ (Pa 89).

1737  furred … with felles wel pured: see n. to 154–6. In the winter the squirrel, which provided miniver, is grey on the back and white on the belly. The lady’s fur has been trimmed (pured) so as to show only the colour white. By sumptuary legislation enacted in October 1363, robes lined with white miniver (‘mantel ne goune fururez de menevoir purez’) should be worn only by noblemen owning lands to the value of 400 marks a year (Parliament Rolls VI, 167).

1738–9  The lady’s headdress (which figures in the MS illustration of this scene: fol. 125r) makes a token gesture to the convention requiring married women to cover their hair (which they normally did by wearing a wimple). The tressour was a cawl of gold netting and became especially fashionable after c.1370 (Calthrop 1907: 117, 133–40). With the lady’s tressour here, cf. that of the unmarried damsel Myldore in Sir Degrevant: ‘With topyes [topazes] hur trechoure Overtrased that tyde’ (C 651–2). Gollancz’s emendation of MS hwez (hues) to houve [houve, cap] is often, but perhaps unnecessarily, adopted. That the lady ‘had no goodly houve, but rather …’ would be uncharacteristically finger-wagging, whereas a comment to the effect that colour on her hed (i.e. headdress: see MED hed n^1 1a(e)) came exclusively from gems keeps the focus on how literally radiant she looked and preserves Gawain’s point of view (the perspective from which she, as all else, is seen: cf. 1760). Line 1738 is similar in construction to C 1048, where No … bot might also mean ‘no x other than …’, not ‘not x, but rather …’.

1743  Wayves up a wyndow: cf. ‘the proude quene … Wayves up a wyndou and waytis thareout’ (WA 1068–9), ‘To wayven up the wiket that the woman shette’ (PP B.5.602). Waive up means simply ‘open’ and does not imply that the object opens upwards; cf. yarked up (820) and n. to 817–21.

1748, 1750  droupyng … of dreme seems to be sleep in which unpleasing dreams occur: cf. ‘Als y lay in a winters night In a droupening bifor the day, Me thought y seighe a selli sight: A bodi upon a bere lay’ (Body and Soul 23–6), ‘Sobbyng unfaire On dayes to endure, with drouping on nightes’ (DT 3289–90). The verb dravelen had similar implications: cf. ‘in swevyn … Quen mennis myndis oft in dravillyng gronys’ (Douglas, Aeneid X.xi.95–6; cf. XII.xiv.52).

1763  smothe smylyng and smolt: this represents the only example of the survival into ME of OE smolt [gentle, mild, peaceful], otherwise not recorded after an occurrence of the adverb smoltlice [smoothly, gently] in 1150. Smooth is applied elsewhere to a knowing smile (cf. 1789 and n.), but seems here to mean ‘sociable’ or ‘amicable’. For smiten meaning ‘fall naturally, proceed without conscious effort or intention’, cf. MED smiten 9(c).

1764  blisse and bonchef: cf. ‘Thus hath disese … broght my blisse and my bone cheefe all bace’ (Walton 13), ‘Who hath goodis temporall … In boncheif and blisse is his inhabitacion’ (Idley I.686).

1769  Nif Mary (MS mare) of her knight mynne: a common narrative intervention has here been adapted to suit Gawain’s special devotion to the Virgin (see 645–50): cf. ‘Si Deus n’en penst, Cum ja serra afolé’ [if God does not take thought for him, he will be destroyed] (Gui 10206–7), ‘Si Dieu n’en penst e Marie Magdaleine Grant guerre avunt’ [if God and Mary Magdalene do not show thought for them, they will be embroiled in a frightful war] (Fantosme, Chronicle 963–4). MS mare, which has been read as a form of more (Davenport 1977), is unproblematic: it reflects the scribe’s tendency to write e for unstressed i (cf. MS mere 153, bode 357).

1770  prynces (MS prynce) of pris: the MS error was probably occasioned by the common collocation of prince and pris (cf. ‘a prince full price’ at Alexander A 1109).

1771  Nurned him so negh the thred: the expression sounds proverbial, but no comparable idiomatic use of ‘thread’ is recorded. On nornen, see n. to 1669.

1775  that that telde aghte is not a mere line filler: adultery would involve a betrayal of the host–guest relationship that, from earliest times, was always held to be especially sacred.

1777  layd him biside [parried, deflected]: compare Trevisa’s use of aside to gloss fraxio radii when referring to a ray or beam of light that ‘blenschith aside’ (Properties I, 512, 513) or is ‘ibroke othir ischuft aside’ (I, 513), i.e. ‘is deflected’. For specialte = ‘particular regard’, cf. ‘For grete luf & specialte, he toke with him sir Androche’ (Mannyng, Chronicle I.5236–7).

1783–4  folden fayth to that fre: here and at 359, fold to seems to have the otherwise unattested sense of ‘hand over’. foldes at 499 similarly has a sense not easily paralleled, and MED creates a special subsection (folden v^2 10) for the three nonce usages. Such extensions of meaning were allowed (and perhaps even admired) as metrical manoeuvres in alliterative verse. festned … lausen: for the image of the knot with reference to fidelity and obligations, see 623–30, 656–65 and n. to 619–65.

1788  By saynt John: Gawain cannot deliver himself from his predicament by the simple expedient of inventing a prior commitment, since the lady has requested a faithfully truthful answer (1785–7), a request which he responds to by pledging his faith (1790) and by an oath. It has sometimes been seen as significant that the apostle John was widely known as a virgin, but the fact of the oath is more relevant than the choice of saint (which was primarily dictated by rhyming needs: the same oath is used to provide a rhyme at Sir Amadace 705 and Amis 2161, 2287): Gawain’s refusal of the lady is motivated by fear of treachery (1774–5), not by concern for his chastity, which is nowhere mentioned as weighing with him.

1789  smethely con he smyle: smooth and its synonym smethe elsewhere characterize a smile that comes as a response to some request or comment in which the smiler has detected an error: ‘The knight … undir his helm ful smethe he lowhe. For he wyste hit scholde be wel ynowhe’ (Lovelich 20563–4), ‘Theos meiden … smirkinde smetheliche yef him thullich onsware’ (Seinte Katerine 20/356); cf. Yonge, Secreta Secretorum 177. The lady’s question has assumed that the non-existence of a current lemman (1782) will imply that the situation is vacant; Gawain’s smile signals detection of the error and heralds a correction (1791) which, though it is politely indirect, the lady is quick to understand (1792–3).

1795  The lady is not a may [maiden], but is taking up (perhaps with a touch of self-parody) the posture of the love-lorn may of the popular lyric tradition, whose language is here also echoed in the verb mourne, which in that context was often used with reference to frustrated love; cf. ‘For hire love mournyng y make’ (Harley Lyrics 14/85).

1798–1800  The request is consistent with the lady’s pose as one tragically disappointed in love: see Elayne’s plea to Lancelot, after he has refused her love, in the Stanzaic Morte Arthur: ‘Sithe I of thee ne may have mare, Some thing ye wolde beleve me here, To loke on whan me longith sare’ (557–9).

1799  thy glove thogh (MS of) hit were: gloves were conventional parting tokens of lovers (see e.g. CA V.7043–7). MS of is usually emended to if, but though (spelled þof at e.g. G 624) is more idiomatic (cf. C 1145–6).

1802  The levest thing for thy luf: Gawain is plainly moved by the lady’s claimed resignation to broken-heartedness and speaks more warmly to her than is his wont, slipping for the one and only time into the more familiar thou form (a slip which he instantly corrects in the following line) which the lady has changed to at 1799–1800. The fact that the word love was used with possessive adjectives to mean ‘sake’ (MED love n^1 1b(g)) and could also mean ‘regard’ (1810) allows for some interplay between these non-romantic senses in Gawain’s response and the romantic sense in the lady’s usage (1780, 1795).

1806  Gawain avoids making a compromising gift to the lady by claiming that he is travelling light on urgent business, and therefore has nothing with him worthy of her, and that he would not insult her by giving her something as worthless as the glove she has suggested (1799). The small value of a glove was proverbial; cf. the ME idioms ‘not worth a glove’ and ‘set at a glove’ (= treat as valueless).

1809  no men with no males: when travelling, gentlefolk generally had servants to attend to their luggage (cf. 1127–9).

1811–12  tas to non ille Ne pine: for ‘take to no ill’ meaning ‘please do not be offended’, cf. C 735; see further MED taken 24a.

1814   lufsum under lyne shows the influence of the popular romance tradition, in which this was one of the formulae often used to indicate a lovely lady (cf. Sir Tristrem 1202, 2816; Emaré 864; cf. also Pe 775 and n.).

1817  The ring, like the glove beforehand and the belt that is to follow, is a standard love token: cf. ‘Dame, fet il, quant vus l’amez … Ceinture u laz u anel Enveiez li’ (Marie de France, Eliduc 355–8). Cf. also Andreas Capellanus, De Amore II.xxi: ‘A lover is permitted to receive from her partner these gifts: … belt, ring … always provided that in accepting the gift she is seen to be free of all suspicion of greed’ (269). On red gold see n. to 663.

1818  For stand = ‘shine, stand out’, cf. Pe 113 and see MED standen v^1 10d.

1820  The episode of the ring establishes what the poet is at pains to emphasize: that it is not the wele (cf. 2037, 2432) or costliness of the lady’s gifts that weighs with Gawain when he does accept one of them.

1823  On norne see n. to 1669.

1825  swer swyft by his sothe (MS swere swyftel his soothe): the emendation follows T&G; cf. ‘And sayd soberly himself and by his soth sweres’ (2051).

1830–33  The girdle is valuable enough for covetousness to be one possible motive for Gawain’s acceptance of it and for the narrator and Green Knight to commend him for his freedom from that baser sin (see 2037–42 and 2367–8). But it is required also to be clearly less valuable than the ring – which is why and how the lady introduces it (1827–9) – not only to give some plausibility to her representation of it as an unworthy (1835) and symple and little thing (1847–8), but also to tempt Gawain to acceptance by removing at least one of his scruples: his reluctance to accept anything of significant value (1827–8). By the standards of fashionable girdles, therefore, which could be very sumptuous, this is represented as a modestly plainish item, Noght bot [merely] trimmed all round with some tastefully simple gold ornamentation (1833), and there is no equivalent to the comment at 1820 as to the evident value of the splendid ring. It is the clere mantyle that catches the eye with its gorgeousness, and the girdle (worn underneath it over the kyrtel: 1831) is evidently not meant to compete with it in splendour.

1830  lyghtly has normally been assumed to represent the adverb lightly, but the syntactic and metrical placing is anomalous for an unemphatic adverb, and we have assumed the word is the same adjective as the one applied to the urysoun at 608 and means ‘made of light material’, which is the gloss given lyghtly at 608 in MED (though the word is not otherwise recorded in that sense). Belts of silk (cf. 589) were luxury items associated with the prosperous: the princess Phillis has a ‘Ceinte of selk’ (CA 4.857), and ‘a russyt silke gridyll with gilt harnas [trim]’ was valuable enough to merit itemization as a bequest (Lincoln Diocese 50); the girdle in Sir Gawain is of grene silk with golde ‘harnas’ (the colours of the Green Knight: cf. 167). T&G note that schaped (1832) derives not from ME shapen, but from chapen (‘mount with precious metal’), and cite Chaucer, ‘Hir knyves were chaped … al with silver’ (CT I.366).

1833  brayden and beten both refer to the ‘inlaid’ or ‘in-stitched’ golde; fancy embroidery was associated with well-born women (cf. 609–14), and with fyngres probably indicates the long, slender fingers associated with ladies: cf. ‘And ye lovely ladies with youre longe fyngres, That ye have silk and sandel to sowe whan tyme is Chesibles for chapeleyns …’ (PP B.6.10–12).

1837  gold ne garysoun: cf. 1255.

1840b  MS for I bayþe hit yow neuer yields a b-verse with two long dips. Duggan 1986 suggested removing for, but for explains the imperative of the a-verse as an attempt to save the lady from wasted effort, and so renders the categorical assertion of the b-verse less curt and rude. It is therefore preferable to regularize the metre by removal of either hit or yow.

1851–4  The Emir’s daughter in Sir Ferumbras has a magic girdle that wards off harm (2387–96). And a love token (most commonly a ring) given by the lady to protect the hero is a common motif in romance (Putter 1996: 142–3).

1853  hathel under heven: cf. ‘hathill vndir heuen’ (WA 84).

1855  and him com to herte: MS & hit come to his hert results (as at 1840) in a b-verse with two long dips.

1856  The girdle will act as a juel in its apotropaic power to ward off evil, which many jewels were believed to do (see n. to Pe 14–16). Since the word could be used of any valuable object (see MED jeuel 1; cf. C 1441, 1495), including a girdle embellished with gold (as at Douglas, Aeneid IX.vi.139), it is not simply a metaphor here. But the girdle, a relatively humble jewel (1829, 1847–8), suddenly acquires for Gawain a value above that of the more costly jewel (the ring) he had rejected, so that, in context, the material sense of the word is being played against its looser metaphorical one (‘what is greatly prized’: see MED jeuel 2); a similar play on the literal and extended senses of juel occurs at Pe 277–8. joparde (< OF jeu parti = critical position) originally referred to a chess problem (Rendall 1992), and the word chek [plight, turn of affairs: 1857] involves an underlying analogy with a move that leaves a chess-player in a difficult position.

1858  Cf. Jason’s talismanic ring in DT 787–8: ‘And if it borne were in batell on his bare flessche, He schulde slyde forth sleghly and unslayn worthe.’

1860  ho bere on him the belt: cf. ‘Thou beodest us thi joye … And berest hit on us stifliche, al withouten asking’ (Talkyng of the Loue of God 4).

1861  The moment of weakness in which Gawain accepts the girdle occurs almost imperceptibly in the one verb (granted) of which he is the grammatical subject amid a sequence of verbs of which the lady is the subject (bere, bede, gave, bisoght). After he granted there occurs an unannounced subject change to the lady either at gave or at bisoght (1862), where she is certainly the subject. But Morris’s insertion of ho (before him gave) is probably unnecessary: for comparable abrupt changes of subject that are not announced by pronoun, see 2071–4. Other editors assume that the subject change occurs with bisoght, and that he is the subject both of granted and of him gave, but ‘give oneself’ in the sense required does not otherwise occur without to + noun, and elision of pronoun subject (and of pronoun object it) assumes less anomalous usage than does interpreting he … him gave as meaning ‘he conceded’ – especially since with a good wille is also more unproblematically read as referring to the gift by the lady (cf. 1860) than to the acceptance by Gawain, whose feelings must be complicated.

1863  lelly layne is a potential oxymoron which registers the awkwardness of Gawain’s situation: loyalty to the lady must now entail disloyalty to the host (to whom the girdle should be returned under the terms of the exchange of winnings) and reflects the lady’s success in shifting the issue of truth from that owed to another man to that owed to a woman (cf. 1513, 1516, 1782–7). The collocation is repeated in a similar moral situation when the guide offers to hush up the escape he recommends (see 2124, 2128).

1868  thrynne: see n. to C 1727.

1870  laches … leve … leves: cf. ‘Laughte leue at that lord, leften his sygne’ (SJ 283), ‘Then leuyt thai the lond and no leue toke’ (DT 986).

1871  more mirthe of that man myght ho not gete: editors generally do not make it clear how they understand this line. According to MED, sv mirth(e 1(b), ‘get mirth of’ here means ‘be happy in the company of, obtain happiness from’. But there seems no reason not to treat the line as having the same force as modern English ‘She could get no more joy out of him than that’; here and elsewhere (see n. to 1880–84) the poet underplays the significance of Gawain’s acceptance of the girdle, which is not at this point signalled as a moral lapse.

1875  there he hit eft fonde: the expression is used of objects a traveller intends to take with him when he leaves; cf. the footshackle and inscribed tablet Gregorius stores away among the floor rushes in the hut where he spends the night – not, in his case, to hide them, but so that they may lie safe and ready to be retrieved: ‘daz er si vunde morgen vruo’ [so that he might find them straight away the following day] (Hartmann, Gregorius 3046).

1878  lysten his lif adapts Burrow’s suggested emendation (1965: 105) of MS lyfte his lif to lyste his lif, interpreted as an alliterative variation on the idiom heren lif (‘hear confession’) as found in e.g. CA V.1789 (cf. I.2447). lysten preserves the long dip normally found between the staves in the a-verse and is consistent with the poet’s use elsewhere of list(e)nen (uninflected infinitive listen) rather than listen (uninflected infinitive list). leren: b-verse metre requires emendation of MS lern to either lerne(n) (< OE leornian) or leren (< OE læran); although lernen can in ME mean ‘teach’, this poet does elsewhere observe the original distinction between OE leornian (‘learn’) and læran (‘teach’: cf. C 843).

1879  seye hethen, ‘go hence’ – from the castle, but also from this world, for the two have become much the same for Gawain. The wording is thus subtler than would be seye of live (WA 716, 4462), of which seye hethen is a variant.

1880–84  Critics have speculated much about the ‘validity’ of this confession, since the girdle apparently does not figure among the sins for which Gawain receives absolution. In fact, prior to the Green Knight’s own reference to Gawain’s retention of the girdle as his one lapse (2356–68), the narrative appears quite unembarrassed in its own two references to Gawain’s possession of it, recording without condemnation his hiding of it (1875), treating it as a matter apparently not relevant to his confession (which Gawain, believing he might die the next day, would make as a matter of course), and referring to it in an equally unembarrassed and even exculpatory manner when Gawain dons it the next day (2030–42). The reader is encouraged, in fact, to go into a denial similar to that which Gawain must be undergoing, so that the conscious recognition of the wrongdoing comes to the audience only as and when it comes to the hero.

1880  schrof him schyrly: cf. ‘To schryve yow full shirle, and schewe yow to prestis’ (P3A T 646).

1881   the more and the mynne: mynne is an ON loan word that occurs only in this alliterative formula (modelled on ON meiri ok minni, i.e. ‘of all kinds’). For the application to sins, cf. ‘We schal acounte for more & mynn, Syn judicare come in crede’ (‘For thiself’ 387).

1884  The hypothetical clause is grimly appropriate: though an actual sense of ‘day of death’ is not recorded for Doomsday in MED, Gawain expects the next day to face ‘the dome of [his] wyrdes’ (1968) and does indeed face judgement from a lord who ‘like power divine Hath looked upon [his] passes’ (Measure for Measure V.i.361–2).

1886  On caroles see footgloss to 43 and n. to 473.

1889–90  had daynte … Of: a well-attested idiom meaning ‘to value highly’; cf. ‘Lyke as folkis of relykis have deynte, Theron they set a valew or a pryce’ (Lydgate, Aesop 176–7).

1893  On the three-line-deep initial capital, see n. to 619–65.

1895  forfaren could represent the common verb forfare = ‘destroy’, but that would produce an uncharacteristic anticipation in a poem that normally adheres strictly to chronological sequence. It appears, therefore, as MED assumes, to be a separate verb, found both in OE and in the early ME of Layamon, whose Brut (13662) is cited sv forfaren v^2, ‘To intercept or head off; to block or bar (the way)’, a sense for which MED also cites WP 2762 (‘As folk that were fayn to forfare that best’), where the reference is likewise to a hunt (though the verb there is interpreted as ‘destroy’ by the poem’s most recent editor). A gloss of ‘got ahead of in order to block its course’ for forfaren in Sir Gawain avoids anticipating the actual interception of the fox, which has yet to come in sight.

1896, 1898  spenne, greve: see n. to 1709.

1900  The wye was ware of the wylde: cf. 1586 and n.

1901  braydes out the bryght bronde: cf. 1584.

1902  Cf. ‘Bot the schalke for the scharpe he schownttes a littille’ (MA 3842).

1909, 1913–14  Cf. 1601–3 and n. to 1601.

1918  rewarde (see n. to 1610): cf. ‘And if he [the fox] be take, y schall reward myn houndez with brede’ (Twiti 54).

1923  Strakande: see n. to 1364.

1925  fire upon flet: see n. to 832–3.

1928  blue: as Burrow notes, Gawain wears blue, the colour of faithfulness, for his single act of duplicity. The colour (which, unlike the thematically recurrent ones of red, gold and green, occurs only once) was, however, probably at least in part prompted by the demands of the alliterative metre: cf. WA 5039 (where the bleant = ‘cloth’: see n. to 879–81): ‘A blewe bleant obofe brad him al ovire.’

1931  For Blende (regularized from MS blande) referring to the addition of some luxurious material or ornament, cf. ‘Bricht braissaris of steill … Blandit with beriallis and cristallis cler’ (Rauf Coilyear 471–2). On blaunner, see n. to 154–6.

1934  On the previous two occasions the lord had initiated the exchange. Gawain is plainly anxious to get the ceremony over and done with.

1937  saverly: for the application to a kiss, cf. ‘he kist hir naked ers Ful savourly, er he were war of this’ (CT I.3734–5).

1939  The lord is, as before (1393–4), enquiring with jesting slyness into the history of the kisses, and Gawain again (cf. 1395–7) brushes aside the implied question. The expression god chep [a good bargain] is well attested, the plural chepes, ensuring the unstressed syllable required at line ending, being metri causa. The terms chaffer and chevisaunce (used also at 1390 and 1647) likewise had market senses as well as more general ones; cf. PP C.6.252 (where Covetousness is describing his underhand dealing): ‘That chaffared with my chevesaunces cheued selde aftur’. See further Mann 1986.

1945  ful pore: the fur of the fox (used as lining and trimming by the lower orders) was considered to be inferior in the Middle Ages.

1952  With mirthe and mynstralsye: cf. ‘ther was murthe and mynstralcie Mede to plese’ (PP B.3.11). In Sir Gawain, as in other courtly literature of the period, ‘minstrel’ no longer refers to a storyteller but rather to a professional musician.

1953  Cf. ‘And made hem as meri as ani men couthe’ (William 1409).

1960  This bedtime parting is also the final leave-taking. Like the guests who left before him, Gawain is to depart early in the morning and so takes leave from his host before going to bed (cf. 1027).

1961–3  he him thonkes Of such a sellyly sojourne … the High-Kyng yow yelde: the absence of inverted commas in medieval script means that the boundary between indirect and direct speech is more fluid, and the transition from the one to the other is virtually imperceptible here: Of such [for such] a sellyly sojourne seems syntactically apo koinou [belonging equally] with he him thonkes and the High-Kyng yow yelde.

1962  sellyly is emended to selly by most modern editors, but unnecessarily so. OE had the adjective sæliglic [happy] as well as sæglic, and both survived into ME (see MED sv seli and selili). The b-verse alliterates on s by virtue of linking alliteration in as I.

1963  High-Kyng, as at 1038, C 50 and Pe 596, is from the OE compound heahcyning (see Putter et al. 2007: 175); the final e in the MS on high does not therefore in these instances represent a sounded syllable.

1964  T&G regard the line as ‘corrupt’, and Burrow glosses ‘I shall give myself in exchange for one of your men, if it please you’. But the most obvious sense is ‘I offer myself to you as one of your servants’ (i.e. for = ‘as’: cf. C 1163). The offer was a polite expression of obligation; cf. 975–6 (‘and he hit quik askes To be her servant sothly, if hemself liked’), where the expression if -self like- likewise also occurs (implying a modestly courteous refusal to take for granted the acceptability of the service offered).

1967–8  Other editors gloss dele ‘receive’, but in collocation with God and wyrd- the sense is always elsewhere ‘assign’ (cf. 1752, 2418): e.g. ‘God may rycht weill oure werdys dele’ (Barbour, Bruce XVIII.46). We have assumed the infinitive To dele has here that meaning, but in the passive sense (i.e. ‘to be assigned’) which the infinitive often had after verbs of causing or permitting, including suffer (for examples, see MED sufferen 8b(b)).

1971–2  Hosts regularly convey [escort] and coundue [guide] their guests on their way (cf. ‘por ax conduire e convoier’: Erec 4270), usually in person.

1980–81  On thryvande thonkkes, see n. to 1080. thrat [compelled] conveys the social mock ‘battle’ that occurs in the case of compliments and thanks, which must be pressed on those who are reluctant to receive them and who yelden him ayain yeply that ilke, i.e. return them with the same energetic alacrity as they would missiles, in reference to which the same alliterative collocations occur at WA 1516 (‘And thai yapely ayayne yildis tham swythe’).

1996–7  constitute a direct address to the audience (cf. Pa 59) beautifully attuned to the dramatic situation, as the unusual repetition of the rhyme word stille highlights: the audience are asked to be stille [quiet], partly so as not to disturb Gawain (Let him lye there stille: 1994) over a night when sleep will in any case be difficult enough (1991–3), and the rhyme unites hero and audience in different kinds of suspenseful anticipation of the coming narrative climax. Since stille^1 is adverb and stille^2 plural adjective, the rhyme qualifies as rime riche (a play on homophones or different parts of speech or different senses), which was permitted as an artful sophistication, rather than as self-rhyme pure and simple, which was, naturally, avoided.

1999  The day drives to the derk is a little puzzling, as the expression elsewhere indicates the daylight giving way to the night: cf. ‘When the son is … drevyn to the derke & the day fynyst’ (WA 686–7), ‘or this dredfull day was drif to nyght’ (Song of Roland 1024). A scribe may have normalized an original ‘The derk drives to the day’ (i.e. ‘the night gives way to the day’) to the more familiar form of the expression (‘the day drives to [gives way to] the dark’). the Dryhtyn (MS Dryhtyn): we have inserted ‘the’ to provide the b-verse with its long dip, as the poet himself does elsewhere for precisely that purpose (cf. C 669, 1007).

2000  wederes of the worlde: for ‘of the worlde’ referring to the laws of the natural world, and specifically to the weather it brings, see 504 and 530.

2002  the naked (= bare flesh): this example of adjective for substantive (a usage common in alliterative verse) occurs also at WA 4311: ‘And quare it neghes on the nakid, it noyis for euire.’

2003  snitered (probably related to ON snitra [shiver with cold]) occurs only here and in a closely comparable line in Awntyrs 82: ‘For the sneterand snawe that snaypped hem snell’. For snaype- used of snow, cf. ‘the snypand snawe’ at Douglas, Aeneid VII.Prol.50.

2009  ere the day sprenged: see n. to 1415.

2011–14  chamberlayn: the pronounciation with initial k required here reflects the alternation between ch and k in different varieties of OF which could be exploited in alliterative verse. Woolgar 1999: 42 notes that the chamberlain’s duties, with regard to assistance in dressing, ‘may have expanded during the fourteenth century’.

2018  rokked of the roust: armour was burnished by rolling it back and forth in a barrel of sand. The Early Rolls of Merton College mention a ‘barillum in quo arma debent mundari’ [a barrel in which arms should be cleansed] (Bennett 1974: 8). Cf. Layamon C 11122: ‘heo ruokeden burnen (O: hii rollede wepne)’.

2023  into Grece: cf. ‘No gladder gome hethen into Grece’ (Pe 231). Greece, often used loosely for the Byzantine Empire (see Suger 44), marked the limit of the Christian world.

2025  wedes … warp on: cf. ‘warpe of his wedes’ (MA 901).

2027  vertuous stones: jewels were believed to have protective powers (see n. to Pe 14–16).

2028  For semes meaning ‘stitchwork’ (not ‘seams’), ‘embroidery’, see n. to 610.

2030–42  See n. to 1880–84.

2036  ryal red clothe … rich: cf. 663 and n.

2037–42  See nn. to 1820, 1830–33 and 1880–84.

2038–9  Cf. ‘Ane … belt … The pendentis wrocht of burnyst gold maste fyne’ (Douglas, Aeneid IX.vi.125–6).

2041–2  of bronde him to were Or knyve: A&W (followed by Burrow) construe ‘to defend himself from sword or knife’, and refer to 384, where Gawain gives the Green Knight a choice of weapons. But the reference is surely to Gawain’s being denied, by the terms of the game, the use of the weapons with which he would normally defend himself (cf. 1754): the sword and the dagger are the two standard weapons of the knight, as is shown both in monumental effigies of the period and in ME romances: ‘Wyth swerd and with knyef … y schall faythly fyeght’ (Sir Degrevant C 555–6; cf. Sege of Melayne 1064–88).

2043  For boun [ready] meaning ‘armed’, see MED boun 1(a).

2045  meyny of renoun: for renoun meaning ‘worth, excellence’, see n. to Pe 1182.

2048  For the application of sojourn to the time spent by a dog or horse in a kennel or stable, see MED sojournen (g). Similar comments about the horse are made in contexts of hospitality in OF romance (cf. ‘Il est ben sojornez e bels’: Protheselaus 5171), in which bons chevals/destriers sejornez was a standard phrase to indicate horses in good condition. The word here suggests that the horse has enjoyed the same comfortable hostelry as has his master (cf. 1962, 2409).

2052–9  Yder, having enjoyed bon hostel, similarly calls down a blessing on his host and his wife (‘Beneit sei … ’) and hopes to be able to repay them (Yder 804–11). Such a hope is frequently followed by the rider ‘If I live’ (as in G 2058–9), for adventuring knights knew they might not: cf. (said to a host) ‘Se vivre puz, sachez de fi Uncor vus ert il ben meri’ [if I may live, know in faith that you will be rewarded in future] (Ipomedon 6611–12; cf. ‘s’il vit longement’ at Vulgate Merlin 236).

2055–6  Line 2055 is evidently corrupt: the a-verse is defective and the line ending unmetrical. Cherish had a social application to favours, attentions and protection extended (by hosts, lords, etc) to those in a dependent position: cf. 946, C 543, 1644, and see MED cherishen 4(a); and the metaphor in holden honour in her hande may derive from taking a guest by the hand as a sign of respectful patronage (see n. to 947): the lord and lady befriend honour, ‘cherish’ it as they do their guest (2055). Cf. Cursor C 2429–32: ‘The king … commaunded … Men suld him mensk [honour] and hald in hand’ (i.e. give him special favour and protection, as if taking a guest by the hand).

2060  Cf. ‘He sterte tille his sterope and strides one lofte’ (MA 916), and for stride = ‘mount’, see MED striden 2(a).

2061  schewed him his schelde: cf. 619 and n.

2073  Three valedictions are compressed in this line: ‘I commend you to God’, ‘I wish you good day’ and ‘God save you’. Cf. ‘Wid the king he yede away, And gaf thaim god and goday’ (Cursor G 8067–8).

2075  tene place: see n. to 1707.

2076  resayve schulde (MS schulde resayve): where metre requires stress on the prefix of verbs occurring with auxiliaries, the poet regularly puts the main verb first: cf. devayed were at 1493 and renayed habbe and renayed hade at C 105 and Pa 344.

2079  uphalt is assumed in MED to be from the verb uphalen [pull up], recorded elsewhere only twice (with reference to drawing a bow and pulling up a root). As applied to the heven, it is difficult to see what it could mean other than that the sky was cloudless or the clouds not low-lying; the visible cloak of mist around the hills (2081) would scarcely be apparent except against a relatively clear background.

2081  hakel occurs elsewhere only of a bird’s plumage or animal’s fur, except in the compound messe-hekel [priest’s vestment], with which mist-hakel (attested only here) is obviously analogous. A hatte was often worn over the hood. The comparison is with a figure whose form and features are obscured by the outer garments in which he is wrapped against the cold.

2084  Welawylle: cf. Welawynne (518) and Welawynnely (C 831). Most recent editors construe Wela in all three instances as an adverb meaning ‘very’. We follow earlier editors and treat it as a prefix. It occurs in this corpus only at line-initial position and before a w- adjective or adverb. Since the latter is also true of its other two occurrences (‘waella wel’ at C 6390 in Layamon, and ‘wella wide’ at WA 2096), it seems to act in alliterative verse as an alliterating prefix.

2091ff  As in the exchange with the porter (811–14), the pronouns reflect the relative ranks of the interlocutors: the social inferior addresses the knight with the polite (plural) form ye, while the knight uses to him (2127ff) the informal (singular) thou form. When Gawain refuses, with an implied rebuke, to take his advice, the guide, in a display of huffiness, switches to the non-reverential thou forms (2140–51).

2093  spied and spured so specially after: cf. ‘Aspieth nou specialy the yates ben sperde’ (Pistel of Susan 122), ‘And speryt syne specially’ (Barbour, Bruce IV.467). For the expression ‘spie and spyre’ [look and ask] (cf. G 901), cf. PP C.3.104, Ywain and Gawain 3013, Towneley Plays 11.115–16.

2099  is stif and sturne should perhaps be emended to ‘stif is and sturne’, which would restore the inter-stress long dip that normally occurs in a-verses and would be in accord with the separation of coordinate adjectives by which that metrical end is elsewhere achieved (e.g. 583, 1763): cf. ‘a stif man and a stern’ (William 3378).

2102  Hestor refers not to Hector of Troy, as T&G and A&W assume, but to Hector de la Mare, for the guide is thinking of the most pre-eminent knights in Arthures house. Hector plays a leading role in the Lancelot, where his pre-eminence is made explicit in a passage (V, 314) in which King Arthur distributes robes to his Round Table knights in order of merit. Hector comes second (after Bohort but before Gawain), in the absence of Lancelot (and Kay).

2108  Monk other masseprest: for the collocation, which distinguishes between the enclosed and the secular clergy, cf. ‘Vt wenden munekes & tha massepreostes’ (Layamon 14908).

2110  yow (MS þe): see n. to 2091ff

2111  may the knight rede: for rede = ‘carry out one’s intentions’, see MED reden v^1 13(c); (and/if) … may … rede means ‘if he has his way’; cf. ‘I shall revenge thy hurte and I may aryght rede’ (Malory 222; cf. Sir Degrevant 232).

2118–31  As noted by Rigby 1983, the guide’s warning to Gawain closely resembles a passage from the Lancelot, where a squire warns Galeshin, Duke of Clarence, not to continue along the chemin de diable that leads past Morgan le Fay’s Chapel, but to take a safer route instead. When Clarence refuses – ‘je seroie ains tenus por recreant et por faillis’ [I would be considered a recreant and coward] – the squire makes the same tempting offer as Gawain’s guide: ‘ “Oh, sir,” said the squire, “I will swear straight away on the saints of this chapel that never, on my account, any man or women will know of it.” “I know well,” said the duke, “that you would not lightly do something through which you thought I might have shame. But even if you would not reveal it, I would, since I am bound to speak the truth” ’ (Lancelot (M) XXI.274; our translation).

2120  there Cryst mot yow spede: there is poised (as at 1893) between its use as a particle introducing a wish (cf. e.g. 839) and as the relative adverb (= where), the latter implying that Gawain will need to be somewhere else before God can protect him. An important element in the guide’s tempting of Gawain to flight is his representation of the Green Knight as a devilish force (attacking priests), evasion of which is aligned with Christ (2120) and the Christian faith (2122–3).

2123  As help me God and the halydam: oaths were not uncommonly made upon the holy objects of specific churches, but in the formula found here the reference is to sacred things in general; cf. ‘Sworen “Goddes soule …” and “So helpe me God and halidome” … nyne hundred tymes’ (PP B.5.370–71).

2124  lelly yow layne: see n. to 1863. lause: see nn. to 526 and Pa 350.

2132–5  Gawain’s words echo Galeshin’s resolve to continue to the chapele Morgain (see n. to 2118–31): ‘Coment qu’il aveigne, fet li dux, del achever ou del faillir, aler i vueil’ [‘Whatever may happen,’ said the duke, ‘whether it is success or failure, I wish to go there’] (Lancelot (M) XXI.272).

2132  chose has been supplied. There are too many xaax and axax lines to justify emendation of any one of them on those grounds alone, but in this case a recurrence of the collocation of 451 (‘To the Grene Chapel thou chose’) seems not unlikely.

2136  knape: the word, though often used casually and informally (‘chap’), implied low menial status (cf. ‘Me thinkit I go lyk no knape, For I bere a baselard’: ‘Lestenit Lordynges’ 15–16), and is consistent with stave (2137), a churl’s weapon as opposed to the chivalric sword, and dynges [beats, hammers] at 2105. Gawain knows it will be a blade that will be used against him, but is deconstructing the guide’s implication (2104–9) of an unknightly and godless opponent (whom it would be right for a Christian to shun): a knight serving God is not defenceless against a thug.

2140ff  On the thou forms here, see n. to 2091ff.

2143  helme and spere would normally be carried by his squire and handed to the knight at need. The guide has plainly been acting as a squire in this respect, and here brings his borrowed office to a curt close.

2151  not on fote ferre: MS on fote ferre gives a b-verse without a long dip. Emendation to one is counterindicated: a distinction is elsewhere consistently observed between the numeral adjective on [one], which appears as one only when weak, and the adverb one [alone]. But not can occur in this context: cf. ‘Not a fote fro him fled’ (Cursor T 13859). The formulation owes something to the squire’s refusal to follow Galeshin to the chapele Morgain (see n. to 2118–31): ‘Je ne vos sievrai ja plain pas’ [I will not follow you even by one whole step] (Lancelot (M) XXI.273).

2159  tone: the poet’s normal form is taken/tan. In his n. to Pearl 513 (where tos (for tas) similarly occurs as a rhyming expedient) Gordon suggests we may be dealing with artificial forms created by the poet (in whose dialect northern a alternated with southern o to produce pairs such as home/hame, brode/brade); but to- forms are not uncommon in poetry from the north and North Midlands (see e.g. Purdie 2008, 159, 177, 179).

2166–7  knokle- (a joint of the body) does not occur elsewhere, as noun or verb, in metaphorical application; 2167 is characterized by ON loan words (see p. 249), among which scowtes and skayned occur only here.

2169  oft chaunged his chere: cf. 711 and n.

2171–3  The topography of the Chapel is very precisely indicated, both here and at 2144–7, lines which are mutually confirmatory. It lies at the bottom of a major valley: only in connection with the Green Chapel is valay(e) (as opposed to vale) used (2145, 2245), and brem valaye at 2145 seems to mean ‘large valley’ (see MED brem(e adj 1(b)). It is situated on a launde [clearing] at the valley bottom (2146, 2171) and seems to consist simply of a mound: lawe and berwe both derive in fact from OE words (hlaw, beorg) for a grave mound and perhaps suggest a dark-age tumulus. This mound stands by a slope bordering the river (the brymme biside) down which runs a flod or tributary stream – a stream whose presence is consistent with the grinding Gawain hears (2199–2204), since water was generally necessary to this operation. The scene has been identified with several actual locations, including the rock cleft known as Lud’s Church in the Peak District (Elliott 1984: 44–5).

2176–7  Lyghtes doun luflyly: cf. 1583: ‘He lyghtes luflyche adoun.’ taches is from OF atacher, the verb regularly used when a knight temporarily tethers his horse (often to a tree or branch: see Vulgate Merlin 379, Livre d’Artus 297); but the MS reading at 2177a (‘þe rayne & his riche’) gives awkward sense (riche would have to mean ‘noble [steed]’), and we follow Gollancz in emending his riche to hit riched; the collocation of rein and richen occurs several times in DT: see 1231, 2370, 6693, 6767 (‘Raght to the reynes, ricchit hom belive’).

2188  matynes was the first of the daily cycle of services (the canonical hours). The sinister cave is a diabolical inversion of a ‘chapel’: an oritore (2190) where the devil might perform this midnight office.

2189  wysty: associated with the ruined, the godless and people-less. Cf. ‘Tu … schalt granin godless inwith westi wahes’ [you … shall groan without goods within desolate halls] (Hali Meithhad 23), ‘Leode nere thar nane … buten westiye paethes’ [there were no people there … nothing apart from desolate paths] (Layamon C 561–2). It is consistent with the conspicuous conflation of social and Christian values in this poem that Gawain should have so strong a sense of the devilish (2187–8, 2191–6) in this desolate place in which the Chapel takes the form of a non-building. That he nevertheless stays is a tribute to his courage: the presence of satanic forces constituted the one occasion on which a knight would feel it right to flee.

2191  wye wruxled in grene: a periphrasis which perhaps, in this context, associates the Green Knight with the devil, who traditionally wears green (cf. CT III.1382 and see Brewer 1997). On wruxled, see n. to C 1381: the word occurs elsewhere only there.

2192  Deles (MS deueleȝ): the metre requires the shortened form (cf. 2188).

2197  high helme: see 607 and n.

2198  wones: for the plural as a metrical expedient, see n. to 1051.

2199–2200  The provenance of the sound is precisely indicated, and is consistent with the topographical information already given (see n. to 2171–3). that highe hille must be the bonk by which the Chapel is situated (2172), and the brok is the tributary flod running down beside it (2173). The whetting takes place Biyonde the brok, i.e. on the other side of the stream from that on which the Chapel stands: so the knight must cross the water to reach the side of it on which Gawain stands (2231–2). The water is relevant to the grinding noise (see n. to 2171–3), as is the crevice of bare rock (in a hard roche) within which the process takes place and which would thus add a metallic echo to the ominous sound. The Green Knight is in a cleft or cave of bare rock, as is indicated by the hole from which he emerges at 2221, and by the word roche, which here does not mean ‘rock’ (A&W, T&G), but ‘fissure, cave’ (MED roche n^2 1(c)), as in St Robert 168 (‘And in a roche closed him in a cave’) and in Sir Orfeo 349, where it forms an entry into the Fairy World (‘In at a roche the levedis rideth’).

2201  Cf. the simile at 1722: ‘As all the clamberande clyffes had clatered on hepes.’

2203–4  wharred occurs only here; whette and rusched meaning ‘made a whetting noise’ and ‘made a rushing sound’ are also unique usages, called into play by the precise context of a sound being interpreted.

2206–7  The MS reads Is ryched at þe reuerence me renk to mete bi rote. This is generally left unemended and interpreted to give roughly the same sense as in our footgloss. But 2206 requires emendation on the grounds of both intelligibility and metre (the b-verse has no long dip). reverence in the sense of ‘(in) honour of …’ (MED reverence 1(e)) was normally either followed by of + noun/pronoun or preceded by a possessive pronoun (e.g. ‘in thy reverence’: CT VII.473). We have emended accordingly, and have assumed renk to be an error for reken, which is used adverbially (‘fittingly’) and in collocation with reverence at C 10 (‘Reken with reverence thay richen His auter’; cf. G 251). By rote is usually assumed to mean ‘in due form, with ceremony’, though MED cites no parallel for such a sense of the expression. Gawain’s comment in these lines is presumably ironic, though Burrow assumes non-irony and translates (without emending) ‘That equipment, I believe, is being prepared in honour of meeting me, a knight, in customary fashion’ (i.e. with a blade of some sort).

2223  Denes axe: a broad-bladed battleaxe used by the Vikings.

2224  On the axe, see 210–15 and n. The MS has illustrations of both these axes (folios 94v and 129v): both show a blade whose long cutting edge forms a convex curve (the ‘barb’ shape referred to at 2310).

2225  foure fote large: the axe is recognizably the same kind of weapon as the one the Green Knight had brought to Camelot (208–220), on which occasion the blade was described as being as long as an ell-yard (about 45in/115cm). fylor occurs only once elsewhere, and it is not clear what kind of sharpening device should be visualized; the preposition in suggests a hone with a groove of some kind.

2226  by that lace is interpreted in T&G as a reference to a thong bound round the axe-handle. The first axe had such a thong (217–20), but none has been mentioned in connecton with this one, and the lace that does have a (prominent) recent pre-existence in the narrative (as that lace implies) is the girdle, to which the relative clause that lemed ful bryghte is certainly more appropriate (cf. 1832, 2038–9). It is also poetically appropriate that the girdle, which Gawain accepts as a protective charm, can only serve, when the moment comes, to measure the width of that axe-blade.

2240  Cf. Arthur’s greeting to the Green Knight: ‘Wye, welcom iwysse to this place’ (252). The Green Knight is giving an ironic welcome to what is referred to ironically as a place (= mansion; see Glossary).

2241  true is disyllabic, as b-verse metre requires and as is reflected in the MS spelling truee (< OE treowe).

2246  rele: for the verb as used of hand-to-hand fighting, see MED relen v^1 (d). It is here presumably meant as a joky word, since the situation is not that of a scuffle, the b-verse being ironic in its entirety (‘we can scrap to our hearts’ content’).

2247  Since his helme has an aventayle (608) attached to its base to protect the neck against decapitating strokes (see n. to 607–11), Gawain must remove the helmet to receive the beheading stroke.

2249  wypped of my hed: cf. ‘wyth that strok A wypede of his heved’ (Ferumbras 1616–17), ‘The hed of oon he can wype’ (Guy of Warwick (2) 2906).

2258  For the collocation of drede and dare, cf. 315 and see n. to Pa 372.

2259  This is the last of the lines rubricated by a three-line-deep initial capital: cf. 619 (and n.), 763, 1421, 1893.

2267  scharp yrne: cf. ‘oftener is hunger cause of victorie than the sharp yren’ (Vegetius 127). Iren was commonly used to designate a weapon (MED iren n 3(a)).

2268  schunt occurs only here as a noun, though the verb (cf. 1902, 2280) is well attested.

2272  fles for ferde: fles is given the otherwise unattested sense ‘flinch’ by many editors and in MED sv flen 5, but this is to miss the point of the comic overstatement. The Green Knight is treating Gawain’s flinch as if it were an instance of the ‘flight’ and cowardise (2273) that a knight should never show. The accusation is comically unfair, as was the charge of cowardice he had levelled at the Round Table (315) when no one took up his baffling offer.

2273  couthe [did] is strictly speaking the past tense of ‘can’, but since northern can/con also did duty for gan ‘proceeded to, did’, couth came to be used in northern dialects also for the past tense of ginnen (see OED sv can v^2 2c).

2286–7  This is not a macabre joke, but a reference to something Gawain from the start of the interview insists on: that he is bound to accept in stille-ness (2293) one stroke only (2252, cf. 2327–30) and will consider himself free to take defensive action against further blows.

2288  Haf at thee: for this call of warning and defiance, cf. ‘Have at thee, Jason! Now thyn horn is blowe [your true nature will be made known]’ (Chaucer, Legend of Good Women 1383).

2290  rynes probably here means ‘cuts’. Though its base sense ‘touch’ would make acceptable sense here, it was, in the context of wounds and weapons, used in OE to mean ‘give a severe gash’ (see Beowulf 2976) and could mean ‘strike’ or ‘pierce’ in ME.

2293  The double simile reflects the traditional alliterative coupling of stock/stub [tree trunk] and stone [rock]; cf. ‘stub nor ston’ (Sir Orfeo 346), ‘by stok or stone’ (Pe 380).

2294  ratheled: the verb occurs only here; cf. ME ratheling [wattling] and ModE ‘raddle’ [to weave or twist together].

2297  that Arthur thee raghte: Gawain declares in the Vulgate Merlin that he will receive knighthood only from King Arthur. The Suite du Roman de Merlin contains a detailed account of the actual ceremony (206–10).

2299–2301  Cf. the beheading incident in the First Continuation of Chrétien’s Conte du Graal (see p. 240), where, after two delays in delivering the stroke, the hero Carados tells his opponent to be done with it, attributing the procrastination to cowardice: ‘ “Chevaliers, molt par iez coars,” Dist Carados, “fai erranment Ce que tu dois” ’ [‘Knight, you are a great coward,’ said Carados, ‘do what you must do immediately’] (3500–3502).

2299  gryndelly: see n. to Pa 524.

2312  snyrt [grazed]: the verb, from ON, occurs only here in ME.

2313  Cf. 424–5 and n. to 425.

2316  spenne-fote occurs as the equivalent of Latin pedibus coniunctis [with feet joined] in the one other entry for the adverb in MED. Les piez joigner e sauter is the expression regularly used in French for ‘to jump’ (e.g. Ipomedon 8974; Vulgate Merlin 139, 226).

2319  Braydes out a bryght sworde: cf. 1584 and 1901, and for examples in other alliterative poems, see Oakden 1930: 270.

2320  burn [man] may be an error for barn [child], and some editors emend, but the distinction in sense is negligible, and the words were in any case not always kept distinct in ME (see OED headnote to berne).

2322, 2324  mo [numerically more] is kept distinct from more in the MS. As Gawain emphasizes (2323, 2327), he has pledged himself to receive without resistance only one blow.

2330  hoo!: this exclamation was used to order an end to duels and tournaments (cf. Chaucer, Knight’s Tale, CT I.1706, 2656).

2338  gryndel: cf. n. to Pa 524 (‘Be noght so gryndel, goodman’).

2340–42  The Green Knight’s language is legalistic: according to the covenaunt at Arthur’s court, Gawain had been due a [one] stroke, and, having thus been precisely payed (2341), he is now formally released (I relece thee) from his obligation to settle the remnaunt (any debt still outstanding after initial payment: see Alford 1988: 131) of the Green Knight’s rightes (legal entitlement to an object or property: Alford 1988: 137). The Green Knight thus formally waives his right to exact a penalty for Gawain’s withholding of the girdle in breach of the other covenant. Cf. the end of Awntyrs, where Galeron, after a duel with Gawain, resigns his claim to lands that had been given to Gawain: ‘Her I make the releyse … And … resygne the my ryghte … Of rentes and richesse I make the releyse’ (640–46).

2343  The basic sense of deliver here is ‘unencumbered’ (MED deliver(e adj 2(a)), and the expression ‘his deliver strength’ meant ‘his full strength’ (2(c)). Thus If I deliver had ben means ‘had I used my full strength’.

2346, 2350  profered: for the application of the verb to the aiming of a blow, see MED profren 3(b), and cf. e.g. ‘now as to the heved proferynge strokes, now to the visage, now to the sides’ (Vegetius 60).

2348  trystely … and truly: cf. ‘Temen to his body ful true and tryste’ (Pe 460).

2357  tappe: see n. to 406–14. For the rhyme on ta thee (written as one word, taþe, in the MS) and wathe (elsewhere spelled and pronounced wothe), cf. the rhyme to thee/sothe (413–15).

2358  my wede (the girdle belongs to the lord under the rules of the exchange of winnings) … woven girdel: cf. ‘the woven gyrdill’ and ‘The fey gyrdill … sic weid’ in Douglas, Aeneid XII.v.133, xiv.131, 141.

2364  As perle by the white pese occurs, as Silverstein noted, as an example of the rhetorical figure of comparison in Puttenham: Queen Elizabeth compares with the most acclaimed queen as ‘an orient pearle to a white pease’ (320).

2367  wylyde occurs nowhere else. It is usually explained as associated with wile [skill] and meaning ‘skilful, intricate’.

2368  This is sound theology, as well as humane common sense: according to Aquinas, it is natural for a man to love life, and a sin is diminished if fear is a motivating factor (Summa II.1.qu.73, art.6).

2369  in study stod a gret while: cf. the bereaved man in Lament, ‘I stand in a stodi, os a stok stille’ (13), and ‘Long he stode in a stody’ (DT 9263).

2370  So agreved for greme: see n. to 316.

2372  The collocations recall C 850: ‘So scharp schame to him schot he schrank at the herte.’

2374  covetyse (cf. 2380 and 2508): Gawain is being harsh on himself, since he has been explicitly exonerated from any interest in the material value of the girdle (2037, 2367), but not absurdly harsh: he did allow desire to possess an object to override the demands of ‘truth’, even if his coveting of it was not due to its costliness.

2375  vilany and vice (also collocated at WA 4679) are treated syntactically as a singular (disstryes) – as pairs of nouns often were in ME (Mustanoja 1960: 63) and as are the contrasting couple largesse and leaute at 2381 (longes to).

2376  For this instance of cast (MS kest) MED creates a special entry giving the otherwise unattested sense of ‘a sartorial contrivance, a belt or a girdle’ (cast n 2(c)). But the word as denoting a device for fastening is securely attested in Scots: ‘Than festnyt thai with wetheis [withies] duris [doors] fast … with mony sekyr cast’ (Hary’s Wallace VII.416; cf. VIII.1204).

2377  On Brayde [proffered], see n. to Pe 712.

2378  foule mot hit falle: the idiom occurs elsehere; cf. ‘Now foule falle hire for thi wo that care’ (Troilus IV.462), where metre proves that foule must be an adverb (T&G), not an adjectival noun (A&W).

2379–81  Gawain casts himself into an allegorical psychodrama of vices and virtues. acorde here has the sense ‘to be reconciled with’, knighthood and covetousness being naturally at odds with each other. Cf. the allegorical vignette in Pe 371: ‘Of care and me ye made acorde.’

2385–94  The language (beknowe, faut-) and the sequence of thought at 2385–8 (the confession and the undertaking to avoid repetition of the offence) is that of the confessional, and Bertilak takes up that analysis of the situation when he refers to the mysses as having been fully atoned for by the completeness of a confession (2391) whose validity is reinforced by the open evidence of due penaunce (2392) having been performed, and asserts that Gawain is now as effectively free from sin (2393–4) as he would be if Bertilak were really a priest (cf. 1883–4). His language also echoes the ideas of cleansing (clene, polysed, pured as clene) commonly applied to sacramental confession, which calls forth similar diction at C 1116 (‘pure thee with penaunce’) and 1131–4 (‘polyce him at the prest … polysed as playn as parchemen schaven’).

2385  For stille = ‘submissively’, cf. Pa 371, 402.

2387  overtake your wille: the expression occurs also at Towneley Plays 4.185–6 and is proved to mean ‘gain your good will’, rather than ‘Let me understand your wish’ (A&W), by Cursor F 24823–4 (‘Tha [Those] that he had na giftis tille With hotis [promises] faire he over-toke thaire wil’), where variant readings for over-toke include wan and havid al.

2395  gold-hemmed: i.e. ‘edged or trimmed with gold’; cf. the gauntlets ‘of gray stele that were with gold hemmyd’ at SJ 757. The gold trim on the silk girdle is referred to at 1832 and 2038–9.

2400  wones: on the metre-dictated plural, cf. 2198 and see n. to 1051.

2401   the remnaunt of this riche feste: the feast of Christmas officially lasted until Epiphany (6 January), and so is not yet over.

2407–8  For the baring of his head (by removing his helmet) as a gesture of respect and politeness, see n. to 773–5. Gawain makes the gesture at this juncture because he is about to refuse Bertilak’s invitation to return home with him, and is anxious to avert any impression that he does so out of resentment: the action is accompanied by earnest and emphatic thanks.

2410  mensk- could refer specifically to acts of courtesy and honour and good breeding as well as more generally to humanity and kindness. The word exemplifies that integration of religiousmoral and social values which is a pervasive feature of the poet’s language (cf. the significance given to courtaysye in Pe 432 and n.).

2416–19  This list was one commonly used to demonstrate that no kind of excellence in respect of any kind of sele [blessing: 2422–3] – not the wisdom of Solomon, the strength of Samson, etc – served to protect a man from falling in love or from the wiles of women: Adam was deceived by Eve into eating the apple; Solomon ‘had seven hundred wives, princesses, and three hundred concubines: and his wives turned away his heart’ (1 Kings 11:3); Sampson was tricked by his lover Delilah into revealing the secret of his strength (his hair) and then betrayed by her to the Philistines (Judges 16:18); David was besotted with Bathsheba and murdered her husband, which ‘displeased the Lord’ (2 Samuel 11:27), and his consequent suffering (bale) and penance are narrated in 2 Samuel 12.

2419  blended is often glossed ‘deluded’, a sense which the word could have, but, since Bathsheba was guilty of no duplicity, Was blended with must here mean ‘was (morally) blinded by (his passion for)’, and the verb must have the same sense (‘render morally blind’) that it has when used of e.g. good fortune (as at Hoccleve 1319: ‘Me blent so prosperitee’).

2424  mused, evidently occasioned by the need for a rhyme for excused, probably means no more than ‘lived’ and refers to mankind generally rather than specifically to those who were led astray by love or who ‘doted’ or ‘wandered in mind’ (A&W), a sense deduced from that of some associated nouns (e.g. musard [idle dreamer]), but one in which the verb is not recorded. The sense ‘dwell’ is without parallel in ME, but occurs in French: ‘Et ainsi qu’il musoit en la ville, il vit ledit Jaques Reboutin enmi la rue’ (Reg. crim. Chât., I, 1389–92, 17, cited in DMF sv muser), where musoit means ‘tarried, dwelled’.

2426  For the specifically sexual sense of use [have relations with] here, see MED usen v 2(b).

2427–8  Gawain’s point is that, since such illustrious men could be conquered by women’s wiles (2422–3), it is not remarkable that a mere fol such as himself (2414) also fell victim to them, and he should therefore be excused (2425–8). Similar lists elsewhere are followed by similar conclusions: cf. ‘Dunc ne m’esmerveil pas de nus … ne de vus’ (Waldef 2067–8) and Gower’s more earnest version of Gawain’s self-excusation: ‘I thoghte how love is swete, Which hath so wise men reclamed, And was myself the lasse aschamed’ (CA VIII.2720–22). In their personal application of the moral of the list, both men may reflect the logic of a Latin proverb, ‘Adam, Samsonem, Loth, David et Salomonem Femina decepit: quis modo tutus erit?’ (Proverbia no. 519), an English version of which (substituting Peter for Loth) occurs in Dives and Pauper II, 80: ‘Woman deceyvyd Adam and Sampson, Petir, Davyd, and Salomon: ho may then be sykyr from womanys gyle?’

2431  saynt [belt] is always used specifically of a girdle made out of a woven silk strip (cf. 1832, 2358), and probably here refers to the length of silk forming the cincture itself, this a-verse thus concentrating on that, as opposed to the gold trim (2430b) and the ornamental pendants (2431b). Cf. Promptorium 451 (‘seynt or cors [length or strip of silk] of a gyrdylle: Textum [woven fabric]’); cf. 94 (‘Coors of sylke or threde: Textum’).

2433  surfet, though occasionally used of transgression generally, was normally and more strictly used with reference to ‘overindulgence’ in eating, etc. The word thus suits the context, for Gawain here defines his fault specifically as a weakness of the flesch (2435) – though that was more characteristically associated with the sins of the flesh proper (gluttony, lust and sloth), from which Gawain is signally free. He is again severe but not illogical in his self-analysis: his choice of physical life over moral truth represented a commitment to body rather than soul.

2435  The faut and the fayntyse of the flesch crabbed is a characterization of the flesh common in penitential contexts. Cf. ‘The flesch is false, frele and feynt’ (‘Mannys Soule’ 3).

2443  right name: the Green Knight had identified himself only as ‘The Knight of the Grene Chapel’ (454); Gawain here enquires after his true name.

2445  Bertilak de Hautdesert: the MS has been read as Bercilak or Bertilak. The latter reading is supported by the likely derivation of the name from OF Bertolais/Bertelak, who appears in the Lancelot as Arthur’s adversary, and who figures as Bertelak in the ME Merlin. Hautdesert (the name of his castle) probably means ‘high solitary place’: see Smith 1965, sv desert and haut.

2446–66  MS Morgue at 2446 has been read by previous editors as Morgne. However, as noted by Twomey 1999, Morgue is the normal form in ME and French, and is the one found in the poet’s source for these lines (Lancelot (M) XXII.275): ‘Il fu voirs que Morgue le seur al roi Arthur sot d’enchantement et de caraies sor totes femes … si que … par tot le païs ne disoient mie qu’ele fu feme, ançois l’apeloient Morgue la dieuesse’ [it was a fact that Morgue, King Arthur’s sister, knew about enchantments and spells more than any woman … so that … throughout the land no one spoke of her as a woman, but everyone called her ‘Morgue the goddess’]; cf. Morgue the Goddes (G 2452). The other facts concerning Morgue in Sir Gawain – her hatred of Guinevere (2460), her ugliness (950–69), her apprenticeship with Merlin and his love for her (2447–50), and her family tree (2464–6) – derive from the same source: ‘Il fu voirs que Morgue fu fille al duc de Tintajuel et a Egerne sa feme, qui puis fu roine de Bretagne et feme Uterpendragon, et de li fu nes li roi Artus … Li dux estoit mult lais chevaliers et Morgue retraioit a lui, kar molt estoit laide’ [Morgue was in fact the daughter of the Duke of Tintagel and of Igerne his wife, who subsequently became Queen of Britain and wife of Utherpendragon, and from her was born King Arthur … The duke was a very ugly knight and Morgue took after him, being very ugly]. The Lancelot goes on to tell how Morgue had an affair with a knight named Guiamor, and how Guinevere put an end to it, upon which Morgue left the court in anger: ‘si s’acointa de Merlin qui l’ama plus que nule rien, si li aprist tant de caraies et d’enchantemens come ele sot puis et demora avec lui grant piece … Por ce fu la haïne qu’ele ot envers la roine Genievre tos les jors de sa vie’ [and then she met Merlin, who loved her more than anything and taught her all she later knew about spells and enchantments, and she stayed with him for a long time … This is the reason for the hatred she had towards Guinevere for as long as she lived] (Lancelot (M) XXIV.300–301). The Vulgate also states that Morgan’s learning and the marvels she wrought thereby earned her the epithet la fée (la Faye [fairy], 2446): Vulgate Merlin 73, 338; Livre d’Artus 136.

2447–8  The syntax is unclear, and the MS at 2448 reads ho taken, of which no grammatical sense can be made. Interpretations vary. What is clear from the vocabulary – quoyntyse, clergye, craftes, maystres (and conable clerk at 2450) – is that the wonders of the tale are being attributed, not to magic in the modern sense (for which the ME term was fayrye: cf. 240), but to magic in the medieval sense: i.e. a science practised by clerkes [scholars]. The ‘magic’ removal of the rocks in Chaucer’s Franklin’s Tale is similarly performed by a clerk expert in magyk natureel (CT V.1155) by complicated astronomical calculations (1261–96). In effect, the paranormal elements of the tale are being rationalized; and, in romance, when the marvellous is being thus ‘explained’ as magic, it is often, as here, traced back to Merlin, here called a clerk.

2448  Cf. ‘(The round table) That Merlyn with his maystries made in his time’ (P3A 469).

2456, 2459  wayned, wayved: since n and u were both written as two minims and are often indistinguishable, and since waynen and wayven had overlapping senses, it is occasionally unclear which verb is meant. Since the sense ‘send’ is better attested for waynen, that is the verb that has been assumed at 2456 (cf. ‘And that has wayned me hider’: 264). But the sense at 2459 is more like ‘gave’ and closer to 1032 (‘the wynne worschip that he him wayved hade’), where the parallel in WA (see n. to 1032) indicates the verb is wayven and not waynen.

2460  According to the Lancelot, Morgan conceived a lifelong hatred for Guinevere when Guinevere terminated Morgan’s affair with Guiamor (see n. to 2446–66). Gawain’s adventure is thus explained in terms of Arthurian ‘history’: he has got caught up in a well-known family feud.

2464  thyn aunt: the family history is based on the passage from the Lancelot cited in n. to 2446–66. Besides Morgan (her daughter by her first husband Gorlois, duke of Tintagel), Igerne has two children by Utherpendragon: Arthur and a daughter, whose sons by King Loth include Gawain.

2471  nikked him nay: cf. ‘And all nikked him with nay’ (706).

2473  the Prince of Paradise: cf. C 195.

2478  Whiderwarde-so-ever he wolde: such expressions are common with respect to the departure of characters who keep their missions secret (cf. ‘Their wiste no man that tyde Whedirwarde he wolde ryde’: Sir Percyvell 1808–9) or whom the narrative does not follow to their destinations (cf. ‘whider him god liked’: William 3486), and mysterious figures in chivalric romance tend to disappear to unknown places (cf. 460). Bertilak in fact now has the known address of Hautdesert to return to, but the formula leaves about him an air of mystery.

2480  grace was used of the remission of a penalty due (MED grace n 4(e)), and in other contexts (especially theological ones) refers to a gift that is freely given rather than deserved. The point is that the Green Knight could strictly have exacted the full penalty (of decapitation) for Gawain’s small lapse in the test set him; but he formally waived his right to greater punishment (2342).

2481–2  Contrast 693 (‘Oft ledeles alone he lenges on nightes’). The difference in sense is small, but the difference in emphasis makes the homeward journey seem less dramatically austere. mony aventure likewise parallels 718–25, but in more subdued and dismissive fashion. See pp. 256–7 for further comment.

2482  mony aventure: many is often followed simply by a singular noun (not preceded by a) in ME (e.g. 2493). The reading mony a venture (A&W) is unlikely: venture (= exploit, feat) is a post-medieval usage.

2486  Abelef is a variant of heraldic enbelif [diagonal, ‘bend wise’]. The heraldicization of the girdle thus begins here: Gawain is using it to ‘emblazon’ or heraldically betoken (2488) the faute (2488) no longer visible in the now healed nick in his neck over which the girdle sits. He later (2506) uses the heraldic term bende when describing those reasons of public penance and mortification that dictate his wearing the girdle permanently, and both bende and abelef are used when the Round Table formally adopts the green bende as its heraldic badge (2517). bende could refer either to a diagonal stripe on a coat of arms or to a diagonal band or sash worn by members of a chivalric order or affinity (see illustrations in Boulton 2000: 89 and Ordinances 35). On the way in which the heraldic symbol of the pentangle (619ff) is poetically replaced by that of the green bende, see Schmidt 1987: 149 and pp. 255–6.

2487  Loken under his lyft arme: the girdle is worn diagonally, over Gawain’s right shoulder and under his lyft arme, like a heraldic bende which was ‘usually drawn from dexter chief to sinister base’ (MED headnote sv bende n^1 4).

2495–2504  The language and the emphasis on revealing faults with shame and pain – Beknowes, schewed, blame, tened, telle, groned, schewe, schame – is again that of shrift, and thus makes this passage the third ‘confession’ in the poem (cf. 1876–84, 2385–94).

2495  costes of care: cf. ‘Whenne David knew his cost of care, Rewed him never thing so sare’ (Cursor T 7963–4).

2496–7  Gawain obviously tells the story in an order different from that of the poem. Since the court is anxious to know what happened when he met the Green Knight, he deals with the events at the Chapel first, and then explains the nick in the neck by relating the events concerning the lady and the girdle on his way to the Chapel. This makes the girdle the climax of his rendition.

2498  nirt (probably from ON) occurs only here.

2506  bende: see n. to 2486.

2511  man: MS non is usually assumed to be an error for mon. hit is sometimes taken as a verb and the line understood to mean ‘For none can conceal his guilt without misfortune occurring.’ But the next line (For … ) indicates that this one refers to something that cannot be removed. hit is therefore better taken as a pronoun (for pronouns at line ending cf. 1785, 1828), unhap as a verb and unhap ne may hit as meaning ‘cannot disentangle it (from himself)’. This also provides a more pertinent antithesis with the pentangle knot which this bende of … blame (2506) has replaced: Gawain now sees the shame of his fault as lodged within him by a knot so tight it cannot be untied, just as the virtues had been harder happed (655) in him than in any other man. His sense that he is stained for ever has struck some critics as doctrinally suspect (Barron 1987: 172), but as chivalric logic it is orthodox: ‘Knyghtes ones schamed recoverys hit never’ (Malory 218).

2513  The same construction provides a metrical frame at 2492.

2515  lordes and ladies: MS ladis is emended to ledis by Burrow and T&G, who argue that the context is masculine and ladies cannot belong to a military brotherhood. However, Arthur’s ‘Order of the Green Baldric’ plainly parallels the Order of the Blue Garter (see final n.), to which ladies belonged from the earliest times (Collins 2000). As honorary members they also wore the insignia: the effigy of Chaucer’s granddaughter, Alice Chaucer, shows her wearing the garter on her left shoulder (see Anderson 1945: 30). On devices worn by ladies and squires as signs of affinity to orders, see further Keen 1984: 183.

2517  A bende abelef: the court here formally converts the girdle into a heraldic badge (see n. to 2486). Cf. the ‘bende of grene’ on the lawyers’ banner in Winner and Waster (149), another alliterative poem which invents heraldic badges as symbols of group identity.

2518  Imitation of apparel occurs elsewhere as a sign of regard and respect. When Arthur and Guinevere wear their crowns at a feast, so do Ban and Bors ‘por l’amor d’els’ (Vulgate Merlin 320); when Charlemagne wears his beard over his corslet, ‘Pur sue amor altretel funt li altre’ (Chanson de Roland 3123). A comic instance of such deferential imitation occurs in the story of the sick abbess recommended by her physician to take a lover, all the other nuns then following suit ‘out of respect for her’ (Power 1922: 625).

2521  boke of romaunce: a reference to the (real or imaginary) ‘book’ that gives the story authority. ‘Romance’ in ME can refer to the French language (as well as to a narrative genre) and perhaps does so here.

2523  Brutus bokes: see n. to 13–14.

2525  The first alliterative long line of the poem is repeated in the last long line. The number, significantly, recalls the pentangle, with its five points, each representing five virtues. The total number of stanzas is also 101, as in Pearl, which similarly ends (significantly at line 1212) with a repetition of its opening line, as does Patience. A number of ME romances end by repeating their first line(s) (Avowing of Arthur, Sir Degrevant, Octavian Imperator), the closest parallel being the alliterative-stanzaic Awntyrs, which repeats its opening line (‘In the tyme of Arthur an aunter betydde’) in its closing lines (‘In the tyme of Arthore This anter betide’: cf. G 2522). In the opinion of Robert of Basevorn (Forma Praedicandi 310), ‘illi curiosissime faciunt qui simpliciter idem principium et finem habent’ [with most elegant intricacy do they finish, who have the same beginning and end], and he associated such compositional circularity with the perfection of God, ‘alpha et omega, principium et finis’ (cf. Sidrak B 5141–6).

2529–30  Many ME romances end with a prayer. The periphrasis for Christ (‘He who wore the crown of thorns’) evokes the crucifixion He suffered precisely to enable man to enter into the blisse of heaven. Similar formulae in ME romance, including ones rhyming thorne with biforne, are listed in Dalrymple 2000: 218–19.

HONY SOYT QUI MAL PENCE: on this motto of the ‘Order of the Blue Garter’, as it was called at the time, see pp. 257–8. The order was founded by Edward III, according to some chroniclers in imitation of King Arthur’s Round Table. The adoption of the green girdle as a heraldic device is also associated with the founding of a new chivalric order in the ballad version of this romance, The Greene Knight, where it is represented as the origin of the insignia of the Order of the Bath.

Bibliography of Works Cited

EDITIONS OF THE GAWAIN POET

Editions of more than one poem

Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron (eds.), The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript, 5th edn (Exeter, 2007)

Cawley, A. C., and J. J. Anderson (eds.), Pearl; Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (London, 1976)

Moorman, Charles (ed.), The Works of the Gawain-Poet (Jackson, MS, 1977)

Morris, Richard (ed.), Early English Alliterative Poems, EETS OS 1 (London, 1869) (contains Pearl, Cleanness and Patience)

Vantuono, William (ed.), The Pearl Poems: An Omnibus Edition, 2 vols. (New York, 1984)

Pearl

Gollancz, Sir Israel (ed. and tr.), Pearl: An English Poem of the Fourteenth Century, 2nd edn (London, 1921)

Gordon, E. V. (ed.), Pearl (Oxford, 1953)

Hillmann, Sister Mary Vincent (ed.), Pearl: Medieval Text with Literal Translation and Interpretation (Notre Dame, IN, 1967)

Cleanness

Anderson, J. J. (ed.), Cleanness (Manchester, 1977)

Gollancz, Sir Israel (ed.), Cleanness, 2 vols. (London, 1921, 1933), reissued as one vol. with tr. by D. S. Brewer (Cambridge, 1974)

Menner, R. J. (ed.),Purity (New Haven, CT, 1920)

Patience

Anderson, J. J. (ed.), Patience (Manchester, 1969)

Bateson H. (ed.), Patience, 2nd edn (Manchester, 1918)

Burrow, J. A. (ed.), in English Verse 1300–1500 (London, 1977)

Burrow, J. A., and Thorlac Turville-Petre (eds.), in A Book of Middle English, 3rd edn (Oxford, 2005)

Gollancz, Sir Israel (ed.), Patience, 2nd edn (London, 1924)

Kluge, F., in Mittelenglisches Lesebuch (Halle, 1904)

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Burrow, J. A., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Harmondsworth, 1972)

Gollancz, Sir Israel (ed.), Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, EETS OS 210 (London, 1940)

Madden, Sir Frederic, in Syr Gawayne: A Collection of Ancient Romance-Poems (London, 1839)

Morris, Richard, Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight, EETS OS 4 (London, 1864)

Silverstein, Theodore, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Chicago, 1984)

Tolkien, J. R. R. and E. V. Gordon (eds.), Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, 2nd edn revised Norman Davis (Oxford, 1967)

Bennett, J. A. W., Supplementary Notes on ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’ (Steventon, 2000)

DICTIONARIES

Dutch

Verwijs, E. and J. Verdam, Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek (The Hague, 1885–1952)

English

Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, ed. J. Bosworth and T. N. Toller (Oxford, 1882–1920)

Cotgrave, Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, facsimile edn (New York, 1971)

Dictionary of Old English, ed. A. C. Amos et al. (Toronto, 1986– )

Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue, ed. W. Craigie et al. (Edinburgh, 1931–2002)

Falconer, W., An Universal Dictionary of the Marine (London, 1729)

Middle English Dictionary, ed. Hans Kurath et al. (Ann Arbor, MI, 1954–2001)

Oxford English Dictionary, ed. J. A. H. Murray et al. (Oxford, 1978)

Scottish National Dictionary, ed. William Grant et al. (Edinburgh, 1931–76)

French

Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch, ed. A. Tobler and E. Lommatzsch (Stuttgart, 1925–2002)

Anglo-Norman Dictionary, ed. W. Rothwell et al. (London, 1992)

Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française, ed. Frédéric Godefroy (Paris, 1881–1912)

Dictionnaire du Moyen Français, version 2010, online at http://www.atil.fr/dmf

Latin

Dictionary of Medieval Latin from British Sources, ed. R. E. Latham and D. R. Howlett (London, 1975– )

PRIMARY TEXTS

Alphabetical order is determined by the author’s surname or by first name if that first name is followed by an epithet or place name, e.g. Chrétien de Troyes, Andreas Capellanus; where the author is unknown, items have been alphabetized by the title used in the notes to the poems.

‘Against Death is no Defence’, no. 156 in Religious Lyrics of the Fifteenth Century, ed. C. Brown (Oxford, 1939)

Alexander A, in The Gests of King Alexander of Macedon, ed. F. P. Magoun (Cambridge, MA, 1929)

Alphabet of Tales, ed. M. Macleod Banks, EETS OS 126, 127 (1904, 1905)

Altenglische Legenden, ed. C. Horstmann (Heilbronn, 1881)

Ami et Amile, ed. Peter F. Dembowki, CFMA (Paris, 1987)

Amis and Amiloun, in Amis and Amiloun, Robert of Cisyle, and Sir Amadace, ed. Edward E. Foster, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1997)

Ancren Riwle: The Recluse: A Fourteenth Century Version of the Ancren Riwle, ed. J. Påhlsson (Lund, 1911)

Ancrene Wisse, ed. Bella Millett, EETS OS 325, 236 (2005, 2006)

Andreas Capellanus, De Amore, ed. and tr. P. G. Walsh (London, 1982)

Anglo-Norman Lapidaries, ed. Paul Studer and Joan Evans (Paris, 1924)

Anglo-Saxon Vocabularies: Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies, ed. T. Wright (London, 1884)

Apocalypse of St Paul, in Visions of Heaven and Hell before Dante, ed. Eileen Gardiner (New York, 1989)

Aquinas, Thomas, Summa Theologica, tr. Daniel J. Sullivan, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1954)

Arthour and Merlin, ed. O. D. Macrae-Gibson, EETS OS 268, 279 (1973, 1979)

Arthur of Lyttel Brytayne, in Oxford Book of Late Medieval Verse and Prose, ed. Douglas Gray (Oxford, 1985)

‘As y gan wandre’, in Hymns to the Virgin and Christ, ed. F. J. Furnivall, EETS OS 24 (1867)

Ashby, George, George Ashby’s Poems, ed. M. Bateson, EETS ES 76 (1899)

Audelay, John, The Poems of John Audelay, ed. E. K. Whiting, EETS OS 184 (1931)

Augustine, De Sermone Domini, ed. A. Mützenberger (Turnhout, 1967)

Avitus of Vienne, De Spiritalis Historiae Gestis, in Histoire spirituelle, ed. N. Hecquet-Noti, 2 vols. (Paris, 1999, 2005)

Avowing of Arthur, in Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales, ed. Thomas Hahn, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1995)

Awntyrs off Arthure, ed. Ralph Hanna (Manchester, 1974)

Bacon, Roger, Opus Maius, ed. J. H. Bridges, 3 vols. (London, 1900)

Barbour, Bruce, ed. Matthew P. McDiarmid and James A. Stevenson, STS (Edinburgh, 1980–85)

Barton, John, Donait françois, ed. E. Stengel, in ‘Die ältesten Anleitungsschriften zur Erlernung der französischen Sprache’, Zeitschrift für neufranzösische Sprache und Literatur 1 (1879), 1–40

Battle of Maldon: see Mitchell, Invitation

Beowulf, with the Finnesburg Fragment, ed. C. L. Wrenn and W. F. Bolton (Exeter, 1992)

Béroul, Le Roman de Tristan, in Early French Tristan Poems, ed. Norris Lacy, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1998)

Beryn: The Tale of Beryn, in The Canterbury Tales: Fifteenth Century Continuations and Additions, ed. John M. Bowers, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1992)

Bible anonyme, ed. J. C. Szirmay (Amsterdam, 1985)

Bible en François: The Middle English Prose Translation of Roger d’Argenteuil’s Bible en François, ed. P. Moe (Heidelberg, 1977)

Black Book of the Admiralty, ed. T. Twiss, 4 vols., RS (London, 1871–6)

‘Boar’s Head Carol, II’, no. 55 in Secular Lyrics of the XIVth and XVth Centuries, ed. R. H. Robbins (Oxford, 1952)

Boccaccio, Olympia: see Pearl, ed. Gollancz, pp. 243–95

Body and Soul: The Desputisoun bitwen the Bodi and the Soule, ed. W. Linow, Erlanger Beiträge zur englischen Philologie 1 (1889), 1–209

Boke of Curtesye, in Early English Meals and Manners, ed. F. J. Furnivall, EETS OS 32 (1868)

Boke of St Albans: English Hawking and Hunting in The Boke of St Albans, ed. Rachel Hands (Oxford, 1975)

Book of the Foundation of St Bartholomew’s Church in London, ed. N. Moore, EETS OS 163 (1923)

Book of Nurture, in Early English Meals and Manners, ed. F. J. Furnivall, EETS OS 32 (1868)

Book of Vices and Virtues, ed. W. N. Francis, EETS OS 217 (1942)

Brendan, in Supplementary Lives in Some Manuscripts of the Gilte Legende, ed. Richard Hamer and Vida Russell, EETS OS 315 (2000)

Brut or the Chronicles of England, ed. F. W. D. Brie, EETS OS 131, 136 (1906, 1908)

Canterbury Interlude, in The Canterbury Tales: Fifteenth-Century Continuations and Additions, ed. John M. Bowers, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1992)

Capgrave, John, The Chronicles of England by John Capgrave, ed. F. C. Hingeston, RS (London, 1858)

— Life of St Katharine of Alexandria, ed. Carl Horstmann, EETS OS 100 (1893)

— St Augustine, in Lives of St Augustine and St Gilbert of Sempringham, ed. J. J. Munro, EETS OS 140 (1910)

Carle of Carlisle, in Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales, ed. Thomas Hahn, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1995)

Carmen de Jona et Ninive, in Cypriani Galli Poetae, ed. R. Peiper, CSEL (Vienna, 1891)

Carmen de Sodoma, in Cypriani Galli Poetae, ed. R. Peiper, CSEL (Vienna, 1891)

Castle of Love, in The Middle English Translation of Robert Grosseteste’s Chateau d’Amour, ed. K. Sajavaara (Helsinki, 1967)

Castle of Perseverance, ed. David N. Klausner, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 2010)

Catholicon Anglicum, ed. S. J. H. Herrtage and H. B. Wheatley, EETS OS 75 (1881)

Chanson de Roland, ed. F. Whitehead (Oxford, 1942)

Charles d’Orléans, Songe en complainte, in Charles d’Orléans: Ballades et rondeaux, ed. Jean-Claude Mühlethaler (Paris, 1992)

Chaucer, Geoffrey, The Riverside Chaucer, ed. Larry D. Benson (Boston, MA, 1987)

Chester Plays, ed. R. M. Lumiansky and D. Mills, EETS SS 3, 9 (1974, 1986)

Chevalier de la charrete: see Chrétien de Troyes

Chevelere Assigne, ed. H. H. Gibbs, EETS ES 6 (1868)

Chrétien de Troyes, Chevalier au lion (Yvain), ed. Mario Roques, CFMA (Paris, 1982)

— Chevalier de la charrete (Lancelot), ed. Mario Roques, CFMA (Paris, 1983)

— Cligés, ed. Alexandre Micha, CFMA (Paris, 1975)

— Conte du Graal (Perceval), ed. Félix Lecoy, 2 vols., CFMA (Paris, 1981)

— Erec et Enide, ed. Mario Roques, CFMA (Paris, 1981)

Christine de Pisan, Treasure of the City of Ladies, tr. Sarah Lawson (Harmondsworth, 1985)

Cligés: see Chrétien de Troyes

Cockaine, Sir Thomas, Short Treatise of Hunting, ed. R. Bear, Renascence Editions (Oregon, 2000)

Conte du Graal: see Chrétien de Troyes

Couronnement de Renart, ed. Alfred Foulet (Princeton, NJ, 1929)

Court of Sapience, ed. Ruth Harvey (Toronto, 1984)

Coventry Leet Book, ed. M. D. Harris, EETS OS 134, 135, 138, 146 (1907–13)

Cursor Mundi, ed. R. Morris, EETS 57, 59, 62, 66, 68, 99, 101 (1874–93)

Cynewulf, Elene, ed. P. O. E. Gradon (Exeter, 1977)

Cyrurgie of Guy de Chauliac, ed. M. S. Ogden, EETS 265 (1971)

Dame Sirith, in Early Middle English Verse and Prose, ed. J. A. W. Bennett and G. V. Smithers (Oxford, 1985)

Dante, The Divine Comedy, ed. and tr. J. D. Sinclair, 3 vols. (London, 1948)

— Lyric Poetry, ed. K. Foster and P. Boyde, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1967)

Death and Liffe, ed. Joseph M. P. Donatelli (Cambridge, MA, 1989)

‘Death, the Soul’s Friend’, no. 163 in Religious Lyrics of the Fifteenth Century, ed. C. Brown (Oxford, 1939)

Deor, in The Exeter Anthology of Old English Poetry, ed. Bernard J. Muir, 2 vols. (Exeter, 1994)

Destruction of Troy, ed. Hiroyuki Matsumoto, Society of Early English and Norse Electronic Texts (Ann Arbor, MI, 2002)

Diodorus Siculus: Diodorus of Sicily with an English Translation, ed. and tr. C. H. Oldfather, 12 vols. (London, 1933–67)

Dives and Pauper, ed. P. H. Barnum, EETS OS 275, 280, 332 (1976–2004)

Donet: The Donet by Reginald Pecock, ed. E. V. Hitchcock, EETS OS 156 (1921)

Douglas, Gavin, King Hart, in The Shorter Poems of Gavin Douglas, ed. Priscilla J. Bawcutt, STS (Edinburgh, 1967)

— Virgil’s Aeneid, ed. David F. C. Coldwell, 4 vols., STS (Edinburgh, 1950–64)

Dunbar, William, Selected Poems, ed. Priscilla Bawcutt (London, 1996)

Early English Carols, ed. R. L. Greene (Oxford, 1935)

Early South-English Legendary, ed. C. Horstmann EETS OS 87 (1887)

‘Elde makith me geld’, in Die Kildare-Gedichte, ed. W. Heuser (Bonn, 1904)

Emaré, in Six Middle English Romances, ed. Maldwyn Mills (London, 1973)

English Conquest of Ireland, ed. F. J. Furnivall, EETS OS 107 (1896)

English Coronation Records, ed. L. G. W. Legg (London, 1901)

Erec: see Chrétien de Troyes

Everyman, ed. C. Davidson et al., TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 2007)

‘Fall and Passion’, in Die Kildare-Gedichte, ed. W. Heuser (Bonn, 1904)

Fantosme, Jordan, Chronicle, ed. and tr. R. C. Johnston (Oxford, 1981)

Ferguut, ed. David F. Johnson and Geert H. M. Claassens (Cambridge, 2000)

Fifteenth-Century Courtesy Book, ed. R. W. Chambers, EETS OS 148 (1914)

First Continuation: vol. I of The Continuations of the Old French Perceval of Chrétien de Troyes, ed. William Roach (Philadelphia, 1949)

Flamenca: The Romance of Flamenca, ed. and tr. E. D. Blodgett (New York, 1995)

Floris and Blancheflour, in Middle English Verse Romances, ed. D. B. Sands (Exeter, 1986)

‘For thiself’, ed. K. Bülbring, in ‘Über die Handschrift Nr. 491 der Lambeth-Bibliothek’, Archiv 86 (1891), 383–92

Foure Sons of Aymon, ed. O. Richardson, EETS ES 44, 45 (1884, 1885)

Fyftene Joyes of Maryage, in The Oxford Book of Late Medieval Verse and Prose, ed. Douglas Gray (Oxford, 1988)

Galawnt Pride: see Historical Poems, pp. 138–9

Gascoine, George, Noble Art of Venerie, repr. as Tubervile’s Booke of Hunting (Oxford, 1908)

Generydes, ed. W. A. Wright, EETS OS 55, 70 (1878)

Genesis and Exodus, ed. Olaf Arngart (Lund, 1968)

Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, ed. Michael Reeve, tr. Neil Wright (Cambridge, 2007)

Gerald of Wales, Journey Through Wales, tr. Lewis Thorpe (Harmondsworth, 1978)

Gest of Robyn Hode, in Robin Hood and Other Outlaw Tales, ed. Stephen Knight and Thomas Ohlgren, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1997)

Glossa Ordinaria, PL 113, 114

Gologras: The Knightly Tale of Gologras and Gawain, ed. Ralph Hanna, STS (Cambridge, 2008)

Gospel of Nicodemus, in Apocrypha, tr. G. Cumberlege (Oxford, 1953)

Gospel of Nicodemus, in The Middle English Harrowing of Hell and Gospel of Nicodemus, ed. W. T. Hulme, EETS ES 100 (1908)

Gottfried von Strassburg, Tristan, ed. Karl Marold, 2 vols. (Berlin, 2004)

Gough Map: A Map of Great Britain, c.1360, intro. E. J. S. Parsons (Oxford, 1958)

Gower, John, Chronica Tripertita, ed. D. R. Carlson, tr. A. G. Rigg (Toronto, 2011)

— Cinkante Balades, ed. and tr. R. F. Yeager, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 2011)

— Complete Works of John Gower, ed. G. C. Macaulay, 4 vols. (Oxford, 1899–1902)

— Confessio Amantis, in English Works of John Gower, ed. G. C. Macaulay, EETS ES 81, 82 (1900, 1901)

Greene Knight, in Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales, ed. Thomas Hahn, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1995)

Grocers Company: Facsimile of First Volume of MS Archives of the Worshipful Company of Grocers, ed. J. A. Kingdon, 2 vols. (London, 1886)

Gui de Warewic, ed. A. Ewert, 2 vols., CFMA (Paris, 1932, 1933)

Guido delle Colonne, Historia Destructionis Troiae, ed. N. E. Griffin (Cambridge, MA, 1936)

Guy of Warwick, ed. J. Zupitza, EETS ES 42, 49, 59 (1883–91)

Guy of Warwick (2): Guy of Warwick: The Second Fifteenth-Century Version, ed. J. Zupitza, EETS ES 25, 26 (1875, 1876)

Haimo of Auxerre, Commentary on the Book of Jonah, tr. D. Everhart (Kalamazoo, MI, 1993)

Hali Meithhad, ed. Bella Millett, EETS OS 284 (1982)

Harrowing of Hell: see Gospel of Nicodemus

Harley Lyrics, ed. G. L. Brook (Manchester, 1956)

Hartmann von Aue, Erec, ed. Ernst Schwatz (Darmstadt, 1967)

— Gregorius, bilingual edn, tr. Sheena Zeben Buehne (New York, 1966)

Hary’s Wallace, ed. Matthew P. McDiarmid, 2 vols., STS (Edinburgh, 1968, 1969)

Havelok, ed. G. V. Smithers (Oxford, 1987)

Henryson, Robert, Poems, ed. Denton Fox (Oxford, 1981)

Herman de Valenciennes, Li Romanz de Dieu et de sa mère, ed. I. Spiele (Leiden, 1975)

Herodotus, Histories, tr. Aubrey de Sélincourt (Harmondsworth, 1996)

Higden, Polychronicon: see Trevisa

Hilton, Walter, Scale of Perfection, ed. Thomas Bestul, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 2000).

Histoire ancienne jusqu’à César, in The Heard Word, ed. M. C. Joslin (Lafayette, LA, 1986)

Historical Poems of the XIVth and XVth Centuries, ed. R. H. Robbins (New York, 1959)

Hoccleve, Thomas, The Regement of Princes, ed. F. J. Furnivall, EETS ES 72 (1879)

Holcot, Robert, In Librum Sapientiae Praelectiones (Basel, 1586)

Homer, Odyssey, tr. E. V. Rieu (Harmondsworth, 1946)

Honorius Augustodunensis, De Imagine Mundi, PL 172

Horn, in Middle English Verse Romances, ed. D. B. Sands (Exeter, 1986). See Romance of Horn for French version

Hue de Rotelande: see Ipomedon and Protheselaus

Hunting of the Cheviot, in The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, ed. F. J. Child (Cambridge, MA, 1904)

Idley, Peter, Peter Idley’s Instructions to his Son, ed. C. D’Evelyn (Boston, MA, 1935)

Imitatione Christi, ed. J. K. Ingram, EETS ES 63 (1893)

Ipomadon, ed. Rhiannon Purdie, EETS OS 316 (2001)

Ipomedon, ed. A. J. Holden, ANTS (Paris, 1979)

Ipomedon C, in Ipomedon in drei englischen Bearbeitungen, ed. E. Kölbing (Breslau, 1889)

Isidore of Seville, Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, ed. and tr. S. A. Barney et al. (Cambridge, 2006)

Itinera Hierosolymitana, ed. P. Geyer, CSEL (Vienna, 1898)

‘Iuellis Pricious’, in Political, Religious and Love Poems from Lambeth MS 306, ed. F. J. Furnivall, EETS OS 15 (1866)

Jacobus de Voragine, Legenda Aurea, ed. T. Graesse (Leipzig, 1850)

James I of Scotland, Kingis Quair, ed. John Norton-Smith (Oxford, 1971)

Jerome, Commentaire sur Jonas, ed. and tr. Y. Duval (Paris, 1985).

John Evangelist Hymn, in Three Alliterative Saints’ Hymns, ed. Ruth Kennedy, EETS OS 321 (2003)

John the Reeve, in Bishop Percy’s Folio MS: Ballads and Romances, ed. J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall, 3 vols. (London, 1867–8)

Joseph of Arimathie, ed. W. W. Skeat, EETS OS 44 (1871)

Josephus, Antiquitates Iudaicae, ed. F. Blatt (Copenhagen, 1958)

— Antiquities and Wars of the Jews, in The Works of Flavius Josephus, tr. William Whiston (London, 1867)

Juvenal, The Sixteen Satires, tr. Peter Green (Harmondsworth, 1974)

Kempe, Margery, The Book of Margery Kempe, ed. S. B. Meech, EETS OS 212 (1940)

King and the Hermit, in Codex Ashmole 61: A Compilation of Middle English Popular Verse, ed. George Shuffleton, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 2008)

King of Tars, ed. Judith Perryman (Heidelberg, 1980)

King Ponthus and the Fair Sidone, ed. F. J. Mather, PMLA 12 (1897), 1–150

Knight of La Tour-Landry: Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry, ed. T. Wright, EETS OS 33 (1868)

Kyng Alisaunder, ed. G. V. Smithers, EETS OS 227, 237 (1952, 1957)

Lament for Sir John Berkeley, ed. Thorlac Turville-Petre, Speculum 57 (1982), 332–9

Lanceloet en het Hert met de Witte Voet, in Five Interpolated Romances from the Lancelot Compilation, ed. D. F. Johnson and G. H. M. Claassens (Cambridge, 2003)

Lancelot: see Vulgate Lancelot

Lancelot (M): Lancelot, ed. Alexandre Micha, 9 vols., CFMA (Paris, 1978–83)

Lancelot do Lac, ed. Elspeth Kennedy, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1980)

Lancelot of the Laik, ed. W. W. Skeat, EETS OS 6 (1865)

Langland, William, Piers Plowman: The A Version, ed. G. Kane (London, 1960)

— (B text edition chiefly cited): The Vision of Piers Plowman: A Critical Edition of the B-Text, ed. A. V. C. Schmidt (London, 1995)

— Piers Plowman: The B-Version, ed. George Kane and E. Talbot Donaldson (London, 1975)

— Piers Plowman: An Edition of the C-Text, ed. Derek Pearsall (Exeter, 1994)

Lapidaire de Berne and Lapidaire de Modène, in Les Lapidaires français du Moyen Âge, ed. L. Pannier (Paris, 1882)

Laud Troy Book, ed. J. E. Wülfing, EETS OS 121, 122 (1902, 1903)

Lay Folks’ Mass Book, ed. T. F. Simmons, EETS OS 71 (1879)

Layamon: Brut, ed. G. L. Brook and R. F. Leslie, EETS OS 250, 277 (1963, 1978)

Leechbook or Collection of Recipes of the Fifteenth Century, ed. W. R. Dawson (London, 1934)

Legend of Becket: see Early South-English Legendary

Legend of St Edmund: see Early South-English Legendary

‘Lestenit Lordynges’, no. 417 in Early English Carols, ed. R. L. Greene (Oxford, 1977)

Life of Adam and Eve, ed. N. F. Blake, in Middle English Religious Prose (London, 1972)

Life of St Cuthbert, ed. J. T. Fowler, Surtees Society (Edinburgh, 1891)

Life of St Julian, ed. E. Gordon Whatley et al., TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 2004)

Lincoln Cathedral Inventory, ed. C. Wordsworth, in ‘Inventories of Plate, Vestments … ’, Archaeologia 53 (1893), 1–82

Lincoln Diocese Documents, ed. Andrew Clark, EETS OS 149 (1914)

Livre d’Artus: vol. VII of The Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances, ed. H. Oskar Sommer (Washington, DC, 1908–13)

Lybeaus Desconus, ed. M. Mills, EETS OS 261 (1969)

Lord William, no. 254 in The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, ed. F. J. Child, 5 vols. (Boston, MA, 1882–98)

‘Louerd, asse thou ard on god’, in K. Brunner, ‘Zwei Gedichte aus der Handschrift Trinity College, Cambridge 323’, Englische Studien 70 (1935) 231–43

Lovelich, Henry, Merlin, ed. E. A. Koch, EETS ES 93, 112, OS 185 (1904, 1932)

‘Lovely Lordynges’, in Early English Miscellanies, ed. J. O. Halliwell (London, 1865)

Lydgate, John, Aesop: The Minor Poems of John Lydgate, ed. H. N. MacCracken, EETS OS 192 (1934)

— Life of Our Lady, ed. J. A. Lauritis (Pittsburgh, PA, 1961)

— Life of St Alban and St Amphibal, ed. J. E. van Westhuizen (Leiden, 1974)

— Pilgrimage of the Life of Man, ed. F. J. Furnivall, EETS ES 77, 83, 92 (1899)

— Secrees of old Philosoffres, ed. R. Steele, EETS ES 66 (1894)

— Siege of Thebes, ed. A. Erdmann and E. Ekwall, EETS ES 108, 125 (1911, 1927)

— Troy Book, ed. H. Bergen, EETS ES 97, 103, 106, 126 (1906–35)

Lyfe of Ioseph, in Joseph of Arimathie, ed. W. W. Skeat, EETS OS 44 (1871)

Mabinogion, tr. G. Jones and T. Jones (London, 1949)

Machaut, Guillaume de, Le Jugement du roy du Behaigne, ed. J. I. Wimsatt and W. W. Kibler (Athens, GA, 1989)

Malkaraume, Jehan, La Bible de Jehan Malkaraume, ed. J. R. Smeets (Assen, 1978)

Malory, Sir Thomas, The Works of Sir Thomas Malory, ed. Eugène Vinaver, revised Peter Field, 3 vols. (Oxford, 1990)

Mandeville, John, The Bodley Version of Mandeville’s Travels, ed. M. C. Seymour, EETS OS 253 (1963)

— The Buke of John Mandeville (Egerton MS and French text), ed. G. F. Warner (London, 1889)

— Le Livre des merveilles du monde, ed. Christiane Deluz (Paris, 2000)

— Mandeville’s Travels, Cotton Titus, ed. P. Hamelius, EETS OS 153 (1919)

Mannyng, Robert, Chronicle, ed. Idelle Sullens (Binghampton, NY, 1996)

— Handlyng Synne, ed. Idelle Sullens (Binghamton, NY, 1983)

‘Mannys Soule’, in Twenty-Six Political and Other Poems, ed. J. Kail, EETS OS 124 (1904)

Marbod of Rennes, De Naufragio Jonae Prophetae, PL 171, 1675–8

Marie de France, Lais de Marie de France, ed. Jeanne Lods (Paris, 1959)

Marriage of Margaret of York to Charles the Bold, ed. T. Phillipps, Archaeologia 31 (1846), 327–38

Master of Game by Edward, Second Duke of York, ed. W. A. and F. Baillie-Grohman (London, 1904)

Maxims I, in Poems of Wisdom and Learning in Old English, ed. T. A. Shippey (Cambridge, 1976)

‘Mayde Cristes’, no. 43 in English Lyrics of the Thirteenth Century, ed. C. Brown (Oxford, 1932)

Memorials of London and London Life in the XIIIth, XIVth and XVth Centuries, ed. Henry Thomas Riley (London, 1867)

Mercy and Right, ed. J. Bazire, Leeds Studies in English 16 (1985), 259–71

Merlin, ed. H. B. Wheatley, EETS OS 10, 21, 36 (1865, 1866)

Metham, John, Works of John Metham, ed. H. Craig, EETS OS 132 (1906)

Metrical Paraphrase: Middle English Metrical Paraphrase of the Old Testament, ed. H. Kalén and U. Ohlander (Göteborg and Stockholm, 1923–72)

Middle English Sermons, ed. W. O. Ross, EETS OS 209 (1940)

Minot, Laurence, The Poems of Laurence Minot, ed. R. H. Osberg, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI, 1996)

Mirk, John, Festial, ed. Susan Powell, EETS OS 334, 335 (2009)

Mirrour of the Blessed Lyf of Jesu Christ … by Nicholas Love, ed. L. F. Powell (Oxford, 1908)

Moniage Guillaume, ed. W. Cloeta, SATF (Paris, 1906)

More, Sir Thomas, The Last Things, in vol. I of The Complete Works of St Thomas More, ed. C. G. Rodgers and C. H. Miller (New Haven, CT, 1997)

Mort Artu: La Mort le Roi Artu, ed. J. Frappier (Paris, 1964)

Morte Arthure, ed. Mary Hamel (New York, 1984)

Mum and the Sothsegger, in The Piers Plowman Tradition, ed. Helen Barr (London, 1993)

Myrour to Lewde Men and Wymmen, ed. V. Nelson (Heidelberg, 1981)

Myroure of Oure Ladye, ed. J. H. Blunt, EETS ES 19 (1873)

Nennius, Historia Brittonum, in British History and the Welsh Annals, ed. and tr. John Morris (Chichester, 1980)

Nibelungenlied, tr. A. T. Hatto (Harmondsworth, 1965)

Nicolas of Lyra, Postilla, in Textus Biblie cum Glossa Ordinaria et Nicolai de Lyra Postilla (Basel, 1506–8)

Northern Homily Cycle, ed. Anne B. Thompson (Kalamazoo, MI, 2008)

Northern Passion, ed. W. Heuser and F. A. Foster, EETS OS 145, 147, 183 (1913–30)

N-Town Plays, ed. Stephen Spector, EETS SS 11, 12 (1991)

Octavian Imperator, ed. Frances McSparren (Heidelberg, 1979)

Old English Homilies, ed. S. E. Irvine, EETS OS 302 (1993)

Old English Homilies of the Twelfth Century, ed. R. Morris, EETS OS 53 (1873)

Orcherd of Syon, ed. P. Hodgson and G. M. Liegey, EETS OS 258 (1966)

Orderic Vitalis, Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. Marjorie Chibnall, 6 vols. (Oxford, 1969–80)

Ordinances of Chivalry, ed. Viscount Dillon, Archaeologia 57 (1900), 29–70

Ormulum, ed. R. Holt, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1878)

Orosius, Paulus, Historiarum adversum Paganos libri vii, ed. C. Zangemeister, CSEL (Vienna, 1889)

Otuel, in English Charlemagne Romances VI, ed. S. J. H. Herrtage, EETS ES 39 (1882)

Otuel and Roland, in Firumbras and Otuel and Roland, ed. M. I. O’Sullivan, EETS OS 198 (1935)

Ovid, Metamorphoses, tr. A. D. Melville (Oxford, 1986)

Owl and the Nightingale, ed. and tr. Neil Cartlidge (Exeter, 2001)

Parlement of the Thre Ages, ed. M. Y. Offord, EETS OS 246 (1959)

Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, ed. Chris Given-Wilson et al., 16 vols. (Woodbridge, 2005)

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Olszeweska, E. S., ‘Illustrations of Norse Formulas in English’, Leeds Studies in English 2 (1933), 76–84

Onions, C. T., ‘Notes on SG’, Notes and Queries 146 (1924), 203–4, 244–5, 285–6

Orme, Nicholas, Medieval Schools (New Haven, CT, 2006)

Pearsall, Derek, ‘Courtesy and Chivalry in SG’, in A Companion to the Gawain-Poet, ed. D. S. Brewer and Jonathan Gibson (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 351–64

Pickering, O. S., ‘Newly Discovered Secular Lyrics from Later Thirteenth-Century Cheshire’, RES 43 (1992), 160–79

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Purdie, Rhiannon, Anglicising Romance: Tail-Rhyme and Genre in Medieval English Literature (Cambridge, 2008)

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— ‘False Friends in the Works of the Gawain-Poet’, in Arthurian Studies in Honour of P. J. C. Field, ed. Bonnie Wheeler (Cambridge, 2004), pp. 173–80

— ‘The Ways and Words of the Hunt: Notes on SG, The Master of Game, Sir Tristrem, Pearl, and Saint Erkenwald’, Chaucer Review 40 (2006), 354–85

— ‘Metre and the Editing of Middle English Verse’, Poetica 71 (2009), 29–47

— ‘Cleanness and the Tradition of Biblical Versification’, in Medieval Alliterative Poetry: Essays in Honour of Thorlac Turville-Petre, ed. J. A. Burrow and H. N. Duggan (Dublin, 2010), pp. 166–84

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Editorial Emendations

Below are listed all the places where the reading of the one surviving MS (British Library, Cotton Nero A.x) differs (other than as a spelling variant) from that given in the present edition of the texts. The reading of the latter is given first, before a square bracket. Emendations on metrical grounds, not of the words in the MS, but of their form, are not listed here (see pp. xxxi–xxxii); nor are the erroneous alterations by a second scribe (see note to C 924), nor readings which editors agree on but which are now only partially legible in the MS.

PEARL

35 | spryngande] sprygade
53 | penned] spenned
54 | fyrce] fyrte
60 | precious] precos
68 | rokkes rich] rych rokkeȝ
95 | gracious] gracos
115 | As] a
138 | over] oþer
142 | hoped] hope
144 | aye] a
185 | hoped] hope
192 | precious] precos
210 | hit supplied
286 | broght] broȝ
309 | is] ins (īs)
323 | man] ma
342 | in] &
353 | Stynt] stynst
363 | I supplied
369 | kythes] lyþeȝ
382 | maneres] marereȝ
433 | sayd] syde
436 | begynner] byngyner
460 | tryste] tyste
461 | saule] sawhe
479 | he] ho
524 | pay] pray
532 | hem] hen
538 | and] & &
558 | waning] wanig
572 | called] calle
616 | lowere] lere
635 | hem] hym
649 | out] out out
673 | thus] þus þus
675 | face] fate
678 | hille] hylleȝ
690 | koynt duitour he] kyntly oure
700 | For] sor
714 | touch] touth
739 | ryghtwys] ryȝtywys
752 | carped] carpe
786 | four supplied
802 | nem] men
829 | swete] swatte
836 | saw] saytȝ
848 | nauther] non oþer
856 | that] þa
861 | Lamb] lonbe
892 | that^2] þay
905 | amonk] among
932 | I] and I
934 | gracious] gracous
935 | byggynges] lygyngeȝ
958 | flesch] fresth
977 | I supplied
997 | John supplied
1012 | twynne-hue] twynne how
1014 | jacynght] jacyngh
1058 | As] a
1063 | mynster] mynyster
1064 | refet] reget
1068 | anunder] an vndeȝ
1086 | fresch] freuch
1104 | with gret] withouten
1109 | tell] knaw
1111 | gold] glode
1117 | there supplied
1179 | quik] quykeȝ
1185 | If] inf (īf)
1196 | myght] moȝten

CLEANNESS

3 | forthering] forering
15 | sulpen] sulped
32 | neghe] neȝen
50 | heven] her euen
64 | turne] tne
67 | byes] hyȝeȝ
98 | Ferkes] ferre
105 | redily] certeȝ
108 | thagh] þaȝ þaȝ
110 | was supplied
117 | as segges serely] a segge soerly
127 | pore] poueuer
134 | transposed with 135
135 | He] hit
143 | to supplied
146 | gnede] nede
159 | gryspytyng] gryspyng
187 | tyrauntrye] tyrauntyre
215 | methe] metȝ
228 | erde] worlde
233 | little] lyttlel
244 | apertly] pertly
268 | wymmen supplied
312 | withinne] withinme
318 | openande] vpon lofte] loste
322 | bolkes] boskeȝ
359 | styntes] stysteȝ
363 | ryfe] ryse
380 | haled] aled
395 | the mase] þe masse þe mase
427 | sevententhe] seuenþe
430 | ythes] yreȝ
432 | That] þer
449 | were] wern
460 | costes] costese
464 | chyst] kyst
469 | douve] doune (doūe)
475 | whyrled] wyrle
481 | douve] doveue
515 | segges] manneȝ
520 | dedes] synne interlined in second hand
529 | skaylyng and skylnade] skylly skynalde
532 | that] þat þat
577 | Thus] þat
584 | Himself] hym sele
586 | He] he he
608 | ful supplied
652 | yarked] ȝark
655 | teme] tonne
657 | hit] he
659 | bileved] byene
664 | vaunt] avaunt
692 | If] inf (īf)
703 | come] conne
713 | chaunged] chaunge
727 | thy] þyn
735 | tan up supplied
740 | fro] for
743 | not supplied
745 | highly] loȝly
747 | usles] vsle
752 | if] of
758 | hit yernes transposed
777 | wendes] wendeȝ wendeȝ
778 | mournande] wepande
781 | sonde] sondes
783 | Mevande] meuand meuande
795 | aucly] autly
799 | he says supplied
810 | gruched] gruȝt
812 | was^1 supplied
822 | unsavere] vnfauere
839 | clater] clatȝ
840 | wordes] worde
855 | for supplied
856 | peril] pil
882 | him] hem
885 | the supplied
889 | him] hem
892 | ever] þat euer
900 | save] haue
906 | restes] rest
914 | hit] I
915 | Him] hem
| kynded] kynned
926 | There] þen
935 | tayt] tyt
945 | kayren hem] kayre ne
981 | her] he
1002 | nomen] no mon
1019 | smelle] synne
1038 | spumande] spuniande
1040 | festeres] festred
1041 | kynde supplied
1056 | counsel] counseyl counseyl
1065 | the supplied
1101 | hende] clene
1118 | hit] hym
1123 | ho supplied
1164 | and] þat
1178 | wasted with] wast wyth with
1186 | was supplied
1194 | enfamined] enfannined
1220 | hem^2 supplied
1225 | Soverayn] soueray
1227 | ful supplied
1234 | tyrved] tuyred
1243 | so] fo
1253 | that supplied
1267 | hem kyllen] hokyllen
1274 | the] þ
1291 | nomen] numnend (nūnēd)
1294 | hyrnes] hyrne
1295 | fyndes] fynde
1308 | profecie] profetie
1329 | upon] vpn
1336 | on] no
1339 | never] neun (neū)
1358 | glory] gorie
1391 | mede] med
1402 | Sturne] sturnen
1403 | out supplied
1405 | the] þe þe
1406 | sewes] seved
1408 | golde] glolde
1429 | forth the] forþe
1452 | so] fo
1458 | ful] foul
1461 | covacles] cauacles
1470 | amatyst] amaffised
1472 | Peritotes] penitotes
1474 | bekyr and bolle] bekyrande þe bolde
1485 | launces supplied
1491 | there supplied
1506 | bryghte] bryȝtȝ
1516 | sauteray] saueray
1524 | is] ins (īs)
1559 | bede] ede
1571 | hatte supplied
1573 | tee] þenne
1579 | of] &
1594 | into] in
1616 | thee with] with þe
1618 | cler supplied
1619 | as] as as
1622 | Beau] leue
1625 | connynges] connyng
1647 | he supplied
1661 | to] on to
1717 | for supplied
1722 | Has sende] hatȝ sende hatȝ sende
1744 | coler] cloler
1746 | Baltazar] baltaȝa
1776 | scayled] scaþed
1807 | Wye] lorde
1808 | teldes] telled
1810 | owne supplied

PATIENCE

3 | asuagen] aswagend
35 | syn] fyn
61 | in termes] in þe termes
73 | stouned] stownod
78 | tee] com
84 | For] fof
85 | aproche I transposed
94 | glowande] g wande
118 | that that] þat
122 | in supplied
152 | colde] clolde
157 | bales] bale
166 | Neptune] Nepturne
189 | haspe-stede unhende] haspede
194 | the] þe þe
211 | bathes] baþeþes
220 | her supplied
238 | Mayster] god
240 | one] vn
245 | to] to to
259 | leve] lyue
277 | the supplied
313 | sayd] say
348 | non] mon
364 | ledes supplied
372 | dared] doured
389 | a … a supplied
411 | him in supplied
439 | fro] for
459 | thereunder] þervnde
499 | away] & away
512 | for] fol
520 | as^2] a
522 | malicious] malcious
523 | nogh] noȝ

SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT

58 | were] werere
88 | longe^1] lenge
95 | Of] of of
100 | the supplied
113 | with] wit
124 | sylveren] syluener
142 | ever supplied
157 | hue supplied
168 | the^2] pe
182 | as] as as
186 | knightes] kyngeȝ
203 | hauberghe] hawbrgh
236 | glowande] lowande
267 | fyghtynges] feȝtyng
282 | so] fo
312 | gryndellayk] gry dellayk
336 | his] hyns (hȳs)
343 | Wawan] Gawan
384 | so] fo
425 | schede] scade
432 | runischly] ruyschly
438 | he were] ho we
449 | also] as
531 | fage] sage
554 | Boors] Boos
629 | endeles] emdeleȝ
634 | vertues] verertueȝ
652 | thinges] þyng
660 | that nowhere couthe man fynde] [?]quere fynde
697 | negh] noghe
705 | Chapel] clapel
736 | wye] knyȝt
751 | servyce] seruy
774 | Saynt] say
775 | courtaysye] cortaysly
795 | Towres] towre
803 | inoghe] innghe (īnghe)
806 | Avinaunt] auinant or auinaut
813 | trowe] trowoe
815 | him the yateward] þe wyȝe and com supplied
850 | chefly] clesly
862 | him] hem
865 | him] hyn
877 | that] þa
883 | chefly] cefly
884 | table] tapit
893 | sleye] sleȝeȝ
930 | Chaplaynes] claplayneȝ
946 | Ho] he
956 | schedes] scheder
958 | chalk-white] mylkquyte
967 | balwe] bay
971 | lut] went
992 | lord] kyng
1006 | gome] grome
1014 | That] &
1021 | transposed with 1022
1030 | Charres] ledes
| chymne] hymne
1032 | that] &
1037 | mercy] nerci
1053 | ne supplied
1069 | that] tha
1072 | first] þe fyrst
1092 | your] ȝowe
1117 | thay supplied
1126 | are supplied
1129 | her^1] he
1141 | bare thre transposed
1158 | Hay, hay] hay
1183 | dernely] derfly
1187 | on lyve supplied
1195 | and supplied
1208 | gay] fayr
1211 | ful supplied
1214 | your] þourr
1216 | by] he
| bos] byhoueȝ
1223 | rest] bedde
1253 | for supplied
1255 | gat] þat
1262 | Answared] aswared
1266 | nis hit] nysen or nyseu
1273 | semblaunce] semblaunt
1280 | was passed] paste
1281 | as ho liked him and loved him swythe] lyk ahȳ loued mych
1283 | hit] I
| burn] burde
1286 | schuld] sclulde
1293 | ungayn supplied
| gos hit transposed
1297 | good^2 supplied
1304 | prestly] fire
| so] fo
1315 | Was] with
1333 | boweles] baleȝ
1334 | the lere] & lere
1344 | So] fo
1345 | Even doun] euenden
1357 | ayther] aþer
1358 | fonges] for
1372 | syre] lorde
1376 | Gawan] gaway
1386 | That] & wonnen supplied
1389 | he] ho
1394 | yourselven] horseluen
1406 | What] þat
| acheves] bytydeȝ
1412 | crowen] croweȝ
1435 | withinne] wytinne
1440 | fro] for
| soght was] wiȝt
1441 | borlych and supplied
| brod illegible
1473 | To come] com to
1537 | yow supplied
1580 | and supplied
1583 | luflyche] luslych
1587 | fnasted] fnast
1588 | freke] frekeȝ
1615 | swythe supplied
1623 | laghede] and laȝed
1639 | hent supplied
1649 | white] lyȝt
1652 | much^2 supplied
1657 | lede] knyȝt
1662 | howso] how se euer
1690 | morsel] [four minims]orsel
1693 | before] biforere
1700 | a-traverce] atrayteres
1712 | to] to to
1719 | lef] lif
1724 | Yonde] loude
1752 | dele him supplied
1755 | com supplied
1770 | prynces] prynce
1799 | thogh] of
1810 | tyme] tyne
1815 | nade] hade
1825 | swyft by] swyftel
1830 | that] þat þat
1840 | hit] hit yow
1855 | him com to herte] hit come to his hert
1858 | Myght he] myȝ ho
1863 | fro] for
1872 | ho] he
1878 | lysten] lyfte
| leren] lern
1893 | let supplied
1906 | laches him] cacheȝ by
1909 | bremly supplied
| broth] bray
1919 | Her] her her
1936 | the supplied
1941 | porchas] chepeȝ
1973 | ferk] frk
1981 | ayain] aȝay
1989 | lad was transposed
1999 | the^3 supplied
2010 | lamp] laupe
2027 | vertuous] vertuu[+ abbreviation for ‘us’]
2053 | he] þay
2076 | resayve schulde transposed
2105 | dynges] dynneȝ
2110 | yow] þe
2131 | not] mot
2132 | chose supplied
2137 | and] & &
2150 | go] ge
2151 | not supplied
2171 | were] we
2177 | hit riched] his riche
2187 | Here] he
2205 | as] at
2206 | my] the
| reken] renk
2223 | with to] with o
2240 | welcom] welcon
2247 | thy^1] þy þy
2291 | his] hs
2305 | he] he he
2337 | ryngande] rykande
2339 | habbes] habbe
2367 | for^2 supplied
2390 | hardily] hardilyly
2392 | of poynt] of þe poynt
2426 | With] with wyth
2448 | has] ho
2461 | glopnyng] gopnyng
| gome] gomen
2472 | and kennen supplied
2482 | he] &
2506 | in supplied
2511 | man] non

Glossary

The Glossary includes all words which are not found in Modern English or which differ in sense from their Modern English counterparts. It does not include some words whose sense does not differ, and whose spelling differs little or not at all, from that which they now have. It also excludes some words glossed at the foot of the page, if the word so glossed occurs only once, has no cognates elsewhere in the MS and if its meaning is adequately dealt with in the footgloss and/or endnote. When a sense cited in the Glossary occurs not more than half a dozen times, all instances are usually cited, by line number. Otherwise, only one citation is given, followed by & (if the word occurs in that sense elsewhere in the same poem) or by + (if it occurs also in one or more of the other poems). An -(e) appended to a headword indicates a final -e (etymological, grammatical or belonging to a variant form) which has sometimes been retained from the MS spelling (or which we have supplied) where grammar and/or metre requires it. An asterisk indicates that the word is discussed in the endnotes. A gloss that immediately follows the headword and for which no line references are given indicates a base sense that might not otherwise be apparent. Names (of persons, places, etc) are listed separately (see p. 989).

ABBREVIATIONS

1 | first person
2 | second person
3 | third person
acc | accusative
adj | adjective
adv | adverb
comp | comparative
conj | conjunction
dat | dative
dem | demonstrative
gen | genitive
imp | imperative
impers | impersonal
inf | infinitive
inter | interjection
interrog | interrogative
n | noun
nom | nominative
num | numeral
pa | past tense
part adj | participial adjective
pl | plural
poss | possessive
pa ppl | past participle
prep | preposition
pres | present tense
pres ppl | present participle
pron | pronoun
refl | reflexive
rel | relative
s | singular
subj | subjunctive
super | superlative
v | verb
vn | verbal noun

a inter ah! C 733, Pa 485, G 1746
a, an indefinite article a, an Pe 9+; one G 287, 314, 2249, 2323, 2341
abataylment see batelment
abate v bring low, humble C 1356; pa pl abated assuaged, lessened Pe 123*; cf. batede
abayst pa ppl ~ of abashed at, confused at C 149; pa bayst was disconcerted G 376
abelef adv (heraldic) diagonal, slantwise G 2486*, 2517
abide v suffer, bear, undergo Pe 348*, Pa 7, G 1754, 2090; face, endure C 856; remain, reside, dwell C 1673; wait Pa 70, imp G 2217, await C 764; pres abides waits patiently for C 436, 486; waits his moment G 1900; pa abod remained C 365, abate persevered Pe 617; pa ppl abiden undergone Pe 1090; cf. bide(n)

abode n stay, delay G 687
abominaciones n pl (theological) pagan customs abhorrent to God C 1173
aboute prep about Pe 75+, around C 1173, G 351&; adv about, around Pa 271+; here and there G 766, 2029, 2082, (all) around C 483+; in the vicinity Pe 932; all ~ all around C 84+
above(n) adv and prep above Pe 1023+; (at table) higher up G 73, sitting above C 38; on top G 856, at the top C 1382, (of the table) G 112; over the surface C 1462, G 166; thereover G 153
abydyng n forbearance, endurance Pa 419
abyme n abyss C 214, 363*, 963, Pa 143, 248, 318, 362
abyt n garment C 141
acces n assault by fever, fever Pa 325
achaufed pa and pa ppl heated, kindled C 1143; refl got warm G 883; cf. chaufen
acheve v achieve, obtain Pe 475, pres pl G 1107; acheve/acheved to succeed in arriving at G 1838, reached G 1857; pres acheves comes about, occurs G 1406*; pa ppl acheved (of a knight’s adventure) brought to a successful conclusion G 1081*
acoles pres embraces G 1936, pl acolen G 2472
acorde (1) n agreement Pe 509; settlement of differences Pe 371*
acorde (2) v reconcile G 2405; refl make terms G 2380; pres acordes is appropriate G 631; him acordes agrees G 1863, pres pl acorden agree G 1514; pa acorded of agreed to G 1408, ~ to were consistent with (Pe 819), ~ with matched G 602; pa ppl acorded agreed (to be) G 2519
acroche v draw to oneself, attract, absorb (Pe 1069*)

adoun adv (variant of doun; used for metrical reasons) down Pe 988+, downward Pa 235
adreye see drye (2)

adubbement n adornment, enrichment, finery, appointments Pe 72&; see also dub-
affray n alarm, perturbation Pe 1174
affyen pres pl ~ hem in put their trust in Pa 331
afrayed pa alarmed C 1780
after prep (a) after C 6+; behind C 857+; (ask/seek) for C 619, G 1215; (b) in accord with, according to Pe 998; in relation to C 1098; for the length of G 218; along Pe 125; towards C 420, Pa 86; adv afterwards Pe 256+; behind C 503; in accord G 171; conj after G 2525
agayn adv again, a second time Pe 326; back G 530, back again C 1705; in return G 386, 1217, 1638; cf. ayain
agayn(e)s prep against Pe 79, 1199, 1200, 1711, C 266, 826; towards C 611, 1228, G 971; ~ the sunne in the sun Pe 28
agayn-tote n act of looking back C 931
aght(e) (1) pa owned, had G 767, 843, 1775; owed G 1941; ought C 122
aght(e) (2) num eight C 24, 331, 356, Pa 11, 29
aghtsum pron one of eight C 411
aghtthe adj eighth Pe 1011
aglyghte pa slid, slipped Pe 245*
agreved pa ppl deeply upset, mortified G 2370*; cf. greve(n) (2)

alarom n alarm, signal to arms C 1207
alder, aldest see olde
algate adv at any rate, in any case G 141
aliche adv alike, similarly C 1477; cf. ilyche
all(e) adj all Pe 16+; before the court ~ before all those in the court G 1408; adv absolutely, really, completely Pe 1094+; everywhere Pe 97, 1048, C 1464, Pa 365; pron everything Pe 360+, the whole G 2182; all of them Pa 34; everyone, all persons Pe 404+; conj even if G 143
allyt(e) see lyte (2)

Almyght adj almighty Pe 498*; as n the Almyghty the Almighty (= God) Pe 1063
aloft(e) adv at the top G 194, 572; around the top C 1183, 1444; up Pa 447, G 435, 981, 2060, 2288; up from the surface G 1818; prep on top of G 1648
along adv ~ thereas along the route where C 769
alosed pa ppl praised, commended C 274, G 1512
alow (1) adv with a low voice, quietly C 670
alow (2) v allow, recognize as valid Pe 634; cf. loue
aloynte pa ppl removed to a distance Pe 893
als(e) adv also, as well Pe 765+
also adv likewise, in the same way Pe 872+; equally Pe 685, 1071, C 656, 1792, G 1022; in addition Pa 263, G 90; ~ tite/faste at once C 1099, 1751; conj ~ … as as … as C 984, 1045–6, 1618, Pa 291, G 449
althagh conj although Pe 759, 857
altherfayrest super adj finest imaginable C 1379
altherfynest super adj finest of all C 1637
althergrattest super adj biggest of its kind G 1441
altherrichest super adj supremely splendid C 1666
altherswettest super adj sweetest of all C 699
althertruest super adj most reliable G 1486
altogeder adv simultaneously, at the same time C 15
alwayes adv always G 1482
alyve adj alive G 1269; God ~ the living God Pe 445*
amatyst n amethyst Pe 1016; ~ stones gems of amethyst C 1470
ame n aim, target Pa 128
amed pa rated, valued (C 698)

amende v improve, get better G 898*; amended put right C 248; cf. mended
amesyng vn tempering of wrath, moderation Pa 400
amonestes pres admonishes, urges C 818
among(es) adv as well, in addition C 1414, amonk Pe 905*; prep among Pe 470+; along with G 473, 1927
amount v amount G 1197; pa amounted increased C 395*; cf. mountes
and conj and Pe 559+; if Pe 560, 598, C 1346, Pa 76, G 1009*, 1393&; introducing main clause C 1636
anende prep (a) concerning, with regard to Pe 697; ~ what as to what Pe 186; (b) opposite, facing Pe 975; (c) over, across Pe 1136
angardes n gen of audacity, of arrogance G 681*
angel-havyng n behaviour or demeanour of an angel Pe 754
anger n resentment, indignation Pe 343, C 572, Pa 411, 481; distress, affliction C 1602, G 2344
angre adj fierce, mordant C 1035
anguych n anguish Pa 325
anious adj unpleasant, hard, troublesome G 535
anjoynte pa ppl united (in marriage) Pe 895*
ankres n pl anchors C 418, Pa 103
anon adv therewith, at once Pe 584, C 480, 1741, Pa 137, very soon Pe 629
anournamentes n pl ornaments, furnishings C 1290*
anoynted pa ppl consecrated by anointment C 1446, 1497
answar(e) n answer Pe 518, C 753
answare v answer Pe 680, G 241, 275; pres answares G 386, 1044; pa answared G 1262; see also sware (3)

anunder prep beneath, under Pe 166, 775, C 609; ~ crowne wearing a crown Pe 1100; ~ mone beneath the skies, in the world, at all Pe 1068&, the skues ~, the sterres ~ beneath the skies/stars, on earth C 1206, 1378; adv at the base Pe 991; underneath C 1409, Pa 139
anyskynnes adj any kind of G 1539; cf. kyn
apassed pa ppl all ~ date quite past its due term Pe 540
apendes pres belongs, is proper (to), pertains G 623, 913
apere v appear, present oneself Pe 405, G 911; pa apered became suddenly visible C 1533
apert adj skilful C 1463; clear to see G 2392; adv boldly, in a downright manner Pe 589; skilfully, neatly G 154
apertly see pertly

Apokalypce n Apocalypse, Book of Revelation Pe 787&
apostel n apostle Pe 790*, 836&
apparayl n ornamental scheme G 601*
apparaylmente n trappings, ornaments Pe 1052
apparement n accoutrements, furnishings C 1270
aproche v approach Pa 85, pa aproched Pe 1120; arrive at Pe 686; subj aproch … to C 167, 1781, pa aproched to G 1877 approach(ed); aproche me behoves I must go there to C 68; imp aproche + inf go thither to Pa 349; aproche my presense come into my presence C 147, pres pl aprochen to His presense come into His presence C 8
apyke v array, deck C 1637; pa ppl apyked arrayed, set finely C 1479; pyked of set off by, adorned with Pe 1036*
aquyle v obtain, receive Pe 690; pa aquylde For obtained permission for Pe 967; cf. enquylen
aray n setting Pe 5; clothing Pe 191, G 163, 1873; of lesse ~ of lesser magnificence Pe 491
arayed pa ppl prepared G 1130*, 1134; destined Pe 719*; arrayed, dressed C 135, 816; fitted out, appointed C 812*; laid out C 1442, fashioned, constructed C 1458, G 783; ~ to arrayed for Pe 791; so mad ~ in so frenzied a state Pe 1166*
arayned pa questioned Pa 191
are adv (variant of ere (2)) before G 1891
arest v pause, stay Pa 144; pa arest paused C 766
arethede n former kingdoms Pe 711; cf. thede
arewes, arwes n pl arrows G 1160, 1455
ark n (Noah’s) ark C 317, 329, 335, 357, 411, 413, 479, 485
arme n arm Pe 459, 466, G 2487; pl armes C 643+
armes n pl weapons, arms and/or armour C 1773, G 281, 567, 590, 631*, 2104, 2437; practice or profession of arms C 1306, G 204, 1513; deeds of arms G 95, 1541
aros pa (of ‘arise’) arose, mounted Pe 181
arounde adv in circumference G 1833
arsoun(e)s n pl uptilted front and back parts of a saddle G 171, 602
art 2s pres (of ben) thou ~ you are Pe 242+
arwe adj afraid, frightened G 241
arwes (1) 2s pres take fright G 2277; subj arwe with is afraid of G 2301; pa arwed was/were afraid C 713, G 1463, 2271, arwede gave terror to C 572
arwes (2) see arewes
aryght adv right ahead, straight on Pe 112; indeed, really and truly C 1513, G 40, 1911
aryve v arrive Pe 447
asayled pa assailed, assaulted C 1188
ascaped pa slipped, proceeded unnoticed C 1776; slipped from attention C 569; cf. scape and eschaped
ascry n alarm, outcry C 838, 1206; battle cry C 1784
ascryed pa shouted, made an outcry G 1153; cried abuse on Pa 195
asent n concord, harmony Pe 94; in ~ in step, in tandem C 788; in sobre ~ in seriousness and without discord Pe 391; set in ~ agreed on Pa 177
aske v (pres 2&3s askes, pl asken; pa asked) ask(s) (for) Pe 316+; asked from G 393; demanded C 1742, demands, claims C 2, G 530; as … askes as is proper to G 1327, as ho ~ as she requires, as is proper for her C 1127
askes n pl ashes C 626, 736, 1010, 1048, 1292, Pa 380, G 2
askyng vn request, demand G 323, 349
aslypped pa ppl was … ~ had got away Pa 218
asperly adv keenly, bitterly Pa 373
aspye v espy, descry Pe 1035; see, find out G 1199; pa ppl aspyed, aspyet descried, noticed Pe 704, 979; cf. spye
assaut n assault, armed attack G 1, 2525
assemble n union, marriage Pe 760; v assemble C 1364, pa assembled C 1769; cf. semble
assyse n manner, style Pe 97; practice, tradition C 844; in a good ~ in proper form C 639
astate n social status, condition in life Pe 393, 490
astel pa stole from, escaped C 1524; cf. stele (3)

astray adv start … ~ set off, strike/struck out Pe 1162, G 1716*
asuagen v assuage, soothe Pa 3
asure n (the colour of) lapis lazuli, enamel made of powdered lapis lazuli C 1411, 1457
asyngnes pres assigns G 1971
athel adj (of persons) noble C 207, 329, 761, 1314, G 241, great C 258, 411, G 5, 904, 2466; (of things) princely, fine, magnificent C 940, 1276, 1443, 1451, G 171, 1654
atount adj stunned, dazed (as from a blow) Pe 179*
a-traverce adv across the surface C 1473; turning to the side G 1700*
atteny subj attain; to … ~ come to, arrive at Pe 548
attle v intend, plan G 27; pa and pa ppl attled aimed G 2263; ordained C 207
attlyng n intentions C 688
atwappe v whirl past, escape from C 1205*; pa atwaped G 1167*

Augoste n (the month of) August Pe 39
aumayl n enamel G 236; cf. enaumayld
auncian n and adj (of persons) of considerable age, revered as senior in years and status G 948*, 1001, 2463
auncesteres n gen ancestor’s C 258
aunter, aventure n remarkable incident G 27, 29, chivalric adventure G 250, 489, 2482*, 2522; pl aunteres, aventures events C 1600, dramatic events, chivalric adventures G 95, 491, 2527; on aunter at risk, in jeopardy Pa 242; is gon … in aventure has gone on an adventure into unfamiliar terrain Pe 64*; cf. aventurus
auntered pa adventured, risked G 1516
auter n altar C 10, G 593; table for incense and sacrifice in the Old Testament (prototype of the Christian communion table) C 506, 1276, 1443, 1451, 1477
auwhere adv anywhere C 30
avayed pa ppl informed, instructed Pe 710; made aware, told C 1311
avayment n declaration, testimony C 1358*
aventure see aunter
aventurus adj related to chivalric adventure G 93
avise v devise, contrive G 45,1389; pa avised looked at, observed G 771; pa ppl was avised was minded, intended C 1365*
avow v vow Pa 333; avouch C 664
avowes n pl avows, promises Pa 165
avoy inter fie! for shame! C 863
avyled pa and pa ppl made base, degraded C 1713; treated with irreverence, insulted C 1151; cf. vylen
avysyoun n dream-vision Pe 1184*
away(e) adv away Pe 655, 823, G 1718, 2119; out of the right way, off course Pe 488; on one’s way C 647*; gone Pe 258, C 1241, Pa 480, 499
awayled pa was of avail C 408; cf. vayles
awelich adj awesome, grim G 136; cf. awles and awly
awharf pa (remained) turned away G 2220
awhyle adv for a time Pe 692
awles adj unawed, unafraid G 2335; cf. awelich
awly adv dreadfully, horribly C 874, 937
ayain adv (variant of agayn) back (again) C 665, G 815, 1459, 1715, 1728, 2121, 2400, in return G 1478, 1981, 2325; prep against G 2116
ayaynes prep (variant of agayn(e)s) against G 1661
aye adv always Pe 33+; all the while Pe 101+, consistently C 117, 276, 337, G 562; everywhere Pe 44, C 1472, G 167, 190; in all things Pe 366, in all cases G 128, 893
ayled pa was the matter with, was wrong with G 438
ayre (1) n heir, successor C 52, 650, 666, 1709
ayre (2) n air C 1010
ayther adj and pron either, each Pe 831, Pa 450, C 795, G 1356, 1357, 2180; ~ other each other C 338, 705, G 841, 1307, 2472; ~ … other each … the other G 939
aywhere adv everywhere C 228+, anywhere C 1608, all over G 599
baboynes n pl grotesque animal forms (as decorative motifs) C 1409
bacheleres n pl knights C 86, Pa 366*
badde adj bad, wrongful C 1228
baft adv abaft, from behind Pa 148
bagges n pl bags, packs Pa 158
bak n back C 155+; bakbon G 1352 backbone; pl bakes backs G 1563
baken pa ppl baked G 891
baldly adv boldly Pa 441, G 376, 1362; cf bold(e)

bale n torment, anguish Pe 18, 373, 478, 651, 1139, C 980, 1256; hardship Pa 276; suffering, misery G 2419; harm G 2041; infliction of harm C 276; ~ wroghte did evil, committed sin Pa 510; pl bales evils, ills, griefs Pe 123, 807
baleful adj bent on mischief, disposed to evil C 979
bale-hunger n dire hunger C 1243
baleless adj free from evil, innocent Pa 227
bale-stour n grim struggle (= death throes) Pa 426*
balteres pres stumbles about Pa 459; pres ppl balterande stumbling, blundering about C 103
balwe adj swelling, rounded G 967*, 2032, 2172
baner n banner; pennant (hanging from trumpet) G 117; pl baneres C 1404
banne (1) n (summons by) proclamation C 95, 1361
banne (2) v fortify C 620*; pa banned cursed C 468, put a curse on C 885
banteles n pl shelves of masonry projecting from the main wall: (at the foot) steps Pe 992*; (at the summit) parapets C 1459*
baptem n baptism Pe 627, 653
baptysed pa conducted baptisms Pe 818
barayne adj (of females) not having borne young C 659, G 1320
barbe n curving edge G 2310; pl barbes barbs (of arrows) G 1457
bare adj bare; naked Pa 374, C 1254, G 955, 961, 1741, 2256, 2310; unsheathed C 1246; uncovered (with leaves G 746, 2077; with water C 452), unopaque Pe 1025; unarmed G 277, 290; as intensifier to the ~ erthe right to the ground C 1693; as n the ~ the bare flesh C 791; adv plainly G 465*; as ~ quite clearly Pe 836; ~ two/thre only two/three C 1573, G 1066, 2352, precisely three G 1141*
bared pa ppl laid bare, revealed C 1149
bare-heved adj bare-headed C 633
barely adv absolutely G 548
barers n pl security barriers at the approach to an entrance gate C 1239, 1263
baret n combat, battle G 21, 353, 2115; strife, distress G 752
barme n breast, bosom Pa 510
barn n child Pe 426, C 378, 1085; son C 1333, 1709; pl barnes children Pe 712, 1040, C 329, 502, 1248, Pa 510
barnage n youth C 517*
baronage n body of barons, peers of a realm C 1424
baroun n member of the nobility (holding land in return for military service) ranking above a knight C 1372, 1640; pl barouns magnates, noblemen C 82, 1398, 1706, 1715, 1796
barred pa ppl provided with ornamental bars or stripes of precious metal G 159*, 600
barres n pl bars C 884, 963, Pa 321; ornamental bars of precious metal G 162
base n constituent part of a foundation Pe 1000; pl bases bases C 1278, 1480*
bassyn n basin (used at table or in church) C 1145; pl bassynes C 1178, 1456*
basteles gen of a bastel (= turret projecting from wall or tower) C 1187*; bastel-roves turret-rooves G 799
basyng vn base Pe 992
batayl n battle, combat G 277
bate n (shortened form of debate) combat, conflict G 1461
batede pa abated C 440; cf. abate
batelment (C 1459), abataylment (G 790) n crenellation, battlements
batered pa pounded C 1416
bathes imp pl immerse Pa 211; pa and pa ppl bathed soaked C 1248, G 1361
bauderyk n baldric, shoulder strap G 621, 2486, 2516
bawelyne n bowline C 417, Pa 104
bawemen n pl archers G 1564
bay n act of cornering a hunted animal, position of an animal so cornered G 1450, 1564, 1582
bayen pres pl (pa bayed) barked G 1142, howl(ed) or bay(ed) to proclaim capture of G 1362, 1603, 1909
bayle n (area within) the outer wall of a castle; precincts of a court or castle community Pe 315, 1083; bayly domain, authority Pe 442

Bayard proper n (popular name for a) horse C 886
bayn adj ready, willing, obedient Pe 807, Pa 136, G 1092, 2158; adv readily, promptly C 1511
baysment n abashment, confusion, disorientation Pe 174
bayst see abayst
baytayled pa ppl furnished with battlements (for defence) C 1183
baythe(n) v grant G 327, consent to G 1840; pres pl baythen consent, agree G 1404
be pres 2pl (of ‘be’) are Pe 290, G 2440, will be G 814, 2111; subj s or pl be, can/might/may/should be Pe 379+; imp be C 1061+; cf. ben
beau adj good, fair Pe 197; ~ sir good sir, fair sir C 1622*, G 1222*
beaute n beauty Pe 749, 765, G 1273
becom v become C 1128, G 1279; pres becomes is becoming or appropriate (to) G 471, 1491; pa becom (Pe 537), pl become (G 6) became; went G 440
bed n bed C 1765+, dat bedde C 834, G 1179, 1191, 1469, 1990, 2006; bedside G 1193
bede(n) (1) see bid(de)

bede (2) v offer C 1640; proffer G 374, 382; imp bede give C 1507, Pa 426, G 2322; pa bede committed C 1246; offered G 1824, 1834, 1860, 2248; gave G 2352; pa ppl boden tendered (a request), asked for G 327
befalle v befall, happen Pe 186, G 1776; pres befalles G 382*; pa befell came about C 1529; pa ppl is befallen has happened C 1563, 1629
before conj before Pe 530; prep in front of Pe 49+; in or into the presence of C 1274&, G 347&; before G 1674; in preference to G 1275, more than G 1781; adv in front G 422, ahead Pe 1110, higher up C 114; at the front G 1741, from in front C 918; before that time Pe 172*, C 1152+, beforne G 1577
begynne v (pres 2s begynnes Pe 561, 3s begines, pl begynes; imp begyn; pa began, pl begonne; pa ppl begonne) begin(s), began Pe 547+; starts, started C 1337, Pa 137; starts to react C 280, started to speak C 749; takes up C 359*; is … begonne takes its origin Pe 33
begynner n beginner, originator, source Pe 436
beholde v behold, look (at) Pe 810, C 64, 607, G 232, 1187; pres beholdes sees, looks upon C 1423, looks at C 150, G 250; pa behelde C 452, G 794; pres ppl beholdand looking at C 1544; pa ppl beholden in duty bound G 1547, beholde beholden, obliged G 1842
behoves impers v it is necessary C 554, G 1754; me/thee behoves I/you must Pa 46+, it behoves me to Pa 529; pa behoved was necessary, had to Pa 151, G 1959, him ~ he had to C 398, Pa 465, G 717, 1771, 2040, Yow ~ it would be necessary for you to Pe 928; see also bos (2)

beke n beak C 487
beknowe v confess G 2385; 3s pres beknowes reveals G 2495; pa beknew acknowledged, revealed G 903; owned the truth of C 1327; pa ppl beknowen of confessed G 2391
bekyr n large drinking vessel C 1474
bele v burn, become inflamed Pe 18
bem n beam (of wood), cross Pe 814; ray (of light) C 603, pl bemes G 1819
ben (bene G 141, 677) (a) pa ppl been Pe 252+; had ben (it/I/he) would have been Pe 1194, G 680, 725, 2264; (b) pres pl (indicative or subj) are Pe 572+; will be G 1646; cf. be
bench n bench at meal-table: (up)on/fro (the/this) ~ at/from table C 130&, G 351&
bende (1) n (heraldic) diagonal band G 2506*, 2517
bende (2) pa bent; bende … browes frowned G 305*; pa ppl bent bowed, submitted Pe 1189; curved G 2224; fastened, set Pe 1017; assigned Pe 664; bende brought about G 2115
bene (1) adj fair, goodly Pe 110, Pa 418, G 2475; adv fairly, properly Pe 198, G 2402, 2475
bene (2) see ben
bent (1) n uncultivated field, grassland C 532, 1675, grass Pa 392; field, battlefield, hunting field G 353*, 1465, 2115&, bent-felde 1136*; to bent to the shore G 1599
bent (2) see bende
ber n beer G 129
berd(e) n beard C 1693, G 182, 306, 334, 845, 2228
berdlesse adj beardless C 789, G 780
bere v (pres beres, pl beres, bere(n); subj bere Pe 466; pa bere) bear, bore C 1042, 1273, 1480, G 637, 2151, 2506; suffer, endure Pe 807; carry, carried C 1412, G 265, 1913, 2066, 2261; give/gave birth to Pe 426, C 649; bear (fruit) Pe 1078, 1079, C 1042; wear, wore Pe 746, 756, 854, 856, G 2485, 2529; has Pe 100, 1068, had, possessed G 1819; lif bere(s) has/have life C 333, 1023, G 1229; bere thyself conduct yourself C 582; beres wyttenesse bear witness G 2523; imp pl beres take, convey Pa 211; pres ppl berande carrying C 1405; bere on offered pressingly to G 1860*; I bere the face I turned my steps Pe 67; bere to bore down on Pa 148; bere … on lofte raised C 1273, G 2261; pa ppl born(e), bore born Pe 239+, borne G 1616, 2070
beres n pl bears G 722
berwe n tumulus, barrow G 2172, 2178
beryl n beryl, a clear, crystalline stone Pe 110, 1011, C 554, 1132
beryng vn bearing, demeanour C 1060, 1132
bes pres with future sense will be Pe 611, Pa 333; imp pl be C 904
beseche v beseech Pe 390+, G 341*; pres beseches G 1881; pa bisoght(e) G 96, 1834, 1862, pl bisoghten Pa 375
best (1) n (wild) beast, animal C 288+; pl bestes Pe 886+; gen pl bestene C 1446
best(e) (2) adj and adv best Pa 164, 277, C 1060, G 73^2, 78, 1563, 2021, 2521, highest ranking G 73^1, greatest, of highest quality Pe 863; as n the ~ the best one(s) Pa 437, G 863, the best man G 1645, the chief soldiers C 1242, the chief knights G 550, those of highest status C 114, 135, 1179, 1202, G 1325, those who perform the best G 986, the best course of course of action C 913, G 1216; of the ~ of the best kind, rank or quality C 170, G 38, 880, 1000*, 1145, with the best materials G 889; my blysful ~ my excellent and delighting one Pe 279
bete (1) n the action or sound of beating Pa 302
bete (2) v amend, better; provide a remedy for Pe 757; imp bete mend, refurbish (a fire) C 627; pa ppl bette kindled C 1012, G 1368; cf. bote
betes pres betes on bombards C 1263; pa bete beat C 1292, pl bete(n) flapped Pe 93, beat G 1437; pa ppl beten beaten C 1787; inlaid, studded G 78, 1833, 2028; beten fro driven from Pa 248
bette see bete (2)

beverage n alcoholic drink, liquor C 1433, 1717, G 1112, 1409
beyng pres ppl being, inhering Pe 446
bibbes pres swills, tipples C 1499
bid(de) v bid, order Pa 51, G 344, 1089; pres biddes, pl bidden command(s) Pe 520+, adjures G 370; pa bede, pa ppl bede(n) bade C 130, G 2090, ordered Pe 715+
bide(n) v (pres bides, pl bide(s); pa bod(e), pl biden) (a) abide, experience G 520*; endure, suffer Pe 664, C 32, G 290, 374, 2041; (b) wait Pe 977, Pa 435, await(s) C 622, G 376, 2292, bod to waited for C 467; dwell Pa 318, G 1092, remain in place, stay Pe 399; stayed (there) C 616, 1243; stay stationary C 449; stands G 1585; remains C 604, Pa 293, G 1366; abided, remained Pe 62, C 982, 1030, G 785; was/were situated Pa 343, G 1699; stand, are placed Pe 75; bide at the bay G 1582, bode in his bay G 1564 stand/stood at bay, bides the bay stands his ground G 1450; cf. abide
big(ge) adj sturdy, strong C 1190, 1377, Pa 302, G 554; powerful C 229; forcible C 43; big Pe 102; comp bigger stronger Pe 374, G 2101; super biggest strongest C 276, most powerfully built C 1335
bigge, bigly adv sturdily, strongly C 1183, G 1141, 1584; firmly Pa 321, G 1162
bigges pres builds, founds G 9; pa and pa ppl bigged built, constructed C 1666, Pa 124*; founded, established G 20; pa pl bult settled G 25
bigraven pa ppl engraved all around, be-etched G 216
bigyled pa ppl tricked G 2413, 2416, 2427
bihinde prep behind C 653&; adv behind C 155, at the back G 607, 1350, 1741; from behind C 918; inferior G 1942
bihyght pa and pa ppl promised Pa 29, 408
bikennes pres consigns, hands over C 1296, pl bikennen, pa bikende: kenne(n) (G 2067, 2472), bikennen/bikende to God/Cryst (G 596, 1307, 1982) commend(ed) to God, say/said goodbye
bileved pa stayed, remained C 659*, 1549
birlen pres pl pour out (drink) C 1511; pa ppl birled … to poured out for C 1715
bischop n bishop G 112; gen bischopes high priest’s C 1445*, 1718
biseged pa besieged, laid siege to C 1180
biseme v befit, become Pe 310; pres bisemes beseems, is proper G 1612; suits, befits G 2191; pa bisemed suited, became, looked well on G 622, 2035
biside prep beside G 109, 1657, 2172, by, near G 1030; him ~ right by him Pa 343, by his side G 1083, sideways G 2265; layd him ~ deflected from himself G 1777; adv close by G 1582, 2088
bisides adv at the sides, on either side G 76, 856; in the vicinity G 2164, beside it G 2230
bisoght(e)(n) see beseche
bispeke pa spoke out, expressed an opinion Pa 169
bitaght see biteche
bite v bite G 1598; eat Pe 640; graze C 1675, pres bites C 532, subj bite Pa 392; arouse Pe 355; of … bite lodge in G 1457*, bote on lodged in G 426, 1162; pa bote slashed (with tusks), broke G 1563; bited stung, caused smarting Pa 373; pa ppl biten bitten C 1047, gnawed C 1243
biteche v hand over C 871; pa bitaght commended, committed Pe 1207, C 528
bithenkkes pres bethinks; refl ~ hym … to decides to C 1357; imp bithenk thee ask yourself C 582, consider the matter Pa 495; pa him bithoghte decided C 125
bitidde see bityde
bitte n blade, cutting edge G 212, 426, 2224, 2310
bitter adj bitter C 1022; adv bitterly sharply, severely C 468
bitwene prep among, between Pe 140+; adv here and there, at intervals C 1383, 1463, G 791, 795; thereamong, among them Pe 44, C 951, 1472; in between C 637
bityde v betide, befall Pe 397 (subj C 522, G 1893, 2054, 2195, 2383, 2409); happen Pa 220; pres bitydes C 1804; pa bitidde betided, befell C 1647, G 2522; happened, transpired C 1657, Pa 61
biwyled pa ppl tricked G 2425
biyonde prep on the far side of Pe 141&, G 2200
blak(e) adj dark, black Pe 945, C 221, 747, 1017, G 961, lustreless G 958*; wicked C 1449; as n the ~ the black matter C 1009
blame (1) n criticism; reproach, rebuke Pe 715, C 43, G 1779; guilt, blameworthiness C 260, G 361, 1488, 2500; mark of blame, stigma G 2506
blame (2) v blame Pe 303, G 2368; disparage C 1661*; find fault with C 877; pres thou blames you accuse Pe 275
blande n mixture; in ~ mingled together G 1205; thereamidst C 885; cf. blende (1)

blasfemy n verbal insult or irreverence to God C 1661, 1712
blaste n blast (of wind) G 784; pl blastes blasts (from wind instruments) C 1783, G 1148
blaunner n costly kind of fur G 155*, 573, 856, 1931
ble n colour Pe 76, lustre C 1126, 1759*; skin colour C 791, facial colour, complexion Pe 212
bleaunt n costly silk fabric G 879; over-garment, mantle Pe 163*, G 1928
bleden pres pl bleed G 1163; pa bledde bled G 441
blemyst pa blemished, impaired C 1421
blench n trick, stratagem C 1202
blenched pa shied away, changed direction G 1715
blende (1) pa blended, mingled C 1788; ~ in went into, suffused G 2371; pa pl subj blenden immersed Pa 227; pa ppl blent blended, merged, mingled Pe 385, 1016, G 1361, 1610, blende faced, trimmed G 1931*; cf. blande
blende (2) see blynne
blended pa ppl rendered morally blind G 2419*
blenke v gleam G 2135; pa blenked shone, gleamed G 799
blent see blende (1)

blesse v thyselven ~ bless your fate Pe 341; pres blesses C 528, subj blesse Pe 850; pa blessed blessed C 470, G 1296*; blessed him crossed himself G 2071; pa ppl blessed blessed Pe 436, C 686, 733; consecrated C 1445, 1718
blessyng vn blessing, benediction Pe 1208, G 370
blisse n joy Pe 123+; heavenly bliss Pe 478+; celebration, rejoicing C 1765, G 825; cf. blysful
blo adj of sombre or dull colour Pe 83; dark, livid Pe 875, (of water) C 1017, Pa 134, 138, 221
blod n blood Pe 646+; temperament, spirits G 89*, 286; blood relationship, kinship G 357; race, nation C 686
blodhoundes n pl large hunting-dogs G 1436
blody adj covered with blood Pe 705
blom n excellence Pe 578; pl blomes blooms, flowers Pe 27, C 1042, 1467
blonk(e) n horse, steed G 434, 785, 1581, 2074, 2475; gen ~ sadel horse’s saddle G 2012; pl blonkes C 87, 1392, G 1128, 1693; gen pl blonkene C 1412
blossumes n pl blossoms G 512
blowe (1) v bloom G 512
blowe (2) v blow C 437, Pa 138; pres blowes G 1465; imp pl blowes blow Pa 134; pa blw (blowed G 1913) blew C 885, G 1141, 1362; vn blowyng (act of) blowing G 1601
bluber n bubbling or seething water Pa 221, 266
blubrande pres ppl seething C 1017; pa blubred bubbled, seethed G 2174
blunt adj obtuse, uncomprehending, dazed Pe 176
blusch (1) n look, glance G 520
blusch (2) v look C 904; pres ppl bluschande shining G 1819; pa blusched looked C 980, 988, ~ (up)on cast eyes on, set eyes on Pe 980*, 1083, C 982, G 793, ~ (there)to looked upon/towards (it) C 1537, Pa 343, 474, G 650, ~ ful brode could see far and wide Pa 117
blustered pa strayed without direction C 886
blw see blowe (2)

blykkande pres ppl gleaming, shining G 305, 2485; pa blykked shone C 603, glistened G 429
blyknande pres ppl gleaming, shining C 1467; pa blykned grew pale, faded C 1759*
blynde adj not easily visible, dim Pe 83*; unable to see C 103, 584, 886, 1094, Pa 124
blyndes pres loses brightness C 1126
blynne v cease, come to an end Pe 729, C 440; pres blynnes desists, refrains C 1661; ends C 1812; imp blynne G 2322; pa blende C 967*
blysful adj blissful Pe 409, 738; producing delight (aesthetic, bodily, or emotional), beautiful Pe 907, 964, 1104, C 1075, G 520; my ~ best my excellent and delighting one Pe 279; as n you who enjoy heavenly bliss Pe 421; blessed one Pe 1100; cf. blisse
blysnande pres ppl shining Pe 163, 197, glittering C 1404; pa blysned shone Pe 1048
blythe (1) n favour, good will Pe 354
blythe (2) adj glad, happy Pe 352, C 1706, G 1217, 1398, 2321; complaisant G 1273, gracious, beneficent C 1228; welcome Pa 107; beautiful C 1085, G 155, 162; ~ of glad of Pa 459, G 922; ~ of mod blissful in spirit Pe 738; super blythest most beneficent Pe 1131; as n the ~ the complaisant man G 1213
blythe (3), blythely adv readily, quickly G 1311, 1684; blythely happily, joyfully Pe 385; in a celebratory manner C 82, 1718; comfortably G 1990; beautifully, fairly C 1718; earnestly, eagerly G 1834
bobaunce n vain display, arrogance C 179, insolent ostentation C 1712; splendour, pomp G 9
bode (1) n command, bidding C 979, Pa 56, 75, 134, 852
bode (2) n what is offered, offered object G 1824
bod(e) see bide
boden see bede (2)

bodworde n news, announcement C 473
body n (human) body Pe 62+; material form Pe 1070; person C 32, 260, G 357; of ~ and of dedes in person and behaviour C 1061; pl bodyes persons Pa 387, G 353
bodyly adj bodily, physical Pe 478; in the body Pe 1090
boghe n bough C 616; pl boghes boughs, tree-branches C 1467, G 765, 2077; arms (of a candlestick) C 1481*
boght see bye (2)

boghted part adj curved Pa 449*
boke n book Pe 837, C 197, 966, G 690, 2521; the Book, the Bible Pe 710; pl Brutus bokes books of British history G 2523
boke-lered adj text-skilled, learned C 1551
bold(e) adj bold C 1333&, G 272&; over-bold, shameless Pe 806; fine, excellent C 789, 1372, G 843; bes never so ~ to don’t dare to C 906; as n the bold the fine man C 811, bolde bold men G 21
bolde adv immediately, directly G 2476; cf. baldly
bole n tree-trunk C 622, G 766; pl boles Pe 76
bolkes see bulk
bolle n bowl (vessel used at table or in church) C 1145, 1474; pl bolles C 1511
bolled pa ppl (of ‘bolle’) embossed C 1464
bolne v swell Pe 18; pres pl bolne G 512; pres ppl bolnande swelling, tumid C 179; pa bolned swelled C 363
bon n bone Pe 212; pl bones C 1040, G 424, 1344
bonde adj as n bondsmen C 88
bone n prayer, request Pe 912, 916; gift, favour G 327; bidding, command C 826, Pa 136; what is given or sent, experience Pe 1090*
boner adj (shortened form of debonere) gracious C 733*
bonerte n goodness, benignity Pe 762
bonk(e) n bank of river or moat Pe 1169, G 700, 785; slope bordering water, shore Pe 196*, 907+; slope, incline, hillside Pe 102, C 379, G 710; by ~ over banks G 511; pl bonkes (bonk C 379, Pa 343) banks Pe 106+; hills, hillsides C 379+; bonkes egges tops of the banking hills C 383
bor n boar G 1441, 1448, 1590, 1606; gen bores boar’s G 1616; pl bores boars C 55, G 722
borde (1) n wood C 1190; table C 1433, 1717, G 481; side of a ship Pa 211, bynne ~ inside the ship C 452, 467, up(on) ~ up on deck C 470, Pa 190
borde (2) n (ornamental or embroidered) band G 610*; pl bordes embroidered strips of material G 159, 610*
bore see bere
bores see bor
borges n pl burgesses, citizens Pa 366*
borlych(e) adj burly, stout G 766, 1441*, 2148, 2224; imposing, fine C 1488
born(e) see bere
borne n water course: stream G 731, 1570, gen bornes stream’s Pe 974; (body of) water C 482, Pa 302, G 2174
borst see brestes
bos (1) n manger or stall (for livestock) C 1075*
bos (2) impers v (contracted form of behoves) must Pe 323, G 1216*
bost n ostentatious noise and/or display C 179, 1450; defiance C 1712, threats G 1448
boster n big talker, ‘loud mouth’ C 1499
bot (1) n boat C 473*, Pa 145, 184, 248, 266, 292
bot (2) adv and prep only Pe 17+, merely Pe 83, 269, C 1145, G 30; except for Pe 312+, nothing except, only Pe 382+; conj but Pe 66+, but that Pa 176, other than (to/that) G 763, 2312, except C 1682+; unless Pe 308, 331, 428, 723, 972, G 716, 1210, 1300; ~ if unless C 1110, 1360, Pa 83, G 1956, except that G 1054
bote (1) n remedy Pe 645, Pa 163, solution to a problem Pe 275, C 1616; by ~ as safety requires C 944*; cf. bete (2)

bote (2) see bite
bothe n small constructed shelter Pa 441*
both(e) conj, adj and pron both Pe 90+; adv as well C 11, 187, 1222, G 129, 155, 268, 484
bothom n bottom Pa 184, 449; sea-bottom C 1030, Pa 144, 253, 313; valley-bottom C 383, G 2145, pl bothemes C 450
bothomles adj bottomless C 1022
botouns n pl studs G 220
boun adj prepared, ready Pe 534, G 852, 1311; armed G 2043*; in position Pe 992, 1103; ~ to bound for G 548*
bounden see bynde
bounte n good qualities, excellence C 1436, Pa 418, G 357; pl bountees deeds of prowess G 1519*
bour n bower, dwelling place Pa 276, 437; chamber within a house or mansion Pe 964, C 129, 1075, 1126, G 853, 1519; pl boures small rooms C 322
bourde (1) n jest G 1409; pl bourdes jests, joking words G 1212, 1954
bourde (2) pres pl speak in jest Pe 290; pa bourded joked, spoke jestingly G 1217
bourdyng vn playful or joking talk G 1404
bout(e) prep without C 260, Pa 523, G 361, 1285*, 2353; be ~ go without C 824
bow v (pres bowes) proceed(s), go(es) Pe 196+; pres pl bowen G 2077; imp bow Pe 974, pl bowes C 944; pa bowed made (my, her, his, their) way, directed (my, etc) course Pe 126, C 379&, G 481&, ~ him to went towards him C 1706, ~ thereto went to that place G 1325, ~ him after followed him C 1796*, ~ under went in under Pa 441
bowe v (pa ppl bowed) bow, defer to, acknowledge the authority of C 1746*, obey C 944*, bowe(d) to His bode obey(ed) His command Pa 56, 75
bowel n part of the entrails Pa 293; pl boweles entrails C 1251, G 1333, 1609
boy n commoner, ‘nobody’ C 878; pl boyes ruffians Pe 806
boyles pres seethes, boils C 1011; pa and pa ppl boyled boiled G 2174; bubbled, seethed G 2082
braches see rach
brad pa ppl grilled, roasted G 891; cf. bredes
brad(e) see brod(e)

bradde see brede (4)

braken n bracken, ferns C 1675
brakes pres vomits Pa 340; cf. brych
brasse n brass C 1271, 1443, 1480; brass instruments (bugles, trumpets, etc) C 1783
braste see brestes
brath n violent impetus Pe 1170; force, power C 916; pl brathes (inner) storms, violent feelings Pe 346*
braunch(e) n spray or branch of a tree C 487, G 265, 2177; pl braunches C 1464, 1482
braundysch subj (of an animal) toss with head or limbs, thrash about Pe 346*
brawne n meaty tissue (especially of a boar) G 1611, 1631
bray subj (of an animal) cry, bellow, roar Pe 346*; pres pl brayen bray G 1163
brayd (1) n sudden movement or speech, outburst C 1507; at a ~ in one sudden movement, instantly C 539
brayd(e) (2) see braydes
brayden pa ppl intertwined, interlinked G 580*; decoratively inset G 1833, 2319; wrought, (ornamentally) fashioned G 177*, 220, ~ of gold wrought out of gold C 1481; braydene perles interlinked pearls or pearls used to embroider cloth C 1132
braydes pres takes hold of G 621; ~ out draws out G 1609, (a sword) G 1584, 1901, 2319; pa brayd(e), pl brayden drew, pulled, turned G 440, 1339; sprang, dashed, spurted G 429; presented Pe 712*, handed G 2377; out of my dreme me brayd roused me from my dream Pe 1170; brayde ner wod went nearly mad C 1558*; pa ppl brayde drawn G 781*, 2069
brayn (1) n brain(s) C 1248, 1421, 1788; mind G 89; pl braynes brains, thoughts, mind Pe 126
brayn (2) adj furious, berserk G 286*
braynwod adj frenzied, berserk G 1461, 1580
bred n bread Pe 1209, C 620, 636, 1105, G 1361, 1610; pastry G 891
bredde, bredden see brede (3)

brede (1) n board, plank Pa 184; pl bredes G 2071
brede (2) n breadth Pe 1031, C 316, Pa 353
brede (3) v grow, be in bloom Pe 415*; pres ppl bredande growing C 1482; pa bredde begot, brought forth C 257; pa pl bredden were bred G 21
brede (4) v spread, stretch Pe 814; pa bradde to stretched to, reached G 1928; ibrad overspread C 1693
bredes n pl roasted meats C 1405; cf. brad
brek pa broke C 1105; breached, broke into C 1239, G 1333; was uttered G 1764; pa pl breken G 1564; broke into foam G 2082
brem(e) adj fierce, keen Pe 346, C 229, G 1580; angry Pa 430; vigorous, sturdy G 1155, 1601; intense Pe 863, G 2200, unrestrained G 1142; large G 2145; adv firmly G 781*
bremly, bremlyche adv keenly, intensely, vigorously C 509, G 509; fiercely G 1598, 1909, 2233, 2319; at once, directly G 779
brenne v burn Pa 472; pres brennes burns C 916; cooks G 1609; pres ppl brennande burning C 1012; pa brenned burned C 509, Pa 477, G 832, 875, brent glowed Pe 106, brend … in askes burned to ashes C 1292; pa ppl brent (G 2), brenned (C 959) burnt, brende gold gold refined by fire, pure gold Pe 989, C 1456, 1488, G 195
brent adj steep G 2165; super brentest C 379
brere-flour n flower of the dog rose (a species of wild rose) C 791*
breres n pl thistly plants, briars C 1694
bresed pa bristled C 1694*; pa ppl bristly, bushy G 305
brest (1) n breast, chest Pe 18+
brest (2) n infliction of injury C 229
brestes pres s and pl burst(s) C 1783, ~ up throws open C 1263; pa borst burst C 1251; braste broke Pa 148, ~ up broke open C 963; pa pl bursten split Pa 221; pa ppl brusten crashed apart G 1166
breth n breath C 916, air in motion, wind C 967, Pa 107, 145; fume C 509; pl brethes winds Pa 138
breve v say, tell G 1393, pres pl 1488, imp breve Pe 755; pa ppl breved written G 2521, recorded C 197; spoken of, referred to G 465; announced (by baying) G 1436
breythed pa breathed, rose as vapour C 1421*
brittenes pres cuts, chops G 1611; pa brittened broke into, cut open G 1339; pa ppl brittened broken apart, shattered G 2; (of human body) hacked G 680*
brod(e), (brade Pe 138) adj broad, wide Pe 650+; extensive C 603, G 14, spacious C 129, 1377; easily visible, plain C 584; many a ~ day many a long day C 659; ~ yates large main gates or gateway C 854, G 2069; adv broadly, widely C 1392, Pa 117, 472, G 2233; with eyes wide open G 446
broght(e) see brynge
brok n brook, stream Pe 141, 146, G 2200, gen brokes stream’s Pe 1074, pl brokes G 2082; water Pa 145
brom n (the plant) broom Pa 392*
bronde n sword C 1246, G 561, 588, 828, 1584, 1901, 2032, 2041
brondes n pl wood for burning C 1012; bits of burning or charred wood G 2
brothe adj (cf. brath n) fierce, savage C 1409, G 1909, 2233; angry C 149
brothely adv roughly C 1256; angrily G 2377; suddenly, quickly Pa 474; fully C 1030
brothelyche adj unmoderated, loud C 848
brother n kinsman C 772*; pl brether companion members G 39
brotherhede n brotherhood G 2516
broun adj dark Pe 537, G 879; (of metals, etc) shining Pe 990, G 426, 618; as n the ~ the brown deer-hides G 1162
browe n brow G 1457, 2306; pl browes eyebrows C 1694, G 305, 961
bruny n byrnie, coat of mail G 580*, 861, 2012, 2018
brurdes n pl surfaces C 1474
brurdful adj filled to the brink C 383
brusten see brestes
bruxles pres speaks shamingly to, reproaches Pa 345*
brych n vomit C 848*; cf. brakes
bryd n bride Pe 769
brydale n wedding feast C 142
bryddes n pl birds Pe 93, C 288, 1482, G 166, 509, 610, 746
brydel n bridle G 177, 434, 600, 2052; pl brydeles G 1131
brygge n bridge, drawbridge C 1187, G 781, 821, 2069; ~ ende point where the drawbridge comes down when lowered G 779
bryght(e) adj and adv bright(ly), vivid, beautiful Pe 75+; as n fair one Pe 755 (in address), that ~ that fair creature C 470; comp bryghter brighter Pe 1056, C 1132, G 236; super bryghtest most beautiful G 1283, most splendidly C 114
brym(me) n water’s edge Pe 232, G 2172; shore, bank Pe 1074, C 365
bryng(e) v bring Pe 853+; pres 2s (C 1633) and 3s (C 811, G 1112) brynges; imp bryng Pe 963, C 473, 1433, Pa 426, G 2284, pl brynges C 82; subj bryng Pa 75, G 2530; pa and pa ppl broght(e) Pe 286+, pa pl broghten brought C 86, 1375, G 862; conduct(ed), escort(ed) G 825, 853, 1990
brynkes n pl brinks, upper edges C 384
buffet n blow C 43, 885*, G 382, 1754, 2343; pl buffetes Pe 808
bukkes n pl bucks, male fallow deer C 392, G 1155*
bulde see bylde
bulk n enclosed area; ~ of the bot the ship’s hold Pa 292; pl bolkes stalls C 322*
bull n bull C 1682, pl bulles C 55, 392, G 722
bur n force of wind Pa 148; forceful assault, forceful blow(s) Pe 176, 1158, G 548, 2322; force, power G 2261; (a)bide(n) the ~ to stand or accept the blow or shock G 290, 374, (of misfortune or unwelcome visitations) C 32, Pa 7
burde (1) n well-born woman, lady C 378&, G 613, 961, 1003, 1010, 1779, 1846, (= Mary) 752; pl burdes C 80&
burde (2) pa of impers v it behoved; would be bound to Pa 507; me ~ be I should be G 2278, 2428; ~ him be he should have been Pa 117; subj thee ~ it would have been fitting for you to Pe 316
burgh n ‘borough’, city Pe 957&, C 834&, Pa 366, 387, 516, G 2, 9; (fortified) dwelling place, castle estate C 45, 63, 82, G 259&; in uch a ~ everywhere C 1061
burn(e) n man Pe 397+, (in address) C 142, G 1071, 2284, 2322, gen burnes man’s G 1616, pl burnes Pe 712+; servant C 616
burnist pa ppl rubbed clean so as to shine, polished Pe 77, 990, C 554, 1085, G 212, 582; given a shine by the addition of bright metals or stones Pe 220*
bursten see brestes
burthen n burden, load C 1439
busch (1) n act of striking, impact C 1416*
busch (2) v push, press; ~ up ful brode flare up (to shine) most widely Pa 472; pa busched fell sharply Pa 143
busied see busy
busily adv earnestly G 68, 1824; zealously C 1446
busk n bush G 182; pl buskes G 1437
buske v ~ me array myself G 1220; pres buskes prepares, proceeds G 2476, ~ him addresses himself C 633; pres pl busken set or apply themselves G 509, ~ up get up G 1128*, buskes make their way G 1448; imp busk put up (resistance) G 2248, proceed G 2284, dispose, put C 351, ~ thee obtain for yourself C 333; pa and pa ppl busked prepared, arranged Pa 437, G 1693, dressed C 142, ~ to bed went to bed C 834; buskes/busked bylive takes/took (his) way promptly G 1136, 1411; busked to sete set in his seat C 1395
busmare n scorn C 653
bustwys adj rough, harsh Pe 814; coarse, unpolished Pe 911
busy (1) n bustle, stir Pa 157
busy (2) v bestir or exert oneself G 1066; pres busyes thee aboute you anxiously preoccupy yourself with Pe 268; pa busied agitated, set into motion G 89
busyly adv earnestly G 1824
busynes n solicitude, diligence G 1840, 1986
by prep by Pe 140+; beside Pe 141+; close to Pe 1148, Pa 248, G 740, 1574, 1697; among Pa 254; in G 1698; along Pe 152, C 1424 G 1650, along the length of G 2224; in line with G 2310; at the hands of C 1426; across, over C 1474; adv by C 985; ~ that thereupon G 2152, by that time C 1211, 1687, G 597, 1869; conj ~ (that) (~ that that G 1137) by the time that C 397, 967, Pa 468, G 443, 928, 1169, 1321, 1365, 1412, once, when C 397, G 1106, 1678, 1912, 2032, 2043
bycalle v call on, conjure Pe 913; pa ppl bycalt ?called, summoned Pe 1163*
bydene adv completely, quite Pe 196
bye (1) n circlet: ring Pe 466, necklet C 1638
bye (2) v buy, purchase Pe 478, G 79; pa and pa ppl boght purchased Pe 733, C 67, redeemed Pe 651, 893; bye/boght him buy/bought for himself Pe 732, C 63
byggyng n building, estate, residence Pe 932, C 378, 811; pl byggynges houses, structures Pe 935
bygly adj ideal to inhabit, splendid Pe 963*
bylde (1) n building, edifice, mansion Pe 727, 963
bylde (2) v construct dwellings G 509; pa bult built, made (their) homes G 25; pa ppl bulde built, constructed C 1190, 1392; bylded formed (a dwelling place) Pa 276
bylde (3) pa pl strengthened, increased Pe 123*
bylive adv without delay Pa 71+; soon, quickly C 180+; as ~ at once C 1239
bynde (1) n climbing plant, ivy Pa 444*
bynde (2) v bind G 1211; pres byndes encloses Pa 318; imp pl byndes bind C 155; pa and pa ppl bounden bound G 192, fastened Pe 1103, G 2486, ~ to fastened round Pa 374, inset, sewn Pe 198, G 573, 600, 609, 2028, wel ~ well secured C 322
bynne prep within C 452, 467
byrth n birth G 922
byrth-whates n pl birth-fortunes; as her ~ in the order of their births decreed by fortune Pe 1041*
bysulpes pres pollutes, defiles C 575; cf. sulpen
byswykes pres betray, defraud Pe 568*
bythenk thee imp consider, ask yourself C 582
bytoknyng vn betokening, representation G 626
bytwyste prep betwixt, between Pe 464
cach(e) v seize, get hold of C 898, 1252, 1514; take G 133; go, take (my) way G 1794; pres caches takes, takes hold of G 368, 434, 1305; kicks forward (a horse) G 2175; pres pl cachen drive C 16, caches start, begin C 1541, ye cache you get G 1938; pres ppl cachande driving, urging on G 1581; pa and pa ppl cached seized C 1800, at … ~ adopted from C 1619, ~ to went to C 629; see also caght
caggen pres pl fasten, tie up Pe 512; pa ppl cagged bound, tied up C 1254
caght pa and pa ppl (of cach(e)) (pa pl caght(en)) came/come by, received G 643, 1011, 2508; adopted C 1426; seized C 1789; taken, captured C 1215, 1296, 1612, G 1225; fastened, bound C 1254; to me ~ laid hold of me Pe 50; ~ to laid hold of G 2376; ~ of took off Pe 237; ~ away carried off C 1275; ~ up lifted up G 1185; ~ fro me taken from me Pa 485; caghten her leve took their leave G 1118
cal n call, summons C 61
calde, calden see calle
calle v (pres calles, pl calle(n), calles; pa calde, called, pl called, calde(n); pa ppl called) call(s), called Pe 173+; named C 258, term(s), termed C 8+; declared to be C 1119; addresses by (name) G 937; cry G 1421, 2212; cries out C 1345, Pa 411, 481; invited C 162; summon(s), summoned C 948, imp 1562, G 1376, 1666; proclaim C 1564 (imp); call out for, implore C 1522; upon calles calls to C 1427; calles/called on cries/cried out to C 1097, G 1743; of … (on) … calles request(s), call(s) on to grant G 975, 1882
callyng vn summons C 1362
calsydoyne n chalcedony Pe 1003; pl calsydoynes C 1471
cambe n comb worn as headdress; a comly anunder ~ a fair one beneath comb (= woman) Pe 775*; cf. cemmed
candelstik n stand for lamps C 1275*, 1478, 1532
capados n garment covering head, neck and shoulders G 186*, 572
caple n horse G 2175; pl capeles C 1254
captyvide n taking of captives C 1612
caraldes n pl casks Pa 159
carande pres ppl ~ for anxious or worried about G 674, 750; pa cared for was concerned about G 1773
carayne n carrion C 459
care n care, sorrow, distress Pe 50+; anxiety G 2379; hardship Pa 264, G 1518, 2384, 2495; pl cares cares, sorrows Pe 808, Pa 305, G 1255
careful adj full of care Pa 314; unhappy, sorrowful C 770
carf see kerve
carfully adv with pain or distress C 1679, horribly C 1252
carle n peasant C 208; (as term of abuse) C 876
carneles n pl crenellations, battlements C 1382, G 801
caroles n pl ring dances performed to sung words G 43, 473*, 1026, 1655, 1886
carp n word, utterance Pa 415, talk G 704, 1013; discourse C 23; words (of a song, speech, etc) Pe 883, Pa 118; teachings C 1327, Pa 519
carp(e) v say, talk, speak Pe 381, 949, G 360, 1221, 1225; pres carpes C 74, G 1979; herde carpe heard tell G 263; carpe with speak to G 696; carpes/carped to addresses, addressed C 1591, G 377, 1088; of carped discussed Pe 752
carpyng vn speech, utterance C 1550
case n matter Pe 673; affair, business G 546; deed, action G 1196; event Pa 265; chance G 907; (verbal) point, proposition G 1262
cast (1) n purpose, plan Pe 1163; situation, plight G 2298; stratagem G 2413, devised means C 1070, fastening G 2376*; ~ of his iye direction of his gaze C 768; pl castes utterances, words G 1295
cast(e) (2) v (pres castes; pa and pa ppl cast(e), kest, pa pl cast(en), kesten) cast(s) Pe 1122+; cast out Pe 1198; cast off, cast aside C 1515, cast away Pe 861; cast overboard Pa 154, 157, jettisoned Pa 415; lunges G 1901; threw down G 2001; set, put, placed Pe 66, C 1744, G 878, 1649, 2317; created G 2242, made G 2275; drew, set G 2317; uttered C 1712, G 2275, speak G 249*; cast about in one’s mind, work out how (to) C 1455; took thought, deliberated G 1855; ~ up lifted up G 1192, heaped up C 951; (up) ~ (of sound) raised C 1574, G 64; out ~ cast out C 1679, ~ … of cast out of G 1484; ~ upon washed up on C 460; of kest took off G 1147
castel n castle G 767, 801, 1366, 2067; in ~ walle enclosed by a castle wall Pe 917; pl casteles castles C 1458
catel n property, goods C 1296
cavelacioun n cavilling, quibbling G 2275
cavelouns n pl arguments, objections G 683*
caytif(fe) adj wretched, wicked C 1426; evil C 1605
cemmed pa ppl combed G 188; cf. cambe
chace (1) n hunt G 1604
chace (2) v chase, drive out Pe 443, hunt G 1416
chaffer n goods, merchandise G 1647, 1939
chamber n private or smaller room (as opposed to the public halle) of a castle C 1586, G 48, 833, 850, 978, 1030, 1402, 1666, 1989, 2010; bridal chamber and/or the department of a lord’s household which deals with his personal and confidential affairs Pe 904*; ~ dor G 1742; pl chambres G 48
chamberlayn n servant to assist with dressing, etc, in the bedroom G 1310, 2011*
chapel(le) n chapel G 63, 712, 1857, 1876, 2107, 2132, 2147, 2169, 2195, 2496; pl chapeles G 930; the Grene Chapel G 451, 454, 705, 1058, 1070, 1674, 1753, 1967, 2186, 3299, Chapel Grene 2103
chaplayn n chaplain G 2107; pl chaplaynes G 930
charde see charre
charge (1) n importance, significance; of … no ~ no matter for G 1940
charge (2) v put on, wear G 863*; impose a task on G 451; pa charged instructed, commanded C 464; pa ppl charged(e) burdened C 1258; heavy C 1154; loaded C 1295, charged with the lyght carrying its load of illumination C 1272
chargeaunt part adj burdensome, exacting G 1604
chariotes n pl chariots (used in ancient warfare) C 1295
charre v turn, come G 1678; pres charres turns, leads G 1030*; pa charde changed direction Pe 608; charred led aside G 850*, turned the course of, redirected G 1143
charres n pl tasks, business G 1674
charyte n charity Pe 470, G 2055
chaste v correct, reform C 860
chastysed pa punished C 543; (of animals) trained, corrected G 1143
chaufen v warm C 128; cf. achaufed
chaunce n chance C 1125, 1129, G 1406, 2103, lot C 1154; event, occurrence C 1588, G 2132; chivalric adventure G 1081, 1838, 2399, 2496; good ~ good fortune G 2068, 2103
chauncely adv by chance G 778
chaundeler n chandelier, lampstand C 1272
chaunge v change G 711, 863, exchange G 1406, 1678, imp 1107; pres ppl chaungande alarming C 1588; pa and pa ppl chaunged transformed C 1258; shifted G 2169; became disturbed C 713, showed distress Pa 368*
chaunsel n chancel G 946
chawles n pl jaws Pa 268
chayer(e) n chair, seat G 875; throne Pe 885, C 1218, Pa 378
chef n leader C 1238; adj chief, principal G 1512, 1604; great, preeminent C 1272; greatest C 684; ~ halle great hall, banqueting room C 1588; ~ quene official queen C 1586; ~ gate main path, direct way G 778
chefly adv first of all, as a priority G 1876, in particular G 850, 883, 978; quickly G 1940
cheftayn n chieftain, lord, ruler Pe 605, C 464, 1295
chek (1) n booty, gain G 1107*; pl chekkes contests, assaults C 1238
chek (2) n doom G 1857; evil, disaster G 2195
cheke n cheek G 1204; pl chekes cheeks Pa 54, G 953; cheekbones C 1694
chepe n cost, price G 1940; pl good chepes a good bargain, a low price G 1939
chepen v go into the market to buy G 1271*
chere n demeanour, behaviour Pe 407, G 2496; bele ~ gracious manners G 1034*; state of mind G 883*; expression Pe 887, 1109, C 139, G 334; face, complexion C 1539; countenance Pa 368; direction of gaze G 711*, 2169; friendly behaviour C 128, with ~ with good will in face and bearing G 1745, with a wale ~ showing much good will G 1759, made … good ~ gave a warm welcome G 1259*, made good ~ looked cheerful, behaved cheerfully C 641, G 562
cherisch v (pres pl cherysen, pa cherisched) hold dear, value C 1154; show favour to C 128, G 946*, take/took under one’s patronage, extend(ed) favour and/or patronage to C 543, 1644, G 2055*
chese see chose
chevalrous adj active in knightly combat G 2399
chevalry n body of knights, cavalry C 1238; state or practice of knighthood G 1512
cheve v (pres cheves; pa cheved, pa ppl cheved(e)) achieved G 1390, acquire G 1271; cheve(d) to get to, reach(ed) G 63, 1674; he cheves that chaunce it befalls him G 2103, subj if hit cheve the chaunce if it should come about that C 1125
chevisaunce n acquisition, gains G 1390, 1406, 1678; purchase G 1939
childe n child G 647; pl childer children Pe 714, 718, Pa 388, 391; adolescents G 280; sons C 1300; gen pl childeryn of children C 684
child-gered part adj with a child’s ways G 86*
chorle n one not of gentle birth G 2107; pl chorles bondmen, menials C 1258; (as a term of abuse) ‘peasants’ C 1583
chose v (pres choses) choose(s) G 863, 1271, 1310, 1512; choose a path, make one’s way G 2132*, imp G 451, choses he the waye makes his way G 1876; pa chos, chese chose Pe 759, 954; discerned, perceived Pe 187, G 798; made (her) way G 946; pa pl chosen the gate made their way G 930; pa ppl chosen (C 684), ichose (Pe 904) selected; chosen chosen G 1275, entered upon G 1838, ~ to made his way to G 778
chyde v speak out in anger Pe 403, C 1586
chymne n fireplace G 875, 978*, 1030, 1402, 1667; pl chymnees chimney stacks G 798
chyn n chin G 958, 1204; pl chynnes C 789
chysly adv choicely, especially C 543
chyst n (variant of kyste) chest C 464*
clad see clethe
clambe see clym
clamberande pres ppl clustering, crowded together G 1722; pa ppl clambred clustered, crowded G 801*
clanly(che) adv elegantly, properly Pe 2; in proper form, decorously C 1621*; with cleanliness, without impurity C 1089; fully G 393, without impurity or omission C 264, perfectly C 310, unreservedly C 1327; cf. clene
clannes(se) n cleanness, purity C 1, 12, 26, 1087, 1809, Pa 32; chastity G 653
claryoun n a thin-tubed trumpet with clear, shrill notes (often used on the battlefield) attributive C 1210
clater v crash down C 912; pres pl clater clatter, bang C 839; pres ppl claterande clattering G 731; pa clatered clattered G 2201; resounded C 972*; pa ppl clatered fallen noisily, crashed down G 1722
clatering vn (the sound of) clattering, clanging C 1515
clawres n pl claws, talons C 1696
clay n soil C 1034, 1547; plastered wall C 1618; caulking material C 312, 346, clay-daubed caulked C 492
clayme v claim G 1490; pa claymed cried out for, clamoured for C 1097
cleches pres ~ to grabs C 1348, snatches up C 634; pres pl cleche obtain C 12; pa and pa ppl cleght clasped, locked, fastened C 858, 1655
clef see cleve
clem v assume responsibility for Pe 826
clene (1) adj clean C 165+, flawless, pure Pe 227+, 289; clear C 792, 1119; morally blameless G 1013, clean of sin Pe 682+; ceremonially clean by Judaic rules C 334, 508; exact C 1731*; fashioned with elegant exactness C 1057, 1288, 1458, G 158, 163, consummately comely or graceful G 154; elegantly accoutred C 119*
clene (2) adv purely, flawlessly Pe 754, 767, G 576; clearly, plainly Pe 949, C 1606; completely G 1298, 2391; neatly C 175, G 792, with elegant exactness, perfectly C 165, 1382, 1455, G 146; so as to be clean G 2017, (of sin) G 2391, 2393; comp clener purer, more chaste C 1072*; more perfectly C 1100; cf. clanly
clenges pres shrinks G 505*; lies on the ground C 1034, G 2078, pa clenged G 1694; pl subj clynge shrivel, waste away Pe 857
clente pa ppl (of ‘clench’) locked, enclosed Pe 259
clepes pres calls G 1310; ~ after cries out for, begs C 1345*; pa and pa ppl cleped called Pa 132, 305
cler(e) (1) adj clear Pe 1011, G 727, 1747 and/or pure Pe 207+, bright Pe 2+; radiant, beautiful C 1400, G 942, 1181, 2351; beautiful G 1831, 2026 and/or plain C 26; (of sound) loud, distinct C 1210; whole Pa 395; as n clearness Pe 1050; beautiful one, fair lady G 1489; all our ~ strenthe all our full strength Pa 395; comp clerer clearer C 1128; plainer C 1056
cler(e) (2) adv absolutely, without qualification Pe 274; clearly Pe 882, C 1618, Pa 357, unobscured G 1696; plainly Pe 913
clerest super adj and adv most clear(ly), most bright(ly) C 1532
clergye n learning, erudition C 1570*, G 2447
clerk n learned man, scholar G 2450; pl clerkes clerics C 1266, G 64, scholars C 193, 1562, 1575, 1579, 1583, 1631; learned men Pe 1091
clernes n lustre, beauty C 1353
clethe v clothe, apparel C 1741; pa and pa ppl clad clothed G 2015, covered Pe 22, G 885
cleve v split G 2201; pa clef split, clove C 367; pa pl cleven cleaved, were split Pe 66*, cloven split apart C 965
cliched pa clasped, held close C 1692
clomben see clym
clos (1) n enclosure, enclosed area C 1088, walled building C 839
clos (2) adv closely, tightly, securely C 858, 1655
clos (3) see close
close v enclose Pe 271, set Pe 2; close together C 1541; pres closes closes G 1742; encloses G 186; pa and pa ppl closed closed Pe 803; enclosed C 310, 346, 449, G 1298; not open G 572; closed fro free from G 1013; clos secret, intimate C 512; closed, enclosed Pe 512*, C 12, 1070, G 578, shut Pe 183, fastened C 1569
closet n enclosure (for private pew) G 934, 942
clot n clod, earth Pe 22, 320; (stretch of) soil Pe 789*; pl clottes clods of earth Pe 857
cloth(e) n cloth C 1637, 1742, 2036, (for table) G 125, 885 (or food) C 634; grete ~ main sail Pa 105; pl clothes cloths C 1440, G 876, 1649; clothes C 1400, Pa 341, 526, G 2015; bed-clothing C 1788, G 1184
cloutes n pl shreds, fragments C 367, 965
cloven see cleve
cloyster, cloystor n enclosure, precinct Pe 969, G 804
cluchches pres pl become bent, clench C 1541
clustered pa clustered together C 951, part adj heaped up C 367
clusteres n pl clusters G 1739
clyff n hill, bank, high ground Pe 159, C 405, 460, 965, G 713, 1431, 2201; pl clyffes (a range of) steep hills, steep banks Pe 66, 74, G 1166, 1722, 2078
clym v climb, ascend Pe 678, 1072; pa clambe climbed C 405, over … ~ rose above Pe 773; pa pl clomben climbed G 2078
clynge see clenges
clyppe v fasten C 418
clypper n shearer Pe 802
clyven v cleave; upon … ~ inhere in, belong to Pe 1196*; pres clyves sticks, is fixed C 1630
clyvy n clinging plant, goose-grass, burdock C 1692*
cnokes see knokkes
cof adj brisk, prompt C 624; adv cof(ly) promptly, at once C 60, 898, 1428, G 2011
cofer n coffer, chest (= ark) C 310, 339, 492; receptacle for valuables Pe 259*, pl coferes C 1428, Pa 159
coge n cog, type of ship Pa 152
cokres n pl leg-coverings C 40*
colde adj and n cold Pa 152+ (comp colder Pe 320); unhappy G 1982; ineffectual C 1231; bleak, bitter Pa 264; adv cheerlessly Pa 382; care(s) ~ bitter care Pe 50, 808; as n cold ground G 2474, the ~ coldness G 747, 2001, 2078
cole (1) n coal C 456
cole (2) adv coolingly Pa 452, 454
colen v assuage G 1255
coler n torque, necklet C 1569, 1744
colored pa ppl was ~ as had the colour of C 456
comaundement n command G 1303, 1501
comaundes pres commands, orders C 1428, G 850; imp pl comaundes me give my compliments to G 2417; pa comaunded commanded C 624, 898, G 366, 992, gave orders (for) C 1741, G 1372
combraunce n difficulty, adversity C 4
combres pres destroys, perverts C 1024; pa ppl combred ruined, overwhelmed with disaster C 901; destined for destruction C 920
come (1) n coming, arrival Pe 1117, C 467, 1706
come (2) v (pres comes, pl com; imp com Pe 763, G 456, pl comes C 60, 801; pa com(e) Pe 155+, pl com Pe 574, C 85, 1316, 1326, come(n) C 946, 1093, 1574, 1680, G 824) come(s), came Pe 676+, com of came from C 1088; subj come G 1004*, com were to come Pe 598, 723, C 36; pa ppl comen come, arrived G 60, 62, 533, 907, 1369, 1912, 2491
comended see commende
comfort (1) n (source of) encouragement, trust, consolation; comfort, solace Pe 55, 357, 369 (coumforde), C 512, Pa 18, 264, 485, relief C 492, Pa 223; gratification, pleasure C 459, 1809, G 1011; kever … ~ obtain pleasure or ease Pa 223, 485, G 1221, 1254
comfort (2) v solace, cheer G 1099; pres comfortes comforts, consoles G 2513
comly (1), comlych(e) adj comely, elegant, beautiful Pe 259+; agreeable, gratifying C 512; pretty, nice G 1886; nice, proper C 334, 508; as n that comly(che) that goodly person G 674,1755; a comly a fair one Pe 775*; comp comloker more comely, fairer G 869; super comlokest most comely, finest G 53, 81, 767, 1520
comly (2), comlyche, comlyly adv with becoming propriety G 974, 1118, 1307; in a comely fashion G 648, in a graceful manner G 1505; fittingly G 360; in a manner apt to the occasion G 1629; kindly, nicely G 1389, 1794; properly, nicely C 312
commende v praise C 1; pa comended praised G 1629
commune adj ~ to given in common to Pe 739
comparisunes pres likens C 161
compas n circular course Pe 1072*; circumference, bounded area C 319; course C 1057; form, figure G 944
compas v devise, plan C 1455; pa compast revolved mentally, considered G 1196, ~ hem devised for them C 697
compayny n concourse Pe 851; society G 1483, social gathering C 119; being together G 1011, companionship, companionable presence G 1099; companions G 556, 1912; in ~ gret in large numbers Pe 851
comynes n pl subjects of a common ruler, population C 1746
con (1) v know C 1056; can Pe 665&, G 2138&, know how to, be able to Pe 709; pres pl con(ne) Pe 381, 521, Pa 27, 513; connes are capable of G 1267*; know how to G 1483; pa: see couthe
con (2) auxiliary v (2s cones) did Pe 78&, C (b-verse) 301, 363, 1362, 1561, (a-verse) 344, 768, Pa 10b*, 138a, 445b, G 2212b, 2295a, (in bob) 230&; does, do Pe 482&; con to began to Pe 1181, C 945a*
conable adj accomplished, able G 2450
concience n consciousness, mind G 1196; conscience: with ~ sure with a clear conscience, without fear of lying Pe 1089
confourme imp ~ thee to make yourself like C 1067
conne(s) see con (1)

connynges n pl arts, skills C 1611, 1625
conquere v overcome the difficulties of C 1632; pa conquerd acquired by fighting, won C 1431*
conquerour n winner, victor C 1322
conquest pa ppl (of ‘conqueste’) won through battle C 1305
conquestes n pl conquests, victories G 311
consayve v conceive C 649
constrayne v compel G 1496; cf. strayn
contrayes see countre
controeved pa devised, introduced C 266
contrary n opposite, antithesis C 4; in ~ of opposite C 1532; adj conflicting, opposing C 266
contryssyoun n contrition, repentance Pe 669
conveye(n) v (pa conveyed) escort(ed) (a guest or inmate) on his way C 678*, G 596, conveyen … with cast of his ye follow with his eyes C 768*
conysaunce n heraldic cognizance G 2026
coprounes n pl tops, surmounting tops of architectural features or artefacts C 1461, G 797
corage n heart, spirit C 1806
corbel n raven C 456; gen corbeles G 1355
cordes n pl cords, ropes Pa 153
corounde pa and pa ppl crowned Pe 415, 480, 767, 1101
coroune see crowne
corse n body C 1072; dead body Pe 320; after poss my ~ me G 1237*, his ~ him C 683; pl corses dead bodies Pe 857
corsed pa and pa ppl cursed C 1033, 1583, 1800; accursed G 2374; super part adj corsedest most accursed G 2196
corsour n knight’s horse, steed G 1583
cortays(e) (cortes Pe 754) adj possessed of or characterized by the graciousness and excellence proper to a court Pe 433, 754, G 469, 539, 1511, 1525; courtly, aware of etiquette G 276; refined, fastidious C 1089; mannerly G 1013, gracious C 512; as n that ~ that gracious one C 1097, that courtly lady G 2411; cf. courtaysye
cortaysly adv in a manner befitting a civilized court: with grace, decorum and propriety Pe 381; courteously, graciously C 564, G 903; in fine or royal manner C 1435
cortes see cortays(e)

cortyn n bed-curtaining C 1789, G 1185, 1192, 1475; pl cortynes bed-curtains G 854, 1732
cortyned pa ppl ~ aboute enclosed by curtains G 1181
coruppte adj infected, contaminated C 281
corven see kerve
cosse n kiss G 1300; pl cosses G 1946, 2351, 2360; cf. kysse
cost (1) n region, land, area C 85, 478, 912, 1322; pl costes areas C 460; shores C 1033
cost (2) n nature, quality, condition G 546*; pl costes qualities, properties C 1024, G 1272, 1849; (modes of) behaviour G 944, 1483, 2360; observances G 750; costes of care hardships G 2495*
costoum n custom C 851
cote n tunic, kirtle G 152, 335; surcoat, coat of arms G 637, 2026; animal’s coat G 1921
cote-armure n arms shown on a surcoat worn over armour, coat of arms G 586*
coumforde see comfort (1)

coundue v escort a guest on his way hence G 1972*
counsayle, counsel n counsel, advice C 1056, (to a sovereign) C 1201, 1619, G 347*, 682; guidance, instruction, help C 1605; course of action Pe 319, means of achieving, or route to, an end Pa 223; idea, plan C 1426; private concerns and feelings C 683
counseyl v give counsel to, show solidarity with G 557
countenaunce n mode of behaving, custom G 100; mien, demeanour, bearing G 335; appearance C 792; show of favour G 1490, 1539; meaningful look G 1659
counterfete v replicate, be the same as Pe 556*; pres pl counterfete make a false show of C 13
countes pres ~ him accounts himself C 1685; pa counted counted C 1731
countre n land, nation Pe 297, C 1362, 1612, Pa 415; region C 281, 1679; country (as opposed to city): by ~ on an overland journey G 734; pl contrayes regions, districts G 713
couple n pair C 333; pl couples leashes holding hounds in pairs G 1147
coupled pa leashed (dogs) G 1139
courtaysye n moral and/or social grace and excellence, graciousness Pe 432*, 444&, C 13, Pa 417, G 263, 653, 775*, 1298, 1300, 1773; courtly manners G 1491; propriety, decorum G 247; cf. cortays(e)

cout v cut C 1104
couthe (1) adj known, acknowledged, recognized, familiar C 1054; shown G 1490
couth(e) (2) pa (of con (1)) (2s couthes) could Pe 95+, would be able to; knew Pe 484, knew about C 1576; was able to C 813, 1555, G 1937, was capable of C 1287, G 1486, knew how to C 1578, G 1125, 1139, 1937; did C 381, G 2273*
couthly adv in a friendly manner G 937*
covacles n pl covers for vessels, lids C 1461, 1515
covenaunt n agreement, contract Pe 563, C 564, G 393, 1384, 2328, 2340; thy ~ what was covenanted to you Pe 562; pl covenauntes covenants G 1642, terms of a covenant G 1123, 1408, 2242
covertor n coverlet for a bed G 1181; cloth covering for a horse, caparison G 602; pl covertores coverings for bed G 855*
covetyse n covetousness C 181, G 2374, 2380, 2508
coveytes 2s pres desire C 1054
cowarde adj recreant, cowardly G 2131
cowardely adv shamefully, despicably C 1631
cowardyse n cowardice G 2273, 2374, 2379, 2508
cow-house n cowshed C 629
coyntly, coyntlyche adv neatly G 578, 2413, elegantly, gracefully G 934; cf. quoynt
crabbed(e) adj ill-natured G 502*, cankered G 2435
craft n skill, art C 697, 1100, 1452, G 1380; professional expertise C 13; type of activity in which time is employed G 471*; practice, usage C 865; device, phenomenon Pa 131*; pl craftes habits, behaviour C 549; powers, skills Pe 356, 890, G 1527, 2447; (skilled) pursuits G 1688*
crafty adj artfully designed or constructed G 572*
craftyly adv with the skill of a craftsman G 797
cragge n crag G 1430, 2183; pl cragges C 449
crak n bursting or splitting sound; blast (of a trumpet) C 1210; pl crakkes C 1403
crakkande pres ppl shattering G 1166
crakkyng vn bursting, blasts G 116
crathayn n wretch, caitiff G 1773
crave v ask, request Pe 663, C 801, G 277, 283, 812, pa and pa ppl craved 1300, 1670; claim G 1384

Crede n Creed Pe 485, G 643, 758
crepe v go stealthily, steal C 917; pa creped crept G 1192
crest n crest, headdress Pe 856; summit G 731
crevisse n cleft G 2183

Criste(n)mas, Cristmasse n and adj Christmas G 283, 502, 683, 985, 1655; Christmas festivities, celebration of Christmas G 907; upon Cristmasse over the Christmas season G 37, 471; Cristenmas even Christmas Eve G 734
croked(e) pa ppl crooked, curved C 1697; (morally) deflected, brought to deviate G 653; devious, dishonest C 181
crokes n pl hooks, scythes Pe 40
cropure n cover for the hindquarters or croup of a horse G 168, 602
cros n (Christ’s) cross G 643, ~ Cryst G 762
croukes pres croaks C 459
crowen see crue
crowne, coroune n crown Pe 205, 237, 255, 427, 1100, G 364, 2529; band of gold C 1275, 1444; crown of the head G 419, 616; pl crownes crowns Pe 451
crue pa crew G 2008; pa ppl crowen crowed G 1412
cruppeles n pl cripples C 103
crye v cry, cry out Pa 395; proclaim C 1361; pres cryes cries (out) C 1508, 1582, Pa 377; cryes thereof announces it by baying G 1701; pres ppl cryande crying G 1088; pa and pa ppl cryed proclaimed C 1751; cried, shouted C 153, 770, Pa 357, G 1445; cried out in sorrow, made lament C 393, 1080, G 760; cried out for C 394; (of trumpet) blew C 1210
crysolyt n chrysolite Pe 1009; pl crysolytes C 1471
crysopase n chrysoprase Pe 1013
cubit n length of the forearm (about 18in/45cm) C 319; pl cubites C 315, 405
cuppe n drinking vessel C 1520, chalice C 1461; pl cuppes C 1458, 1510
cure n medical care Pe 1091
curious adj meticulously careful C 1109*; elaborate, intricate C 1353, 1452, G 855

dale n low-lying ground, valley C 384, G 1151, 2005, 2162; pl dales Pe 121
dalt(en) see dele
daly, dayle v converse G 1253*, talk to someone, commune Pe 313; pa pl daylyeden conversed G 1114
dalyaunce n conversation G 1012*, 1529
dam n body of water Pe 324, C 416, Pa 312
dame n woman of gentle status, lady (pl dame G 1316): (as title) Lady Pa 31, 32, 33; (in address) wife G 470
dampned pa ppl condemned, damned Pe 641; consigned to perdition C 989
damysel(le) n young lady (of gentle birth and courtly status) Pe 361*, 489*
dar v Pe 1089, subj dar G 287, 300, pa durst(e) (pl dorsten C 976) Pe 143, 182, C 342, 976, Pa 144, G 1493, 1575 dare(d); venture(d) C 476, 615, G 1991
dare v cower Pe 839, G 2258; pres pl dares G 315; pa dared cowered Pa 372*; dard ?submitted to, ?did homage to Pe 609*
dasande pres ppl paralysing, stunning C 1538; pa dased cowered motionlessly Pa 372*; pa ppl dased cowering motionlessly, paralysed with fear Pe 1085*
daschande pres ppl impacting forcefully, crashing Pa 312
date n termination, limit, end Pe 492, 493, 516, 528, 541; point within a stretch of time C 425, season Pe 504, 505, time Pe 517, period (of the day) Pe 529; extent, bounds Pe 540; pl dates dates (of birth) Pe 1041
daube imp s daub, plaster C 313
daunce subj (of an animal) move rapidly about, twist the body Pe 345*; pa daunced danced G 1026
daunger n (a) power Pa 110; subordination to power C 342; (b) frustration and/or deprivation (caused by lack of access to a loved one) Pe 250; (c) disdainful aloofness C 71; (d) danger C 416*; cf. luf-daungere
daunsyng vn dancing G 47
dawande pres ppl dawning Pa 445; pa dawed dawned C 1755
dawes n pl days Pe 282
day(e) n day Pe 486+, dawn G 1126; era G 2522; gen dayes day’s Pe 554, this ~ long all this day Pe 533; pl dawes Pe 282, dayes Pe 416+, gen pl Pa 354, dayes of this erthe for as long as the world lasts C 520, dayes of ende last days of the world C 1032; in day ?at any time G 80*
day-glem n daylight Pe 1094
dayle see daly
daylyght n daylight G 1137, 1180, 1365
daynte (1) n courtesy G 1266, 1662, respectful politeness G 1250*; had ~ … Of valued G 1889*; pl dayntyes culinary delicacies, haute cuisine C 38, G 121, 483, 998, 1401, choice foods C 1046
daynte (2) adj choice, exquisite, fine G 1253
day-rawe n dawn C 893
debatande pres ppl debating G 2179; pa debated contended, disputed G 68
debate n strife, contention, contentiousness Pe 390; battle, fighting G 1754, 2041, 2248, bate G 1461
debonere adj gracious Pe 162, C 733* (boner), pleasantly good-mannered C 830
debonerte n graciousness, benignity, complaisance Pa 418, G 1273; gentleness, lack of aggression Pe 798
declar v make clear, explain C 1618
declyne v (a) decline, fall from prosperity Pe 333; (b) turn, take a certain direction: into acorde thay con ~ they enter into an agreement Pe 509*
decre n decree, edict C 1745, Pa 386
dedayn n indignation C 74, Pa 50
ded(e) (1) adj dead Pe 31+; Dede See Dead Sea C 1020
dede (2) n deed, action Pa 135, 432, C 110, 588, G 1089; doings C 74; act Pa 354, activity G 1468; business G 1047, procedure G 1327; pl dedes Pa 203+; of dede in its operation Pe 481; in dede and thought in action and intention Pe 524; of body and of dedes in person and behaviour C 1061
defence n prohibition C 243, 245; defence G 1282*
defende v yow ~ defend yourself G 2117; pa defende him defended himself G 1551; pa ppl forbidden G 1156
defoule n pollution Pa 290
defowle v make dirty C 1147; defowled pa ppl defiled, polluted C 1129; desecrated C 1798; cf. foule etc
deghter see doghter
degre n rank, social position C 92, G 1006; pl degres steps, tiers Pe 1022
dekenes n pl deacons (clerics below the rank of priest) C 1266

Dele n (contracted form of devel) devil G 2188, gen Deles devil’s G 2192*
dele v (pres 2&3s deles, pl delen; pa dalt, pl dalten; pa ppl dalt, deled) deal C 137, G 1968*; deal out G 1752, subj Pe 606; dealt out, distributed Pa 193, delivered C 1756, G 452, 2418; give(s), given G 295, 397, 1266, 1805, imp G 2285; engage(d) in C 1065, G 2192, 2449; deliver(s), utter(s) C 344, 1641, conversed G 1668, engaged in, spoke G 1114*; ~ with practise C 1561, use G 560; to ~ for penies to be exchanged for coins C 1118; dalt with behaved towards G 1662
delful(le) adj doleful, grievous C 400, G 560, 1517; cf. doel
delfully adv grievously, painfully Pe 706
delit n delight, bliss Pe 642, 1117, 1129, 1152, 1153; desire Pe 1128, 1140; with gret ~ beautifully, in such a way as to be delightful to behold Pe 1104; with great joy Pe 1105, 1116
deliver adj delivered of a child C 1084; unrestrained G 2343*
deliverly adv lightly, quickly G 2009
delyver v free C 500; get rid of C 286; give over to, assign G 851; pa and pa ppl delyvered freed, rescued Pe 652; dispatched G 1414
deme(n) v judge (of) Pe 312, G 246, 2183; adjudge, decree Pe 348, 360; suppose, conclude Pe 336; estimate G 1322; speak, speak of Pe 1183; pres 2s demes adjudge, condemn Pe 325, assume Pe 337, pl demen judge G 1529, bid G 1082; imp deme Pe 313, subj deme judge Pe 349*; over this dam him … deme give permission for him to pass this water Pe 324; pa demed said G 1089; judged G 240; agreed G 1668; pronounced Pa 119; pa ppl demed judged, assessed C 1118, valued; ordained Pa 432, decreed C 110; called C 1020, 1611*; said Pe 361; was demed a decre a decree was pronounced C 1745, a decree ~ of a decree pronounced by Pa 386
demerlayk n witchcraft, magic C 1561; pl devinores of demerlaykes experts in the interpretation of supernatural phenomena C 1578
demme v grow dim, be darkened Pe 223*; pa demmed grew dark C 384*
dene v dean, valley Pe 295

Denes adj Danish G 2223
departes pres parts company G 1983; pa departed departed C 1677; pa pl departed separated G 1335; parted company Pe 379, disjoined themselves C 1074; pa ppl divided, split up C 1738; gone, removed C 396
departyng vn parting G 1798
depaynt(ed) pa ppl studded, ornamented Pe 1102; painted, depicted G 649, displayed G 620; cf. paynted
depe (1) n (the) deep, (the) sea Pa 263, 235; pl depe deeps, deep waters Pe 109, Pa 297
depe (2) adj deep Pe 143+; intense Pe 215; extreme, profound C 1425, 1609; extensive G 741; adv deep, deeply Pe 406, C 158, 852, Pa 362, G 787
depres v beat down Pe 779, overthrow; pa depresed subjugated G 6; pressed G 1770
depryve v depose Pe 448*; as n act of depriving C 185*; pa ppl depryved of stripped of C 1227; deposed, usurped C 1738
dere (1) n pl deer G 1151, 1157, 1322, 1324
dere (2) adj (of persons) great C 1771, 1794, G 2465, worthy Pe 920, C 814, 1302, high-ranking C 92, 1367, important C 1792, dear Pe 368, 795, C 52, G 470, 754; (of things) impressive, splendid Pe 72+, prestigious G 75, costly C 1299, 1743, G 193; (of abstractions) pleasing, welcome Pe 97, 400, 880, G 47, 564, 1012, precious Pe 758, 1183, 1208, C 698, 1806, valued, valuable Pe 492, C 1609, closely affecting, intimate C 683, G 2449, fate-deciding C 214*; (of time, season) special G 92, 1047, critical Pe 504*; to the ~ trauthe so as to reach the all-important truth C 1604; as n worthy one G 678, 928; the great one(s) C 1394, 1399, G 928; tho ~ those excellent ones Pe 778; vocative dear one G 1798; my ~ my dear lady G 1492; super derrest most valuable C 1118; greatest, best C 1306; of highest status C 115, G 445
dere (3) adv at a dear price, at great cost Pe 733; super derrest most suited to a special occasion G 484*
dere (4) v harm: impede, obstruct a course Pe 1157; imp pl deres harm C 862; pa dered troubled, distressed G 1460
derely adv nobly, excellently Pe 995, C 270; fulsomely, heartily G 1031; ceremoniously G 817, in proper form G 1327, in a fine fashion G 1559, enviably G 1253; very much G 1842
deres (1) n pl injuries, troubles Pe 102
deres (2) see dere (4)

derf, derve adj fierce, stern, tough G 564, 1047*; strong G 1233; doughty G 1000*, 1492; mighty Pa 166; dreadfully loud C 862
derfly adv boldly Pa 110, G 2334; without fear or hesitation C 1641; promptly C 632
derk (1) n darkness, the dark Pe 629, Pa 263; night C 1755, G 1999
derk(e) (2) adj dark C 1020, G 1177, 1887
derne (1) adj secret, hidden C 588; undisclosed, privy G 558*, private G 1012*; ~ connynges esoteric wisdom, abilities in arcane matters C 1611; in ~ out of sight, hidden away Pa 182
derne(2), dern(e)ly adv secretly, privately C 697; surreptitiously G 1183*, 1188
derrest see dere (1)

derve see derf
derworth adj sumptuous, splendid Pe 109
derworthly adv honourably, with especial respect G 114
dese n focal platform: the high table (at the head of the side tables) at meals C 38, 115, G 222, 250, 478; (up)on (the) dese (cf. highe dese/table) on the dais, at the head of the feast table C 38, 1394, 1399, 1517, G 61, 75, 114, 445, on to the dais G 1000; on throne Pe 766, Pa 119*
desert n deserts, deserving Pe 595, Pa 84, G 1266, merit Pa 12
deserve pres pl deserve G 1779, pa ppl deserved 1803; see also served
desevered pa ppl removed, cut off Pa 315
dessyples n pl disciples Pe 715
destine n destiny C 400, G 99, 1752; doom G 2285; my dere ~ the dear one to whom I was destined to be joined Pe 758; a ~ due some due destined lot Pa 49; pl destines things sent by destiny or fate G 564
desyres pres desires, wants C 545, subj desire C 1648; pres pl desyres wish for G 1257
deth(e) n death Pe 323+
devel n devil (gen develes C 180); as colloquial intensifier What the ~ Pa 196; as the ~ as/like Hell C 1500, Pa 274, the ~ half not a bit Pa 460*
devine n deviner and/or prophet C 1302; v interpret C 1561
devinores n pl interpreters C 1578
devise (1) n (a) device Pe 139*; (b) artistic device, arrangement G 617; (c) mental picture, desire: at my ~ imaginable by me, that I could desire Pe 199
devise (2) v (pres devises; pa and pa ppl devised) (a) recounted G 92; describes, described Pe 984, 995, 1021, C 110, 1157, 1325, 1756, explains, explained C 1604; for to ~ to give an exact account of Pe 99; (b) behold, observe closely Pe 1129; for to ~ to behold; (c) designed, fashioned C 1288; contrive, manage C 1100; imagine C 1046; assigned C 238
devisement n description, account Pe 1019
devocioun n religious service, sacred ritual G 2192
devout adj reverential, devout Pe 406; sacred, holy Pa 166
devoutly adv reverently C 814, devoutly Pa 333
devoyde v remove Pe 15; obliterate C 908; imp devoyde dispel Pa 284
devoydynge vn removing, extirpation C 544
dewyne v languish, waste away Pe 11, 326
dialokes n pl ?accounts, ?chronicles C 1157*
diamauntes n pl diamonds G 617
dich(e) n ditch C 1792, G 1709, (for drainage) Pe 607, (for defence) G 786; pl diches drainage channels, gutters C 1251; moat G 766
diden see do (2)

die(n) v die Pe 306, 642, C 400, 1329, G 996; pres pl dyen G 1163; pa dyet Pe 705, dyed Pe 828
diete n food, meal Pa 460
dight(e) v arrange, dispose, ordain Pe 360; prepare C 818; ~ me the dome give a ruling for me G 295; pres dightes me to die put me to death Pa 488; pa dight placed C 699; dight hit treated it C 632; refl him dight betook himself G 994; pa pl dighten … to deth put to death C 1266; pa ppl dight set Pe 920, C 1794, G 114; made ready G 1559, 2223; arranged, arrayed C 1688*, 1753, G 1689, adorned Pe 202, 987; caused G 678, ordained C 243, G 1884, decreed Pa 203, if me be dight if it is ordained for me Pa 49
dille adj slow (of wits), foolish G 1529; to answare he is not ~ he is not at a loss for an answer Pe 680
diner n first major meal of the day G 928, 1559*
dint n blow C 1196, Pa 125, G 315, 389, 452, 560, 1286, 2105, 2223, 2264; pl dintes blows G 202, 336, 1460, 2116
dipped pa sank Pa 243; 2s diptes Pa 308
dische n dish (used at table and/or in church) C 1146; pl disches platters C 1279, G 122; types of food G 128
discover v reveal G 1862, pa discovered C 683; pres discoveres uncovers, reveals G 418
discrye v (were) to ~ /discreven (were) to be seen Pe 68, G 81
dismay imp ~ you distress yourself, be upset G 470; part adj dismayd disconcerted, unnerved G 336
dispayred part adj having given up hope, despairing Pa 169
dispit(e) n offensive treatment C 821; ~ make behaving resentfully Pa 169
displayes pres ?spreads out C 1542*; pa displayed unfolded C 1107; pa ppl displayed exposed to view G 955
displese v pres 2&3s displeses offend(s) Pe 455, C 1136; subj displese offend G 1304, displease Pa 1, 531; imp pl displese(s) not, displese yow noght/never do not be offended Pe 422, G 1839, 2439; pa and pa ppl displesed at (was) offended by C 196, 1494
dispoyled pa ppl undressed Pa 95, G 860*
dispysed pa ppl treated with contempt C 1792
disserved pa and pa ppl deserved G 452*; merit ~ deserved any merit C 613
disstrye v destroy C 520, 907; pres disstryes destroys G 2375; disstryed pa pl and pa ppl destroyed C 1160; dispelled, cured Pe 124*; cf. strye
distresed pa pressed in on C 880
distresse n anguish, pain Pe 280, C 307*; coercion Pe 898; with ~ forcibly, violently C 1160; cf. doel-distresse
dittes pres closes, stops up C 588; pres ppl ditande closing C 320; pa dit blocked in C 1182; pa ppl dit closed firm G 1233
divinite n skill in divination, theological wisdom C 1609
do (1) n doe, female deer Pe 345; pl does G 1322
do (2) v (pres dos, pl don; imp do, pl dos; pa did, pl diden; pa ppl done) (a) do, does, did, done Pe 496+, over (pa ppl) G 928, 1365; put Pe 250, 366, 1042, C 320, 1224, G 478; pay, give Pe 424, G 1798; thou dos you make Pe 338; dos hir goes G 1308; do(s) away remove(s) Pe 823, C 286, imp do(s) (a)way put an end to, stop (such talk) Pe 718, C 862, G 1492; done doun brought down C 1801; inflected inf to done to be done Pe 914; rendered Pe 282; destroyed C 989; imp before imp Pa 204, 386, G 1533; (b) cause(s), caused Pe 17+; (c) to form periphrastic pres, e.g. dos mene means Pe 293, 630; to recapitulate previous verb G 998, 1887, 2285
doel n grief, pain, misery Pe 51+; cf. delful(le)

doel-distresse n misery which brings distress Pe 337
doel-doungoun n prison of woe Pe 1187*
does see do (1)

dogge n dog C 1792; pl dogges G 1600
doghter n daughter G 2465; pl deghter daughters C 270, 866, 899, 933, 939, 977, 993, doghteres C 814
doghty adj (a) doughty, effective (in combat), valiant, strong C 1181, G 724, 2264; super doghtyest C 1306; as n that doghty G 2334; (b) of worth, grand C 1791*
dole n part Pe 136, G 719; portion bestowed, lot, gift C 699
dome n sentence Pe 580+; judgement Pe 699; ruling Pe 667, G 295; ability to judge, mental faculties Pe 157, 223, C 1046; opinion G 1216, pronouncements C 1325; command C 632; pl domes judgements, sentences C 717
domesday n Judgement Day G 1884
don, done see do (2)

dor n door C 44, 320, 500, 602, 653, G 136&, doorway Pa 268, gateway C 1182; house ~ house door C 602, kenel ~ kennel door G 1140
dorsten see dar
dos see do (2)

dotage n madness, folly C 1425
dotel n fool, clot C 1517
dotes pres is quite befuddled in (his) wits C 1500; ~ for elde is foolish through old age Pa 125; pres pl doten are morally blind C 286; pa and pa ppl doted(e) deprived of wits, deranged G 1151; witless Pa 196; was confounded C 852; had doted had lost their wits G 1956
double adj double, extra large Pe 202*, G 786*; adv twice G 2033; with double portions G 61*, 483, doublefelde 890
doumbe adj dumb Pa 516
doun prep and adv down Pe 30+; (of sun) set Pe 538; cf. adoun
doungoun n underground prison cell C 158, 1224
doute n fear G 246, 442; withouten ~ certainly Pe 928; cf. dut
douteles adv indubitably, undoubtedly G 725
douth n company, group of living beings Pe 839, C 597, G 1365; nation, species C 270; army C 1196; retinue, following C 1367, company in hall G 61, 397*, 1415, 1956
douve n dove C 469, 481, 485
dowes impers v avails; what ~ me the dedayn what good does indignation do me Pa 50; pa noght dowed nothing availed C 374, subj dowed would be worth G 1805
down n upland, hill Pe 121; pl downes G 695, 1972, ~ sides hillsides Pe 73
dowrie n property lawfully belonging to a wife or widow C 185*
draght n drawbridge G 817; pl draghtes things drawn or written, characters, symbols C 1557
draw v proceed, go C 500, 599; pres drawes draws G 1031, comes, proceeds C 1329; pres pl drawe draw to yourself, acquire G 1647; imp draw bring Pe 699; pa drow drew, pulled G 335, 1188; pa pl drow(en) drew C 71, G 1463, made their way Pe 1116, C 1394; pa ppl drawen drawn, led Pe 1193, (of a door) closed G 1233, ~ to the erthe pulled down, razed C 1160
drechch n impediment, delay G 1972
drede n dread, fear Pe 181+; withouten ~ without doubt, certainly Pe 1047
drede v feel dread G 2211, fear G 2355; pres dredes dreads Pa 125, feels dread Pa 241; pa dred Pe 186
dredles adj fearless G 2334
dreme n dream Pe 790, 1170, G 1750; pl dremes C 1578, 1604, Pa 188
drepes pres destroys C 246, 599; pa and pa ppl dreped struck down C 1648; slain, destroyed C 1306, G 725
dresse v dispose, ordain Pe 495; to … me ~ turn to G 474; pres dresses arranges, places (himself) refl G 417; turns G 445; rises G 566; pa dressed arranged G 2033, disposed G 1000; dressed to made their way to G 1415; dressed up rose up G 2009; pa ppl dressed placed, set C 1399, 1477, G 75, drest Pe 860; assigned C 92; provided C 1518*
dreve v drive; pass Pe 323; pa dreved pressed forward Pe 980
drink(e) n drink C 123, 182, G 1684, 1935; cf. drynke
drive, dryf v direct, deliver (a blow) G 389; out dryf drive away Pe 778; pres drives spreads C 1760*; drives (something) about C 433; drives on lofte rises C 692; drives to (of time) succeeds G 1999*; drives me over courses over me Pa 312; drives (for) to forces (into a certain course or direction) G 523; pres pl driven come, arrive G 121; (of time) spend, pass G 1468; pres ppl drivande proceeding G 222; imp s dryf over fly over C 472, pl drive out proclaim Pa 386; subj drive … doun sink Pe 1094; pa ppl driven drawn, brought, conveyed Pe 1194; carried along Pa 263; suffered G 558; engaged in G 1020; forced, compelled G 1047, chased C 289, G 1159; driven through by nails C 313; driven adoun descended G 2263
drof pa (of drive, dryf) drove, went Pe 30, raced G 1151; plunged C 214, Pa 235; made, struck G 2005; (of time) passed, spent G 1176; ~ … in entered, sank into Pe 1153; ~ to made its way to C 1425, adjoined to G 786, reached C 219; ~ upon drove on upon C 416
droght(e) n dryness, dry weather C 524, G 523
dronken see drynk(e)

dropes pres falls in drops, drips G 519; pres ppl droppande falling Pa 383; pa dropped sprinkled Pa 375
drow(en) see draw
drowne v drown Pa 245; pa drowned drowned C 372, drownde plunged, sunk Pe 656; pa ppl drowned engulfed C 989
drury (1) n romantic love C 699, G 1517; love token G 1805, 2033; dele/dalt ~ have/had love-dealings with C 1065*, G 2449; gen druryes love’s G 1507
drury (2) adj ‘dreary’, grim Pe 323
drye (1) adj dry C 385*, 412, 460; ill from one of the diseases caused by want of bodily moisture C 1096*; as n dry land C 472, Pa 338
drye (2) adj heavy, grave Pe 823, C 342, G 1750; unremitting G 1460; unmoved, unflinching G 335*, 724; adv unswervingly, straight G 2263; drawes him on ~ draws aside G 1031*, drow hem adrey drew back C 71; cf. dryly(ch)

drye (3) v undergo, go through C 372, 400, 1032, 1224, G 560; hold out, survive G 202; bear, tolerate C 599; pa dryed suffered, underwent Pa 256; continued unabated C 491*
dryed pa ppl made drier C 496
dryf see drive
dryftes n pl snowdrifts G 2005

Dryhtyn n the Lord Pe 324+; gen Dryhtynes the Lord’s C 219
dryly(ch) adv (from drye (2)) with unswerving motion, straight and fast Pe 125, Pa 235; continuously C 476, G 1026; completely, utterly Pe 223; gravely C 74, 344
drynk(e) v drink G 337; pa drank C 1517, G 1791; pa pl and pa ppl dronken drank G 1025, 1114, 1668, drunk C 1500, G 1956; cf. drink(e)

dubbed pa ppl arrayed, adorned Pe 73, 97, C 115, 1688*, 1743, G 75, 571; bespangled Pe 202, G 193
dubbement n ornamentation, enrichment Pe 109, 121; cf. adubbement
dubler n platter C 1146; pl dubleres C 1279
dublet n doublet (worn under armour as an extra layer of defence) G 571
duches n gen duchess’s G 2465
due adj owed Pe 894; appointed Pa 49
duk n magnate Pe 211, 1367, pl dukes C 38, 1518; leader C 1771, military commander C 1182, 1235; sovereign ruler over a territory C 1745, G 678*; Duk of Clarence G 552*
dumpe v plunge Pa 362*
dungen see dynges
dunne adj dark Pe 30
dure v continue in being, live Pa 488; pres pl duren endure, last C 1021; pres ppl durande lasting, unremitting Pe 336; pa dured lasted C 1757
durst(e) see dar
dusched pa ~ to fell with a pounding blow upon C 1538
dust n dust G 523; ashes Pa 375, 383
dut pa feared G 222, 784, subj dutte G 2257; cf. doute
dwelle v stay, live C 1674; remain G 1082; pres dwelles resides C 158; remains, stays G 566; pres pl dwelles live, reside Pa 69, 422; imp pl dwelles stay G 1075; pa dwelled dwelled C 376, 1770, resided C 1196
dyed, dyen, dyet see die
dym(me) adj not bright, dull, dark Pe 1076; (of water) C 472, 1016, Pa 308
dymly adv feebly, faintly Pa 375
dyn n noise Pe 339, C 862; sound G 47, 1183; rumour C 692, ado G 1308*
dynges pres beats G 2105; pa pl dungen beat, battered, struck C 1266
dyngne adj worthy, honourable Pa 119, G 1316
dyngnete n high rank, noble status C 1801
dysheriete v as n dispossessing of inheritance C 185*

Ebru proper n Hebrew (person) Pa 205, (language) C 448
eft adv a second time Pe 328+; again Pa 316, G 700, 1668, back again Pa 143; afterwards C 248, 1073, 1141, 1144, Pa 527, G 898, in future G 2388; answeringly, likewise C 562, G 641, 788
eftersones adv again, a second time G 1640, eftsones likewise G 2417
egge n edge, blade C 1104, G 212, 2392; under bare ~ (to die) beneath the naked blade C 1246; pl egges limits, tops C 383; ridges, crests of mountains C 451
eggyng vn egging on, incitement C 241
eke adv as well, in addition, also G 90, 1741
elde n age C 657, G 844; age group, generation G 1520; old age Pa 125; cf. olde
elles adj no wye ~ (G 384), any man ~ (G 2108) any other man; n something else Pa 2; adv otherwise Pe 32, Pa 125; in other matters G 1082; else Pa 451, G 1550; conj provided that C 466, 705, G 295; or/other ~ or else Pe 130&
em(e) n uncle C 924*, G 356, 543
emerad n emerald Pe 118, 1005; pl emerads C 1470
emperise n empress Pe 441
emperour n one in authority over subordinate kings, supreme ruler C 1323
empire n empire C 1332, 1349; empireship Pe 454, C 540
enaumayld pa ppl enamelled C 1411, 1457, G 169; cf. aumayl
enbaned pa ppl parapeted, provided with projecting shelves C 1459*, G 790
enbrawded(e), enbrawden pa ppl decoratively inwoven or institched G 78, 609, 856, 879, 2028, sewn on/in as an ornament G 166
enchace v hunt, pursue Pe 173
enclose v contain, have within oneself Pe 909; imp enclose C 334
enclyin adj prone, prostrate Pe 1206*
enclyne v slant downwards, decline Pe 630; incline the head or body, bow G 340; pres ppl enclynande inclining, bowing Pe 236; pa ppl enclyned inclined, drawn C 518
encres v ~ To increase for Pe 959
encroche v obtain, draw to oneself Pa 18; pa encroched attracted, drew to itself Pe 1117
ende n end, limit C 303, 1732, G 215&, loose end G 657, 660; front G 2180; outcome C 608; upon ~ in the end C 1329; to an ~ (G 63), on ~ (Pa 426) to an end; into an upright position C 423; dayes of ~ last days of the world C 1032; pl endes tips of dangling parts of a girdle G 2039
ende v end, die C 402
endeles adj and adv without a loose end G 629, endless G 630; infinitely Pe 738
endent pa ppl indented, hooked into; with derk ~ encroached upon by darkness Pe 629*; (of jewels) set, mounted Pe 1012
endentur n seam, join C 313*
endite v consign, condemn G 1600*; pres pl compose, put into sung or spoken words Pe 1126
endure v have the capacity or power to, suffice Pe 225*; be of such a nature as to be adequate to or for, sustain Pe 1082; pa ppl endured borne G 1517; persevered Pe 476
ene (1) see iye
ene (2) adv once; at ~ at one and the same time Pe 291, at a single point of time Pe 953
enfamined pa became afflicted with famine C 1194
enforsed pa forced C 938
enfoubled pa ppl wrapped G 959
engendered pa engendered, begot C 272; cf. gendered

Englych n the English, Englishmen G 629
enherite v inherit C 240
enker adj ~ grene vivid green G 150*, 2477
enle adv singly Pe 849
enmy n enemy G 2406; pl enmies C 1204, Pa 82
enpoysened pa poisoned C 242*
enpresses pres oppresses, exercises force upon Pa 43*, 528
enprysonment n imprisonment C 46
enquylen pres pl acquire, obtain Pa 39*; cf. aquyle
ensens n incense Pe 1122
entayled pa ppl fashioned, wrought G 612
entent n state of mind: in true ~ in good faith, faithfully Pe 1191
enter v enter Pe 966, C 329, Pa 328, imp C 351; pres entres Pe 1067, C 1240, G 221, 934; pa entred Pe 38, C 842
entre n entry, entrance C 1779
entyse v attract G 2436; pres entyses incite(s), provoke(s) C 1137, 1808
enurned pa ppl bestudded or inlaid (with jewels) Pe 1027, G 634*, 2027
erande, ernd(e) n business, purpose, mission Pa 202, G 257, 559, 1051, 1067, 1808, 2303; message Pa 72, G 811, petition G 809; in his ernde on his business Pa 52
erber(e) n garden, arbour Pe 9, 38, 1171
erbes n pl plants, vegetation G 517; grass(es) C 532, 1675, 1684, Pa 393, 438, G 2190
erde n earth, world C 228, 596; area, land C 1006; in ~ on earth C 601, 892 (on ~), G 1544, 2416, (with weakened sense) indeed, in truth, in fact G 27, 140, 881; pl erdes lands G 1808
ere (1) n ear Pe 1153, Pa 64, 429; pl eres ears C 585, 874, 1670, Pa 123, umbe his ~ around him C 874*
ere (2) adv, prep and conj before Pe 164+, ~ … ne C 225; before that time Pe 319, 324, 328, 372, Pa 212; ~ then before then C 1088, 1339, conj before Pe 631, 1094, 1670; ~ this before now G 1892
erigaut n outer garment, surcoat C 148
erle n earl Pe 211
erly adv early in the day Pe 506, C 895, 946, 1001, G 567, 1101, 1126, 1474, 1689; ~ and late at all times of the day Pe 392
ermyn n ermine G 881
ernde see erande
erne-hued adj eagle-coloured (= dull grey) C 1698; cf. hernes
ernestly adv vehemently, with violence C 1240; vigorously C 277
errour n error, theological error; speke ~ say what is (theologically) erroneous Pe 422
erthe n world Pe 442+; ground C 150&, G 427&; earth C 452, 747, 1027, 1332, Pa 363, G 818
eschaped pa escaped C 970, Pa 110, slipped away (from) Pe 187; cf. scape and ascaped
ese n ease, comfort G 1071, 1096, 1539, 1676, 1798; with … made him at ~ started to relax with C 124
est n and adj (the) east Pa 133; on ~ in the east Pa 133
etayn n giant G 140; pl etaynes G 723
ete v eat G 85, 91; pa ete ate C 241, 1684, G 113, 1135
ethe (1) adj easy, not difficult Pe 1202, C 608, G 676
ethe (2) v conjure G 379, call on, urge G 2467
evel (1) n wrongdoing, sin C 573, G 1552; pl eveles evils C 277
evel (2) adj poor, inferior C 747; adv ill, badly Pe 310, 930
even (1) n eve, day before G 734, 1669
even (2) adj clear of debt, square G 1641
even (3) adv exactly Pe 740, C 602, 1654, G 1004, 1593; in fact G 2464; directly Pa 65, G 1589; accurately C 317; up ~ right up G 444; to … ~ C 510, ~ doun to G 1345* right to; ful ~ directly Pa 352
even (4) v be equivalent to; emulate Pe 1073
evensong n Vespers (an early evening service) Pe 529*, G 932
eventide n evening time Pe 582, C 479, 485, 782, G 1641
ever adv always Pa 14+; all the time, constantly Pe 153+; everywhere G 172; ever, at any time Pe 200+; for ~ eternally C 402, 1802, always G 293; ~ … so to whatever degree Pe 618, C 1123; emphatic (G 1913), with ere (Pa 356, 476, C 834) with who/where (G 661*, 682) at all; as intensifier in questions expecting a negative answer C 717
everferne n oak-fern Pa 438
evermore adv for ever, always Pe 591+
everuchone pron each one C 1221
eves n pl edges, borders G 1178*
evesed pa ppl (of hair) trimmed, cut G 184
eweres n pl ewers, vessels for holding water C 1457*
excellently adv surpassingly G 2423
excuse imp excuse C 70; pa excused hem excused themselves C 62; pa ppl excused pardoned G 2131, 2428
expoun(e) v expound, describe Pe 37, G 209, 1540; explain, construe C 1729; pres expounes a speche delivers some remarks C 1058, pa expouned His speche delivered His words C 1492, pres pl much speche … expoun discuss much G 1506; pa expouned explained, interpreted C 1606
expounyng vn expounding C 1565
expresse adj specific, particular Pe 910; adv manifestly, explicitly C 1158
fader n father C 1128&; (used of God) Pe 736, C 542&, Pa 92, 337, gen faderes Pe 872; epitome G 919; ancestor C 684; yore ~ forefather Pe 322, forme ~ first father Pe 639 (Adam)

faght see fight (2)

fale adj (of vegetation) faded, withered G 728*
falewed pa lost colour, paled C 1539
falle v (pres falles) fall(s) C 462, Pa 105, G 507, 728, 1067, subj falle should fall G 2282; be ruined C 725; betide G 2378, come about C 22, 567, G 2132, 2528, befalls Pa 178, occurs C 494, G 2251; be/is customary or appropriate G 358, 484, 890,1303, 1358; falle fro be descended from C 685; me falles is due to me G 2327, thee falled was due to you G 2243; pres pl fallen in get into C 271; fallen to converge on C 837; fallen him to join him G 1702; pa and pa ppl: fel, felle(n), fallen: see fel
false adj false C 1167, 1341*, 1522; wrongful Pa 390; faithless C 205, 474, Pa 283, dishonest C 188, G 2382; as n the ~ the faithless ones C 1168
falssyng n false or deceitful dealing G 2378
famacions n pl imputations, aspersions C 188
fande see fynde
fannes pres moves its wings C 457; pres ppl fannande projecting fan-like outwards and downwards G 181*
fantoum n phantom, illusory apparition G 240; pl fantummes illusions, objects or appearances that deceive the senses C 1341
farande pres ppl handsome C 607, pleasing Pe 865, grand C 1758, G 101
farandely adv pleasingly situated Pa 435
fare (1) n journey, passage Pa 98; course or direction taken G 409*, 1703; behaviour, actions Pe 832, C 861, G 1116, what happens to one G 2386; provision of food, hospitality, entertainment G 694; feast, party G 537
fare (2) v (pres fares, pl fare; pa ferde, pl ferden; pa ppl faren) fare C 466, proceed Pe 147, go(es), went G 699, 703, 1433, 1973, imp fare go C 621, 929, subj fare pass, travel C 100; looked like G 149*; behaves, behaved Pe 129, C 1106, G 1282*, ~ … to behave towards Pe 467; aboute ~ bestir myself C 618; ~ to an ende come to an end Pa 359; fares over goes over, crosses G 699; fares forth goes, moves C 1683; imp pl fares wel farewell G 2149; are … faren have gone G 1231; were faren had passed C 403
fasor n maker, creator Pe 431*
fasoun n form, construction Pe 983; manner, style Pe 1101
fast adj firm G 1636
fast(e) adv fast C 380+; firmly G 782, 1805, hard, vigorously Pe 54, G 1908; strictly C 1147; earnestly Pe 150, C 936, G 1042, 2403; as ~ at once C 440, 1648, G 1425
fasure n fashion, construction Pe 1084
fates pres fades, loses pristine quality Pe 1038
fathmes pres gropes Pa 273; pa fathmed embraced C 399
fat adj fatted C 627*, pa ppl fatted fattened C 560
faut(e) n fault, flaw, blemish C 1122, G 2488; faultiness, wrongdoing C 236, 571, 680, 725, G 1551; flawed condition G 2435; pl fautes defects, deficiencies C 1736; sins C 177, 996, vices C 694
fautles(se) adj faultless, without defect C 794*, G 640, 1761; super fautleste G 2363
fauty adj sinful, guilty of wrongdoing C 741, G 2382, 2386
favour n personal attribute that recommends one to favour Pe 428; thurgh gret ~ by special grace Pe 968
fax n hair Pe 213, C 790, 1689, G 181
fay n faith; in ~ Pe 263, (par) ma ~ Pe 489, G 1495 by my faith, indeed
fayle v fail Pe 34, subj fayle should fail C 548, pa and pa ppl fayled(e) failed C 1631, G 1295; fail in a pledge G 1067, pa 2357; of … fayle(d) fail(ed) to get Pe 317, C 889; 2s pres fayles fail G 455, lack opportunity G 278; pres pl faylen are lacking C 737; pres ppl faylande lacking C 1535; proved defective or unreliable C 236, G 641, 658; perished Pe 270; there fayled him he lacked Pa 181; fayled hem they ran out of C 1194, was hem ~ had come to an end for them C 658; fayled the chere the colour went out of his cheeks C 1539, ~ the sunne the sun set C 1758
fayn adj and adv glad(ly) Pe 393, C 962, 1629, Pa 155, G 388, 840, 1067, 2019; thereof ~ glad of it C 1752; ~ of glad of Pe 450, pleased with C 642; super faynest gladdest, most joyful C 1219
fayr(e) (1) adj fair, lovely Pe 46+, fine C 1106, goodly, becoming C 729; without irregularity or blemish C 593; desirable Pe 490*, reputable; comp as n the fayrer the better, the advantage G 99; super fayrest(e) most beautiful C 207, 253, 1043, Pa 444, G 943; finest C 115, G 1381, most eligible C 1378
fayr(e) (2) adv in the proper manner C 294, 506, 639, G 885, 1556; decorously G 1551; accurately Pe 884, 1024, C 316, G 2309, well C 27, 639, G 622, properly G 1282; pleasantly G 2229, pleasingly Pe 88, C 1486, G 880; respectfully Pe 714, C 89, G 1046, 1961; calmly, smoothly G 367; comp (the) fayrer the more fairly Pe 103, more beautifully G 1315; super fayrest most finely C 115
fayrye n magic G 240
fayth(e) n (good) faith, fidelity, truth to one’s duty or word G 1783; creed C 1168; feudal and/or religious faith to one’s lord C 1161, 1165; ~ dedes honourable deeds C 1775; in (good) ~, by my ~ indeed G 279, 986, 1435; truly C 1732, G 381&, faithfully G 2364, on my ~ G 2469; by thy ~ on your honour G 2284
faythely adv truly, indeed G 1636
faythful adj faithful, loyal, true C 1167, G 632, 1679
feble adj poor, humble C 47*,145; weak C 101; super feblest most inadequate, weakest G 354
fech(e) v fetch Pe 1158*, G 1375; get G 396, receive G 1857; ~ forth bring out C 1429; pres feches brings Pa 58, G 2013; imp fech C 621, pl feches fetch, bring C 98, 100; subj feche Pe 847; pa feched brought back C 1155
fede pres pl feed G 1359; pa ppl fedde fed, fattened C 56
fee n payment, perquisite; portion of game due by convention to specific huntsmen G 1355, 1358, pl fees perquisites G 1622; land-holdings, tenements C 960
fel pa (of falle) fell Pe 57, 1174, Pa 215, G 430; sank back C 450; dropped G 1758; subj felle should befall C 914*, G 1588; pa pl fel(le)(n) fell Pe 1120, C 221, 399, G 1425, fel on attacked G 1904, fel in came across G 1699; pa ppl fallen fallen C 559, Pa 320, G 1432; withered down C 1684; befallen, happened G 23, 2528, come C 304
felawes n pl companions; fellow hounds G 1702
felawschyp n company C 1764, G 2151; friendship G 651; sexual partnership C 271
felde (1) n field Pa 435, C 1750, open land surrounding a town C 98, 1767; battlefield G 874; pl feldes fields C 370
felde (2) see folde
felde (3) see fele (2)

fele (1) adj and pron many Pe 21+; on ~ wyse in many a way; comp feler more G 1391
fele (2) v sense G 2193; experience with the senses C 1019, taste C 107; subj fele feel G 2272; imp pl feles be aware, understand Pa 121; pa felde was conscious of Pe 1087
felefolde adj manifold, multiple G 1545
felle (1) n hill, upland G 723
felle (2) n skin G 943; animal’s pelt G 1359, 1944; pl felles hides, pelts G 880, 1737
felle (3) adj severe Pe 655; harsh Pe 367, C 1737; fierce C 421, G 291, 717, 847*, 874, savage C 283, grim C 139, formidable G 2222; cruel, painful C 156, 954; as n the felle the fierce creature G 1585
felle (4) adv cruelly C 1040
felle(n) see fel
felly adv sternly, grimly C 559, fiercely G 2302, grievously C 571
felonye n crime, offence, wickedness Pe 800, C 205
feloun n traitor C 217*
felt pa ppl (of ‘felte’) stuck together C 1689*
femmales n gen on ~ wyse in the manner of a female C 696
fende (1) n fiend, devil C 205, 269, G 1944, 2193; pl fendes devils C 221, 1341, devilish men Pa 82; gen pl fendene of fiends C 224
fende (2) pres pl ~ of ward off C 1191
feng see fonge
fenny adj muddy, unclean C 1113
fer (ferre G 1093) adj and adv far Pe 334+; far away Pa 424; comp ferre adj farther C 1732, on the farther side Pe 148, adv further Pe 103+, further on, onwards C 131, 1780, G 378, 1462, very far C 1764, furthermore Pe 544, G 1105, 2121
ferde (1) n fear C 386, Pa 183, 215, G 2130, 2272
ferde (2) pa (of ‘fere’) feared G 1285, 1588; part adj afraid C 897, 975, G 2382
ferde(n) (3) see fare (2)

fere (1) n companion G 695, 915; peer, equal G 675; beloved one C 1062, spouse G 2411; in ~ together Pe 89, 884, 1105, C 696; with an (armed) company G 267*; fellen in ~ came together C 399; pl feres companions Pe 1150, G 594
fere (2) adj hale, strong and healthy G 103
feres pres carries, bears; conveys Pe 98; pa ppl feryed conveyed Pe 946, ~ out carried out C 1790
ferk v go G 1072, 1973; ferk(es) (him) uppe get(s) up Pa 187, C 897, G 2013; pres ferkes proceeds, moves G 173; imp pl ferkes go C 98*; pa ferked(e) passed, went C 133; (of water) ran G 2173
ferly (1) n wonder, marvel Pe 1086, G 716, paranormal event C 1529, 1563, 1629; pl ferlyes G 23; no ferly no wonder G 2414
ferly (2) adj wondrous, marvellous Pe 1084; adv wondrously, remarkably, very C 269, 960, 974, G 388, 741, 1694
ferlyly adj marvellous, showing amazing skill C 1460*; adv wondrously, very C 962, G 796; in such a way as to cause wonder G 2494
ferre see fer
fersly(che) adv fiercely, vigorously G 832, 1323; sternly Pa 337, haughtily G 329
feryed see feres
fest(e) (1) n feast C 54&, G 44, 101, 894; meal provided for guest(s), entertainment C 642; feast day G 537, 1036, festival season G 1963, 2401; ma ~ rejoice Pe 283; high ~ major festival period G 1963
fest (2) pa confirmed, concluded G 2347; pa ppl fest placed, set Pa 290
festen v (pres festnes; pa and pa ppl festned) bind, fasten imp pl C 156, fastened, tied C 1255; (of a covenant) pledge(d) C 327, G 1783, concluded G 2329; festnes the fete plants his feet Pa 273
festeres pres causes to decay C 1040
festival adj suitable for a festival C 136*
festnes, festned see festen
fete (1) see fote
fete (2) n feat, deed: in ~ in action C 1106
feted pa acted G 1282
fetherbeddes n pl feather mattresses Pa 158
fetly adv neatly C 585, in a comely fashion G 1758
fette v fetch C 627, 802, receive G 451; pa ppl fette brought, fetched G 1084
fetteles pres ~ him settles himself Pa 435; pa ppl fettled set C 585, Pa 38, G 656; put together, fashioned C 343
fettres n pl fetters, foot shackles C 156, 1255
fetures n pl body parts C 794, G 145, 1761
fetyse adj neat, elegant, well fashioned C 174; as n fine touch, skill C 1103
fetysely adv neatly, skilfully C 1462
fewe adj few, small in amount C 1735; pron a small number Pa 438, 521
figure n form, visible appearance Pe 170, 747, 1086; written symbol, letter C 1726; geometrical figure G 627; pl figures forms, shapes C 1460
fildore n thread of gold Pe 106, G 189
first(e) adj and adv first Pe 486+; originally Pe 638, C 1718, G 2524; first of all Pa 503, C 1530, 1634; beforehand Pe 316, Pa 225; before G 2227; of ~ first, originally C 1714*; at the ~ at once Pe 635; (up)on ~ at first G 528, at the first, at the beginning G 491, first of all, before G 2019, speaking first G 1477; bigges upon ~ founds G 9; I schal … upon ~ I will be the first to G 1934; as n first day G 1072, the ~ the first man/men Pe 548, 549, 570, 571
fissche n fish C 531, Pa 251, 262, 337, G 503; pl fisches Pa 143, C 288, G 890
flagh see fle
flake n spot, flaw Pe 947*; pl flakes flakes C 954
flakerande pres ppl fluttering C 1410
flambe v flame, shine Pe 769
flaumbande pres ppl flaming, brilliant Pe 90*, C 1468
flavores n pl fragrances, scents Pe 87
flayed pa terrified C 960, 1723, Pa 215
flayn see flye (1)

fle v flee C 377, 914, G 2125, 2130, hurry, rush Pe 294; 2s pres fles G 2272*; pa flagh flew, fled G 2274, 2276, fledde fled G 1628, pl flowen C 945, 975; pa ppl flowen Pa 424; was flowen had fled Pa 183, 214
flem n moving flow, stream Pa 309
fleme v banish C 287; pres flemes chases, puts to flight C 31; banishes C 596, subj fleme Pe 334
flesch n body Pe 306+; flesh C 287, 1040, G 943, 2313; dead flesh C 462, venison G 1363; bodily or physical life C 356, physical creature(s) C 303, 403, 560
fleschly(che) adj physical, bodily Pe 1082, C 265
flet(e) n hall floor Pe 1058, G 294, 568, 832*, 859, 1374, 1653, 1925
flete v overflow, overspread C 685*; pres fletes floats C 1025; pa flot(te), flote floated Pe 46; was carried on the water C 421; floated, swam C 432, Pa 248; pa pl flete fleeted, sped G 1566, fleten floated Pe 21, flette were afloat C 387; pa ppl floten borne, removed G 714
flewe see flye (2)

flod n water C 531, 538, watercourse Pe 1058, G 2173, flood C 369, 397, 404, 415, 429, 450, sea Pe 736, Pa 126, 183, 221, 309; French ~ English Channel G 13; pl flodes waters Pe 874, C 324
flok n group of followers Pe 947; pl flokkes troops, companies C 837, 1767
flokked pa pl ~ in flocked together C 386, G 1323
flonc pa flung (myself), dashed Pe 1165*
flone n arrow G 1161; pl flones G 1566
flor(e) n hall floor C 133, G 834, 1932
flor-de-lys n fleur-de-lis, lily Pe 195, 753
flosche n pool, swampy tract of land G 1430
flot(e) (1) n flock, company Pe 786, 946, C 1212; liquid matter C 1011
flot(te) (2), flote(n) see flete
flour n flower Pe 29; (metaphor for person) Pe 962; of vyrgyn ~ from a virginal flower of womankind Pe 426; pl flowres flowers G 507; flower designs C 1476, flower-shaped parts of metalwork, fleurons Pe 208
floury adj flower-strewn Pe 57
flowed pa flowed C 397, flowed forth C 428
flowen see fle and flye (2)

flowred pa flowered Pe 270
flowres see flour
flurted pa ppl (of French ‘floreter’) formed into a flower-shaped ornamental design Pe 208*
flye (1) v cut, wound Pe 812; pa ppl flayn lacerated Pe 809
flye (2) v fly up G 524; pa flewe flew Pe 431, C 432, G 459; pa pl flowen flew Pe 89, C 1010
flyes n pl butterflies C 1476, G 166
flyght n flight, act of fleeing C 377; (bird’s) flight C 457, 530
flyt n contention, strife C 421
flyte v argue, dispute at law Pe 353; pres ppl flytande contending C 950
fnasted pa snorted, snuffled G 1587, 1702
fo n foe, enemy G 716; collective s C 1219; pl foes C 1767; cf. foo
foches pres (variant of ‘feches’: see fech(e)) takes G 1961
fode n food Pe 88, C 339, 1194, G 503
fodes n pl creatures C 466*
foes see fo
fogge n grass C 1683
fol (1) n fool C 750, G 2414; moral fool, sinner C 996; pl foles those without moral discernment C 202, Pa 121
fol (2) adj (morally) foolish, blind Pa 283
folde (1) n land G 23, 1014; ground C 477, G 524, 1694; earth, world C 257, 287, 540, 950, 1665; of ~ out of the land Pe 334; the Fader of ~ and flod the Father who created and governs land and sea Pe 736; (up)on ~ on (the) earth, in this world C 251&, G 196&, in that place G 2373; on (the) ~ on the ground C 1043, G 189
folde (2) (felde G 841*) v (pres foldes, pl folden; pa folded, pa ppl folde(n)) bend, bow down Pe 813; enfold(ed) Pa 309, G 841; enfolded, wound about G 959; interlaced, interwoven G 189; ?accords G 499*; turn, return G 1363; put C 1026 (imp); hand(ed) over, give(n) G 1783*, imp pl 359; pa ppl folde up upturned Pe 434, up folden held up C 643
fole n horse G 173, 196, 695*, 803; gen ~ wombes horse bellies C 1255; ~ hoves horse hooves G 459
foler n foliage C 1410
foles (1) see fol (1)

foles (2) pres takes leave of (his) senses C 1422
folk n people C 100+; nation C 730, 1161; company, community C 224, 960, 1014, G 54, 1566; servants, attendants G 816, 1126, 1374; gen pl on folkene wyse in the manner of human men C 271
folwe v follow (pres folwes, pl folwes; imp folw; pa folwed) follow(s), followed Pe 127+; pursue(s), pursued C 918, G 1164, 1895; issued in response to Pe 654; gave allegiance to C 1165, attended G 2422, folwes … after serves, attends on C 6; folwed … tille made (their) way to C 1752; pres ppl folwande following C 429, 1212, in accordance (with) Pe 1041, G 145, of ~ sute matching G 859
foly n folly Pa 122*, G 324*, 1545
folyly adv in a morally stupid way, sinfully C 696
foman n foeman, enemy C 1175
fon see fyne (3)

fonde (1) v try Pe 150, G 986; try out, test the truth of G 291; try by undergoing G 565; seek out, direct one’s steps to Pe 939; pa fonded tested G 1549; sought C 1103, G 2125, 2130; pa ppl fonte scrutinized, scanned Pe 170*
fonde (2) see fynde
fonge v (pres fonges, pl fonges; pa fong, feng, pl fonge(s); pa ppl fonge(d), fongen) take, receives, receive(d) Pe 439+; receive(d) socially, accept(ed) as a guest G 816, 919, accept into company or care G 1315*; took up Pe 884; fonges/feng to the flyght takes/took to flight C 377, 457
font n vessel for baptismal water C 164
fonte see fonde (1)

foo adj hostile, threatening G 1430; adv as a foe G 2326
fooschip n enmity C 918, 919; cf. fo
for prep for Pe 211+; because of Pe 50+; in exchange for Pa 512, G 1055; despite Pe 890, G 2132, 2251; before G 1822; as G 479, 1964; with regard to C 867; leading to C 75; conj for, because Pe 71+; and so C 1529; before ‘to’ + inf (see p. xxv) Pe 613 +; followed by adj because of being C 1595, Pa 6, 144, G 1440
forbede subj forbid Pe 379; pres forbedes forbids C 1147; pa ppl forboden forbidden C 45, 826, 998
forbi prep ~ all thinges above all G 652, ~ all other above all other men Pa 483
forbrent pa ppl burnt up, destroyed (itself) in its own flames Pe 1139
forde n place where water can be crossed (by wading or by boat), crossing place Pe 150, G 1585, 1617; pl fordes water crossings G 699
fordidden pa pl destroyed, dispelled Pe 124*
fordolked pa ppl badly wounded Pe 11
forfare v destroy, bring to ruin C 1168, Pa 483
forferde pa (of ‘forfere’) put an end to, killed G 1617; caused destruction C 1051; perished C 560, 571
forfete v forfeit Pe 639, C 177; subj forfete transgress C 743*; pa and pa ppl forfeted forfeited Pe 619; transgressed G 2394
forgart(e) pa pl forfeited C 240; pa ppl forgart Pe 321
forgat see forgete
forged pa ppl constructed C 343
forgef see forgyve
forgete v (see also foryete) forget Pe 86; pa forgat forgot C 203, G 1472, 2031
forgo v lack, be deprived of Pe 328, G 2210; pres forgos goes without Pe 340
forgyve v forgive C 731, Pa 404; pa forgef forgave Pa 407
forhedes n pl foreheads, brows Pe 871
forjusted pa ppl defeated in combat on horseback C 1216
forlete pa lost, was deprived of Pe 327; cf. forlotes
forlonge n furlong (a linear measure of approximately one-eighth of a mile); twelve ~ space the length of twelve furlongs Pe 1030
forlotes imp pl (from ON variant of forlete) omit, pass over C 101
forloyne v err, go astray C 750, subj Pe 368; pa forloyne strayed from C 1165, left behind; part adj forloyne(d) erring C 1155, off course, out of line C 282
formadde part adj deranged, irrational Pa 509
forme (1) n form Pe 1209, C 173, 1535, Pa 38, G 1295; outward form and appearance C 253, G 145; manner G 2130; pl formes representational designs C 1468; images furnished by a discourse C 3
forme (2) n and adj first C 257, Pa 38, G 499, 2373, original, earliest Pe 639; super formast foremost, first C 494
forme (3) imp form, make C 316; pa and pa ppl formed created C 560, 1665, Pa 92, formed, fashioned Pe 747, C 1341, ~ out fashioned so as to project C 1462
forne adv formerly G 2422
forpayned pa ppl overcome by anguish Pe 246
forray v gather provisions (in time of war) C 1200
forsake v (pres pl forsake(n); pa forsoke, pa ppl forsaken) make denial G 475; reject, abandon Pe 743, G 2380; declined C 75, reject(ed) (an offered gift) Pa 332, G 1826, 1846; repudiated C 210
forselet n fortified place, fortress C 1200
forser n coffer, strong-box Pe 263
forsettes imp pl block the way (of), cause to stop C 78
forsoke see forsake
forsothe adv in truth, indeed Pa 212
forst n frost C 524, G 1694
forth adv forward, on(wards) Pe 98+; out C 77+
forth-dayes adv well into the day G 1072*
forther v put into action, carry out C 304
forthering vn furtherance (of), promotion (of) C 3
forthikke adv very thickly C 226
forth-naghtes adv at ~ well into the night C 1764
forthoghte see forthynkes
forthrast pa ppl crushed, shattered C 249
forthy adv therefore Pe 137+, for that reason, on that account Pe 234, C 1245, G 240, 1025, so G 500
forthynkes (impers v) pres me ~ I regret C 285; subj if thee forthynk if it grieves you Pa 495; (personal v) pa forthoghte regretted C 557
fortune n fortune, chance, the turn taken by events Pe 98, G 99; the mutability of this world Pe 306; (personified) Pe 129
forw n furrow, channel G 2173; pl forwes trenches made by a ploughshare C 1547
forward n pledge, covenant, bargain C 327, 1742, G 1105, 1395, 1636, 2347; pl forwardes terms of an agreement G 378, 409, 1405, 1934
forwonder n great wonder G 147*
forwondered part adj amazed G 1660
forwroght part adj as n (men) worn out with toil Pa 163
foryelde subj (in prayer) repay, reward G 839, 1279, 1435, 2429; cf. yelde
foryete v (see also forgete) overlook, pardon C 739; pres foryetes ignores C 1660, pl foryeten disregard, neglect C 1528*; pa foryete forgot C 463, pa ppl foryeten forgotten G 1485
foster n offspring C 257
fote n foot C 432, 477, Pa 187, G 422, 2276, 2363; base Pe 161; (as measurement) foot G 2225, footstep Pe 350, 970, C 1200, G 2151*; to ~ and to hande hand and foot C 174; pl fete Pe 1120+, (at line ending) fotes G 574; (up)on fote on foot C 79, 88, 914, G 329, 2363, on his fote G 2229
foule (1) adj dirty C 140; rotten C 462; evil, wicked G 717; unlovely, worthless G 1944; super foulest worst, least impressive G 1329
foule (2) adv foully, grossly C 1790; badly G 2378*
fouled pa became foul C 269; pa ppl made dirty; soiled, defiled C 1495; cf. defoule and defowle
foundande see foundes
founde(n) see fynde
foundered pa ppl struck to the ground C 1014
foundes pres walks G 1585, 2229; sets off, departs, separates C 1764; imp pl foundes go C 903; pres ppl foundande to proceeding to, heading for Pa 126; pa ppl founded proceeded G 267
founs n bottom, river-bottom Pe 113, sea-bottom C 1026
foure num four Pe 870+; on all ~ on all four limbs C 1683
fowle n bird C 474, 530, 538; pl fowles birds Pe 89 C 56, 1410
foysoun n abundance, plenty G 122; adj abundant, plentiful Pe 1058
fraunchis(e) n (a) privileges and status that are the opposite of servitude Pe 609*; (b) generous acts, handsome behaviour, magnanimity C 750, G 651*, 1264
frayes pres frightens, terrifies C 1553*
frayn v try, undergo G 489*; pres fraynes puts to the test, makes trial of Pe 129; pa frayned asked, enquired G 703, 1046, 2494; made trial of G 1549*; pa ppl frayned asked, sought G 359
frayst(e) v seek G 279, 409*; to ~ the trauthe to tell the truth C 1736*; 2&3s pres fraystes seek(s) G 455; tests, subjects to rigour G 503*; imp frayst seek, ask G 1395; pa frayste examined Pe 169; pa ppl frayst sought G 324, 391; fraysted tested G 1679
fre adj having the status and conduct of the well-born Pe 796; of high status C 607, 861, G 1885; great C 275; noble, fine Pe 299, C 203, 1062, G 101, 803, 1961; liberal, generous Pe 481, G 847; honourable C 474, G 1156; above wrongdoing C 741; as n freemen C 88; my ~ my lady G 1545; that ~ that noblewoman G 1549, 1783, that worthy person C 929, super the freest the greatest persons G 2422
freke n man C 177+; (in address) G 2274; gen frekes man’s G 537; pl frekes C 79+
freloker comp adv more nobly, more elegantly C 1106
frely(che) adj noble, excellent, magnificent C 162, Pa 214; smart, elegant C 173; as n lovely one Pe 1155
frely adv so as to show good will, courteously G 816, 894; generously, amply Pa 20; without restriction Pa 390
frende n loyal follower, supporter C 642; ally, patron Pe 1204*, C 1229; (in address) friend Pe 558, C 139; pl frendes friends C 399, 861, G 987; loyal allies C 721; acquaintances, compatriots G 714
fres pa froze G 728
fresch(e) adj fresh, refreshing Pe 87; vivid Pe 1086*; unsullied C 173, G 2019; as n that ~ as flor-de-lys she who was blooming as a lily Pe 195*; the ~ fresh food G 122
freschly adv with energy G 1294
fretes pres eats into C 1040; pa ppl freten devoured C 404
frette imp freight, load C 339
fretted pa ppl inlaid, studded C 1476
frith n woodland Pe 89, 98, 103, C 534, G 1430, 1973, 2151; fyr ~ fir forest C 1680*; pl frithes woodlands G 695
fro prep from Pe 13+; conj from the time that Pe 251, 375, C 353, 1325; after C 833, G 8, 62; ~ that after Pe 958, from the time that C 1198; ~ first that from the first, when C 1069; adv to ne ~ (neither) forwards nor backwards Pe 347
frok n gown, robe C 136; pl frokkes C 1742
frothande pres ppl foaming up to form a scum C 1721
frount n brow, countenance Pe 177, G 959
frunt pa struck, hit Pa 187
fruyt n fruit C 245, 1043, 1044, 1468; any edible product of plants and trees Pe 29; newe ~ first fruits (of a harvest) Pe 894; pl fruytes fruits Pe 87, 1078
fryst v grant (a period of time) as respite C 743
ful(le) adj full Pe 1098, C 1599, Pa 20, G 44*; adv very, very much, most Pe 80+; fully, completely Pe 860, to the ~ completely C 120, 343
fulfylle v complete C 164, pa fulfylled C 1732; observe fully C 264
fulwed pa ppl baptized C 164
fundament n base, foundation Pe 1010; pl fundamentes Pe 993
furthe adj fourth Pe 1005
fuyt n trail of prey G 1425, 1699
fyched pa ppl fixed, pinned G 658
fyf see fyve
fyght (1) n fight, physical combat C 275, G 279
fyght (2) v fight, engage in combat G 278, 717, pres pl C 1191; pres ppl fyghtande conflicting, contending C 404; pa pl foght fought G 874, faght contended Pe 54; vn in fyghtynges wyse in guise of war G 267*
fyked pa retreated, ran away G 2274
fyled (1) pa ppl filed, sharpened G 2225; ~ out carved to project outward C 1460
fyled (2) pa ppl soiled C 136*
fylle pres pl fill C 111; fulfil, carry out G 1405, 1934; pres fylles fills C 462; imp pl of … hem fylles fill them with C 1433; pa ppl fylled filled C 104, 1008
fylsen v assist, support G 99; pa fylsened C 1167, 1644
fylter pres pl join together, copulate C 696; grapple, contend C 1191, G 986; mass confusedly, throng C 224; pa ppl fyltered tangled C 1689
fylthe n dirt, unclean matter Pe 1060, Pa 290; (moral or literal) impurity C 6, 31, 1122, 1721, 1798, G 1013, 2436; ~ (of the flesch) sexual perversion C 202, 251, 265, 355, 547, 559, 574, 680, 730, 845, 923, 1051; pl fylthes kinds of uncleanness C 14
fylyoles n pl ?spires, ?towers C 1462*, G 796*
fynde v (2&3s pres fyndes; subj fynde C 466, 902; pa fonde, subj G 1875*, pl founde(n); pa ppl founde(n)) find(s), found Pe 150+; will find C 587; find out C 1554; devised C 694; seeks out C 1295; took to, took up C 265; discerned, saw C 133, fande Pe 871; vn fyndyng act of finding, search G 1433
fyne (1) adj fine, excellent Pe 170, 1204, C 721, 794, 1742, G 919, 1761; pure, absolute G 1239*; (of metals) pure, unalloyed Pe 106; (of precious stones) without defect C 1122; (of agreements) formal, drawn up in proper legal form G 1636*
fyne (2) adv finely G 1737; exactly G 173; fully, completely Pe 635; fynly wholly, unreservedly G 1391
fyne (3) v finish, die Pe 328; subj cease Pe 353; imp fyne thou never don’t stop C 929; pa fon ended C 369, terminated Pe 1030, fyned came to an end C 450
fynger n finger; pl fyngres fingers C 1103, 1533, 1553, 1723, G 641; fingers’ breadths G 1329; finger-like pendants G 1833
fynisment n completion, end G 499
fynly see fyne (2)

fynne n fin C 531
fyoles, vyoles n pl (Vulgate phialae) small glass drinking vessels C 1280, 1476*
fyr n ~ frith fir forest C 1680*
fyrce adj fierce, violent Pe 54; disposed to fight C 101; daring, presumptuous C 217
fyrmament n firmament, heaven C 221
fyste n the hand when the fingers are closed to conceal the palm C 1534, 1723, hand G 391
fythel n fiddle, stringed instrument played with bow C 1082
fyther n feather C 1026; pl fytheres wing feathers C 530, 1484
fyve (fyf Pe 849) n and adj five G 627&; tho ~ five of those, five times as much Pe 451
gafe see gif
galle (1) n bile C 1022; gawle rancour, ill-will Pe 463
galle (2) n (spot of) filth, stain Pe 189*, 915, scum Pe 1060, Pa 285
game n game G 273, 283, 365, 692; device, design G 661*; pleasure G 1536, recreation G 1014, 1314, pastime G 1532*; sport, jest G 1376, 1933; game animals, venison G 1635; pl gamnes games G 495, 683; sports, diversions G 1319, 1894, mirth, entertainment, games G 989; cf. gomenly
gares pres (pa gart, pl garten) (+ inf) causes/caused (to), makes/made Pe 86*, 331, 1151, C 690, 896, 1645, G 2460; gart crye caused to be proclaimed, had proclaimed C 1361
garlande n coronal, chaplet Pe 1186*
garnyst pa ppl ~ of adorned with C 1277
gart(en) see gares
garysoun n treasure, item(s) of value G 1255, 1807, 1837
gate n road, path Pe 526, G 696, 778, way C 676, 767, 931, G 930, 1967, 2119, free passage G 1154; way, means Pe 619; highe ~ main road, highway Pe 395; pl gates paths Pe 1106, routes G 709
gaudi n beadwork, ornamentation G 167*
gave see gif
gawle see galle (1)

gay (1) adj gorgeous, beautiful, splendid Pe 7+; finely dressed G 935; lively, gay C 830; as n that ~ that beautiful (one) Pe 189, 433, G 970, that fine man G 2035; (my) ~ (my) fair lady G 1213, 1822; super gayest most splendidly accoutred G 2023
gay (2), gayly adv finely, richly, splendidly C 1568, G 74, 179, 598, 666, 1760
gayn (1) adj ready, responsive, obedient G 178; good, to be welcomed or celebrated C 259, G 1241, 2491; suitable, acceptable C 749; super at the gaynest by the most direct route G 1973; adv readily, directly G 1621
gayn (2) v be of use or profit to G 584; pres gaynes is of use to, helps, profits Pe 343, Pa 348*, G 1829; pres pl gaynes are efficacious C 1608; pa gayned was suited or appropriate to Pa 164
gayn (3) prep opposite; over ~ across on the facing side of Pe 138
gayne n gains G 2349
gaynly adv fitly, appropriately G 476*, specifically G 1297
gaynly(che) adj beneficent, gracious C 724, Pa 83
geder v ~ hem gather C 1363; pres gederes enters on G 2160, ~ up/on hyghte draws up G 421, 2260; gederes/gederen to make(s) physical contact with so as to control or manipulate Pa 105, G 777*; pa and pa ppl gedered gathered G 1326, assembled G 1566, 1426, 1625
gef see gif
gele v linger Pe 931*
gemme n gem, jewel Pe 118&; pl gemmes Pe 7+
gendered pa ppl engendered, born C 300; cf. engendered
gendres n pl genera, species C 434
generacyoun n lineage, origins Pe 827
gent adj befitting a courtly context; (of persons) good, worthy Pe 265, 1134; (of objects) elegant, superior Pe 118, 253, 1014, C 1495
gentryse n those of gentle birth, the well-born C 1159; magnanimity, courteous care for others Pa 398
gentyl(e) (1) adj of status and/or manners and/or disposition belonging to good or ‘gentle’ birth G 42, 2185; of gentle status C 1235, 1257; gracious Pe 264*, courtly, courteous, beneficent, generous Pe 605, 632, 895, G 774; showing proper feeling, amiable, pious; (of objects) excellent, superior Pe 278, 883, 991, C 1309, fine G 1021; in ~ wyse in fine fashion C 1432; super gentylest noblest, of highest birth C 1180; most considerate and respectful of others G 639; most precious, most valuable Pe 1015; as n that gentyl that noble one, that worthy one Pe 602, G 542; his gentyl his noblemen C 1216
gentyl (2) adj Gentile C 76

Gentyle gen pl of the Gentiles Pa 62
gentylmen n pl well-born men C 864
gere n equipment, array C 16, 1811; armour G 569, 584; tackle Pa 148, utensils C 1505; business, doings G 2205; pl geres accessories, trappings G 1470
geres pres ~ him gets himself ready G 1872; pa ppl gered arrayed C 1568, equipped G 179, set out G 2227, set in place C 1444, G 791; gered with decked or adorned with C 1364, G 957, decoratively fashioned from G 1832
gest n guest C 641, G 921, 1036, 2055; one who visits or passes through or arrives at a place Pe 277; pl gestes guests C 98, 830, 862, 872, G 1024, 1127
get n gains G 1638, 1871
gete v get Pe 95, Pa 423, G 1870, procure; pres pl gete Pa 212; pa gete got, put G 1571; pa pl geten seized G 1171; pa ppl geten got, fetched C 1505, G 1625; acquired G 1943; received G 2480; yat (C 66*), gat (G 1255*) obtained
gettes n pl fashions (in clothing or customs) C 1354
gif v give G 288, 297, 365, 1383, 1638, 1829, 2395; pres gives C 1528; imp gif Pe 543, 546, Pa 204, G 326, 1799; subj gyve Pe 707, 1211, Pa 226, G 2068; pa gave (gef Pe 174) Pe 270, 667, C 1326, G 2073, 2s gafe G 2349; pa ppl geven C 259, G 920, 1500; is thee geven has been given to you C 1627; gave … good day said goodbye to G 668, 1029, 1290; cf. yef
gilde, gilt pa ppl gilded, overlaid with gold C 1344, G 569, 777*
gile n guile, deceit, dishonesty Pe 671, 688, G 1787; treachery Pa 285
giles n pl gills Pa 269
gilofre n clove-scented flower, gillyflower Pe 43
gilt see gilde
girdel n girdle, belt G 1829, 2035, 2037, 2358, 2395, 2429
giserne n battleaxe G 288, 326, 375, 2265
glace v glance, dart, slide Pe 171
glad(e) adj joyous Pe 1144, C 1077; cheerful C 830; happy C 641, G 495, 1079, 1245, merry, gay C 123, G 1926, 1955; ~ of pleased with Pa 457; bright, splendid Pe 136; comp gladder Pe 136; super gladdest happiest, most radiant Pe 1109
glade v gladden C 1083, G 989; pres glades Pe 861; pres ppl gladande gladdening, cheering Pe 171; pa gladed C 499
gladly adv willingly G 225, with good will G 370, 415; comp gladloker more gladly G 1064
gladnes n pl sources of gladness, delights Pe 136
glam n noise, cries C 849, G 46, 1426, 1652; voice C 499, Pa 63, speech C 830
glaveres pres pl verbally deceive Pe 688; pres ppl glaverande noisy G 1426*
glaymande pres ppl forming slime, viscous Pa 269*
glayve n spear, lance Pe 654
gle n delight Pe 95*, G 1436; music Pe 1123, G 46, 1652
glede (1) n kite, bird of prey C 1696
glede (2) n bed of burning coals G 1609; pl gledes live coals G 891
glem n gleam, emitted light Pe 79, C 218, G 604
glemande pres ppl gleaming, shining Pe 70, 990; pa glemed gleamed, glittered G 598
glemered pa flashed, glittered G 172
glene v to ~ to be gleaned Pe 955; see to (2)

glent (1) n glance G 1290; ray of glancing light Pe 114; pl glentes glances, expression Pe 1144
glent(e) (2) pa s and pl (a) glinted, glittered Pe 70+; (b) turned aside, deviated Pe 671*; flinched G 2292; sprang G 1652; (c) glanced, looked G 82, 476
glet(te) n slime, viscous matter Pe 1060, Pa 269, muck C 306, 573
glewed pa called aloud Pa 164
glod see glydes
glode n open space, clearing G 2266; pl glodes open spaces between trees Pe 79; (bright) patches G 2181
gloped pa was confounded C 849
glopnedly adv in a frightened manner C 896*
glopnyng vn shock, paralysed terror G 2461
glorious adj and adv glorious(ly) Pe 799, 915, 1144, G 46, 1760, radiant C 218
glory n glory Pe 171 (see p. 13), 959, Pa 94; beauty Pe 934; celebratory praise Pe 1123; renown, splendour C 1337, 1358; as concrete n resplendence, radiance Pe 70; gif ~ to glorify Pa 204
gloryed pa ~ on gave glory to C 1522
glotounes n pl drunkards, louts C 1505
gloumbes pres frowns, looks displeased; ~ ful little is little concerned Pa 94
glowande pres ppl glowing, shining Pa 94, G 236; pa glowed Pe 114
glydes pres glides, proceeds directly or smoothly C 325, 677, 1590, Pa 269, G 935, passes G 748; ~ His gate goes His way C 767; (of light) shines Pe 79; subj glyde hence pass hence (= die) Pa 204; pres ppl glydande walking, proceeding C 296, swooping G 2266; pa glod glided, proceeded, came Pe 1105*, C 499, Pa 63, G 661
glyfte pa turned the eyes Pa 453, G 2265; started or froze with horror C 849
glyght pa (of ‘glie’) glanced, looked Pa 453, G 842*, 970; glittered Pe 114
glymme n brightness, radiance Pe 1088*
glysnande pres ppl glistening, gleaming Pe 165, 1018
glyterande pres ppl glittering G 2039; pa glytered sparkled G 604
gnede adv in a scant and niggardly way C 146*
go (gon Pe 820) v go Pa 348, G 448, 1024, 1127, 2150; pres gos goes C 341+, goes out, issues Pe 365; moves on legs C 677; pres pl gos Pe 510; imp go Pe 559, pl gos go Pe 521, 535, C 77, Pa 524, G 2119; subj go (Pe 530), pl gon (C 1811) may go; pres ppl goande going, walking C 931, G 2214; pa ppl gon gone Pe 376, Pa 175, is/was ~ has/had gone Pe 63, G 1872
goblotes n pl goblets C 1277, 1475
god (1) n a god, a deity C 1324, 1663, Pa 164, 171, 199; pl goddes gods C 1165, 1343, 1522, 1525, 1608, 1719
god (2) n goods, valuables Pe 731, 734, C 1315, G 1064; pl godes goods C 1282, G 1944; provisions C 1200; good things, blessings, prosperity Pa 286, C 1326, 1528; cf. good(e)

godelest super adj goodliest, greatest C 1608
godes see god (2)

godly adv graciously, good-humouredly, with good will G 273, 842, 920, 1376, 1933; decently, rightly Pa 26
godlyche adj goodly, fine G 584; good, kind C 753
godnesse n goodness Pa 407, rightness Pe 493
golf n gulf, deep water Pe 608; pl guferes gulfs Pa 310*
gome n man Pe 231+; pl gomes C 99, 1315; (in address) Pa 199, pl C 77
gomenly adv happily, joyfully G 1079; cf. game
gon see go
good(e) adj good Pe 310+; true G 1498; fine G 1738, (ironic) C 1525; (as sobriquet of Gawain) G 109, 633, 1110, 1297*, 1926, 2214, 2270, 2491; as n what is good, good thing Pe 33, G 1482, behoof, advantage G 2031, 2127, worthy man G 553, alle ~ all good things Pa 20; adv for ~ seriously, truly G 965*, 1822; cf. god (2)

goodman n head of house, host C 611, 677, 849, G 1029, 1392, 1635, 1932, 1955, 1969; (in address) good man Pa 524*
gorde v hurl, plunge C 911; pa ~ to rushed upon C 957*
gore n mud, mire C 306
gorstes n pl gorse-bushes, gorseland C 99, 535
gos see go
gost n spirit Pe 63, 86, C 325, 728, 1627, G 2250; pl gostes of God spiritual gifts inspired by God C 1598*
gostly adj spiritual; supernatural Pe 185; ~ dreme spiritual dream, vision Pe 790*
gostlyche adv in a paranormal way G 2461
gote n fast-flowing stream Pe 934; pl gotes spouts of water, streams Pe 608, C 413, Pa 310
goules n (heraldic) red G 619, 663
goun n robe, garment C 145, dress, costume G 2396; pl gounes robes, (outer) garments C 1568
governour n leader, overlord G 225, (used of God) Pa 199*; pl governores rulers C 1645
grace n (theological) grace Pe 612*, 425+, mercy C 731, 758, G 1215; good fortune, happiness Pe 194, G 1507; boon, gift, favour C 1347, 1522, G 2480*; in Godes ~ under the protection of God’s grace Pe 63
gracious adj pleasing, grateful to the senses Pe 95, 934, Pa 453, G 216, and/or possessed of spiritual/social grace Pe 189, Pa 26; adv pleasingly Pe 260
graciously adv with courteous good will G 970; becomingly, pleasingly C 488
grame n (cf. greme) anger at oneself G 2502; trouble Pa 53
grant merci (French phrase) thank you C 765, G 838, 1037, 1392, 2126
grant(e), graunt v grant G 1218, 1841, consent C 765, G 1110; pres grantes grants, permits G 921; agrees to, consents to G 1103; pa and pa ppl granted C 810*, G 1683, 1861; acknowledged Pa 240
graunt (1) n consent, permission Pe 317
graunt (2) see grante
gravayl n gravel, small stones Pe 81
graven pa ppl inscribed, written C 1324, 1544; engraved C 1475; buried, interred C 1332
grayth adj ready G 448, 597; harnessed G 2047
graythes pres arrays G 2014; pa subj graythed would bring Pa 53; pa graythed him prepared himself G 2259; pa ppl graythed disposed, set C 1485, G 74, 109; made ready C 343, G 876, equipped G 666, arrayed, set out G 151
grayth(e)ly adv directly C 341; properly, justly Pe 499, G 1335, in a regular way G 1470, suitably G 417, 876, duly G 1006, 1683; firmly G 2292; truly Pa 240, 286
gre n pl pleasure; at thy ~ at your will, at your pleasure Pa 348
grece see gres
gref n grief, pain Pe 86, Pa 83, G 2502
grehoundes n pl hunting-dogs (used to bring down deer) G 1171
greme n (ON equivalent of grame) anger Pe 465, C 16, 947, G 2299, martial wrath G 312; pain, affliction G 1507, 2251, 2370
gremen v make angry, inflame C 1347; subj greme Pa 42; pa gremed was angered C 138
grene n and adj green Pe 38+, adv G 305; comp grener G 235; adj as n vegetation C 1028; the ~ the grass, the ground C 634, the green colour/apparel G 405, 429, 549, that ~ that green man G 464
grenne pres pl grin, smile G 464
gres, grece n fatty tissue, flesh G 425*, 1326, 1378, 2313
gresse n grass Pe 10, 245, G 235, 527, 2181; plant Pe 31, C 1028
gret(te) pa greeted G 842, 1933
gret(e) (1) adj great Pe 237+; large Pe 90+; main, principal Pa 105; mankynde ~ the great race of man Pe 637; ~ wordes threatening talk, braggadocio G 312, 325; as n the ~ the great ones, the great men C 1363, G 2490; super grettest most great, supreme C 1645, G 207, thickest G 1326
grete (2) v weep, lament Pe 331, G 2157
gretyng vn weeping, wailing C 159
greve (1) n grove, woodland Pe 321, G 1355, 1707, 1898, 1974; pl greves C 99, Pa 439, G 207, 508
greve(n) (2) v harm Pa 112, 517; offend Pa 226; cause to suffer C 138, subj greve Pe 471, G 1070; pa greved took offence, was angered G 316*; were distressed G 1442; pa ppl greved upset, offended C 302, 306, 774, Pa 171, 210, afflicted G 2460; cf. agreved
greving vn grieving, lamenting C 159
grewe pa (of ‘grow’) was generated Pe 425; pa pl grewen increased C 277
grippes pres grasps, grips G 330; pa gripped G 214, ~ to took hold of G 421, 1335
gromyloun n gromwell (plant of the borage family) Pe 43
grone v groan G 2157, pa groned G 2502; groan in childbirth C 1077
gronyed pa grunted G 1442
gropande pres ppl probing C 591
gropyng vn (medical) manual examination C 1102
grounde (1) n ground Pe 81, C 445, 798, 957, G 526, 2294, ground area C 911; floor G 426; world C 1324, 1663, G 2150; place, region G 705; bottom, basis, foundation Pe 372, 384, 396, 408, 420; source, origin C 591; (in)to ~ into/to the earth Pe 10+; put/layde to the ~ felled C 1214, 1307; (up)on ~ in the world C 1363, G 1058, 1070, 2150, on the floor G 417; pl groundes fields G 508
grounde(n) (2) see grynde
groundelesse adj bottomless Pa 310
grovelyng adv face downward, prostrate Pe 1120
gruch v be unwilling to grant G 2251; pres pl subj gruchen are unwilling to give C 1347; pa gruched declined, were unwilling C 810*
gruchyng vn grumbling Pa 53*; adv grudgingly G 2126
grue n grain, bit, whit G 2251
gryed pa felt revulsion G 2370
grym(me) adj gross, dense Pe 1070*; grim, sharp C 1696, G 2260; frightening G 1442, terrifying to see C 1553; adv grymly grimly Pe 654; in an awesome manner C 1534
grynde v make a grating noise, scrunch Pe 82; pa ppl grounde (Pe 654), grounden (G 2202) ground, sharpened
gryndel adj fierce Pa 524*, G 2338
gryndellayk n fierceness G 312
gryndelly adv angrily, heatedly G 2299
grysly adj fearsome, dreadful to behold C 1534
gryspytyng vn gnashing of teeth C 159*
gryste n teeth-gnashing Pe 465*
guferes see golf
gulty adj guilty (of sin) Pa 210, 285; as n the ~ the guilty party Pa 175; cf. gylt-
gurde pa ppl girdled G 1851, girt G 597
gut n intestinal organ Pa 280; pl guttes abdominal organs Pa 258, guts G 1336
gye v govern C 1663; pres gyes is lord of C 1598, 1627
gylt n guilt, guiltiness Pe 942, C 690, 731, Pa 404; pl gyltes Pe 655
gyltles adj as n guiltless person Pe 668, 799
gyltyf adj as n person guilty of wrongdoing Pe 669*
gyn n ‘engine’ (= mechanical contrivance); craft, vessel C 491, Pa 146
gyng n troop, retinue, household Pe 455*, G 225*
gyngure n plant which yields ginger Pe 43
gyrdes pres ~ to strikes upon G 2062, 2160; pa gorde to rushed upon C 957
gyrle n child and/or young woman Pe 205*
gyse n guise, dress, array Pe 1099
gyve see gif

habbes 2&3s and pl pres (used in place of ‘hast’, ‘has’, ‘have’, etc, at line ending) C 75&, G 327&
hach n planking, deck; n under ~, under hachches below deck C 409 Pa 179
had(e) pa had Pe 1164+, brought G 1051; 2s hades G 2394; pl had(e)(n) had C 123+, brought C 941, G 1446; pa ppl hade had C 1443, G 1962
hadet pa ppl beheaded G 681
haf pres pl and imp s and pl have Pe 257+; ~ at thee look out! G 2288*
hafyng vn what is had, possessions Pe 450
halches pres folds, interloops G 1613; pa and pa ppl halched enfolded, entwined G 218, 657, enclosed G 185*, wrapped G 1852; embraced G 939
haldande see holde (2)

hales pres moves, proceeds (usually with some vigour and directness) Pe 125, C 458; pres pl hale pull (on oars) Pa 219*; pa haled pulled G 1338; took a pull (of liquor) C 1520; hales in comes straight in G 136, haled out went straight out G 458; haled on pushed on, hurried on C 380; hales upon hyght soars high C 458, haled upon loft towered G 788; haled to him drew (their bows) in his direction G 1455; pa ppl were haled had been withdrawn G 1049*; wel-haled well drawn up G 157
half, halve n, adj and adv half Pe 72, G 140, 165, 185; part Pa 460*, G 649; side C 719, Pa 434, G 698, 1224, 1552; (up)on Godes halve on God’s behalf, for God’s sake C 896, G 326, 692, 2119, 2149; upon ayther half, upon bothe halve on each side Pa 450, G 2070, 2165, on uch a halve all around G 742; by half by a long way G 1543; pl half C 950 sides, halves halves G 1613, areas C 1039
halkes n pl nooks, recesses C 104, 321
halle n main dining and concourse area of a great house or royal court Pe 184, C 90&, Pa 272, G 62&; in ~ G 102, 495; ~ dor hall door C 44, G 136, 458, ~ yates gates to the hall G 1693, ~ flor floor of the hall C 1397; pl halles large public rooms G 48, 2329, larger rooms C 321
halme n shaft, handle G 218, 330, 2224
halowes pres cries ‘halloo!’ G 1908; pa pl halowed hallooed G 1445, 1914; pa ppl shouted at G 1723*; vn halowyng hallooing G 1602, 1639
halse n neck G 427, 621, 1353, 1388
halt adj lame C 102
halte see holde (1)

halve see half
halwed pa hallowed, consecrated C 506, 1163
halwes n pl saints G 2122
halydam n holy relics G 2123*
halyday n holy day, liturgical feast day, religious festival C 135*, 141, 166, Pa 9*, festival period G 804; pl halydayes holy days, holidays G 1049
hame n (northern variant of ‘home’; used for rhyme) G 1534, 2451
hamppred pa put into crates C 1284*
hand(e), honde n (pl hande Pe 49, 218, G 494, handes Pe 706+) hand(s) C 1106+; side G 2146; on honde in hand, for present attention Pe 155*; in hande in His power C 1704, in (their/his) hands C 1412, 1510, G 375, 1586, into (his) hands; in my hande in my power Pa 222, G 1257, in thy ~ C 734; holden … in her ~ hold by the hand G 2056*; tan on ~ taken up G 490; out of ~ without to-do G 2285
hand-mighte n power of (His) hands Pa 257
hand-werk n handwork, product of the skill of the hands Pa 496*
hand-while n short space of time, moment C 1786
hanselle n (New Year’s) gift as token or earnest of good luck G 66*, 491*
hap n good fortune Pe 16, 713, 1195, Pa 212, G 48; pl happes blessings, blessed states C 24, Pa 11, 29
hapenes pres fares C 27
happe v wrap G 1224*; imp under … hem happe cover them with C 626; pa happed was enwrapped, clothed himself G 864; pa ppl happed wound, bound G 655; closed Pa 450
happen adj blessed Pa 13&; super hapnest most blessed, most fortunate G 56
happes see hap
hard(e) adj hard C 524, 1209, 1342, G 732; difficult C 663, taxing C 442, G 733; grievous C 562, 1150; stern, merciless C 714, comp harder C 50; as n what is hard (Pe 606); adv hard C 44, 159, G 2153, firmly G 1783, comp harder G 655; fast C 1204; badly, ill C 424; severely C 543; without mitigation or mercy C 596
hardenes pres urges on G 521*; pa hardened G 1428
hard-hewen part adj masonried G 789
hardily adv boldly, without doubt Pe 3; assuredly Pe 695, G 2390
harlot n low fellow, vagabond, menial C 39, 148; gen harlotes knave’s, low fellow’s C 34, ~ speche lewd words C 874; pl harlotes scoundrels, reprobates C 860, (abusive) 1584
harlottrye n obscene behaviour C 579
harme (1) n harm C 168; suffering, injury Pa 520, G 2277; wound, damage G 2511; wrong, sin Pe 681, Pa 17, wrong suffered G 2390; pl harmes harms G 2272, griefs Pe 388
harme (2) v do harm to C 1503
harmles adj sinless, guiltless, innocent Pe 676*, 725
harnays n equipment, set of armour G 590, 2016
harnayst pa ppl accoutred, armed G 592
harpe n harp, harp-playing Pe 881
harpen pres pl harp Pe 881
harpores n pl harpers, harp-players Pe 881
hasel n hazel bush G 744
haspe n hasp, clasp G 1233; haspe-stede place where cloak is fastened Pa 189*
haspes pres clasps G 1388; pa ppl hasped fastened Pa 381, G 607; enlocked; buckled (in armour) G 281, 590, 831; hasped on attached to C 419
haste n haste C 419, 902, Pa 217, G 1569, 1756; angry precipitateness C 1503*; in ~ soon G 780, 2218, with angry precipitateness C 599
hasted pa pl hastened on C 937, drove on G 1897; hastened G 1165, 1424
hastily adv quickly G 1135, promptly G 605, precipitately C 200*
hasty adj hasty (of temper), hot-tempered Pa 520; urgent G 1051*
hat see hatte
hate (1) n hate, hostility Pe 453, C 714, 915
hate (2) see hot(e)

hatel adj cruel, fierce, violent C 227, Pa 367, 481; for ~ because of angry hostility C 200
hathel n man, person Pe 676+; attendant G 2065; (in address) G 323, 379, 2467; pl hatheles employed men Pa 217, G 829&
hatte (1) n hat G 2081; hard hattes helmets C 1209
hatte (2) v (see hete (2)) be called, be named C 1571*; pres 1&3s hat(te), 2s hattes is/am/are called C 448+; pa ppl hatte called, named C 1322
hatter comp adv more hotly C 1138
hattes see hatte
hauberghe n metal corslet G 203, 268
hauekes see hawk
haunte pres pl habitually practice, exercise Pa 15
haves pres 2s hast C 171, pl haven have G 1255
havilounes pres runs a crooked course G 1708*
hawer adj goodly, fine G 1738; comp hawerer G 352
hawerly adv fitly, with suitable refinement or finery C 18, 1707*
hawk n hawk Pe 184; pl hauekes C 537
hawthorne n hawthorn bush G 744
hay (1) n hay-grass (growing or cut) C 1684*
hay (2) inter (hunting cry) hay! G 1158, 1445
haylse v greet, salute G 2493; pres haylses G 972; pa and pa ppl haylsed hailed, greeted Pe 238, C 612, 814, 1621, G 223, 810, 829
hayre n hair Pe 210, G 180, 183, 190, 436, 1587; haircloth Pa 381; pl hayres hairs C 1695; haircloths Pa 373
hed(e), heved n (pl hedes) head(s) Pe 459+; top or operative end of a weapon G 210, 217, arrowhead(s) G 1162, 1459; leader G 253; source (of river) Pe 974; headland G 700*; to hed for (her) head Pe 209; of your hed from your mouth G 1523
hede v heed, observe, look at Pe 1051
hedles adj without a head G 438
hef see heve(n)

hegges n pl hedges G 1708
helde (1) adv as ~ very probably Pe 1193; comp the helder the more, the sooner G 376, 430
helde(n) (2) v fall, issue G 1523; pres heldes bows, stoops, sinks C 1330; as generalized verb of motion heldes him makes his way G 221; heldes hem with accompanies them C 678; pres pl helden to make for G 1922; helden after follow G 1694; pres ppl heldande bowing G 972, 1104; pa helded went C 39; went down G 1321, sank; helded unhole became unsound C 1681; helded … fro stepped back from G 2331; pa ppl helde poured C 1520
helde (3) see holde (2)

hele (1) n health, well-being, safety Pe 16, 713, C 920, 1099, Pa 92, 335
hele (2) n ~ over hed head over heels Pa 271; pl heles C 1789, G 777, 1899, 2062, 2153
heled pa healed C 1098
helle n Hell Pe 442, 651, 840, 1125, C 168, 227, 577, 911, 968; (personified) C 961; emphatic as helle ‘like Hell’ Pa 275; gen helle Pe 643
helle-hole n pit of Hell C 223
hellene adj of Hell Pa 306
helme n helmet G 203&
help(e), helpen v help C 762, Pa 219, 222, 496, 501; pres helpes G 2209, subj help(e) G 256, 1055; pa help C 1163
hem pron (acc and dat of ‘they’) (to) them Pe 69+
heme adj ?snug-fitting G 157; adv hemely ?snugly G 1852
hemme n edge, border Pe 1001; border of a garment Pe 217; pl hemmes hems G 854
hemself, hemselven adj and pron themselves C 15+; non-refl pron in oblique case them G 976, 1085
hence adv from here C 944, Pa 204
hende adj courteous, gracious, worthy C 612+; ‘at hand’, obedient Pe 184*; (of things or actions) fine, graceful, elegant C 1101, G 108; as n courteous man/men G 827, 896*, 904, 946, 1104, (in address) gracious one Pe 909, G 1252, 1813, sir G 2330; gracefulness, graceful things C 1083; super hendest most attentive to courtesy and decorum G 26
hendelayk n courtesy, gracious manners C 860, G 1228
hendely, hendly adv courteously G 773, 829, 895, 2408, graciously, gracefully G 1228, 1639
henge v hang, be suspended C 1734, G 478; put to death on the gallows C 1584; pres henges hangs G 1614, falls G 182; imp heng up G 477*; pa henged hung G 117, 732, 983, 1345, 1357, 1930
hent(e) v (pres hentes, pl hent; pa and pa ppl hent) seize(s) C 1209, Pa 251, take G 827, took, seized C 376+; receive(d) Pe 388, Pa 178, G 2277, 2323, 2484; subj receive, come by Pe 388, C 151; (figuratively) embrace Pe 669; takes hold of Pa 189, G 605; get hold of, obtain Pe 1195; overtook C 1150; took captive C 1179; hentes hem take up C 710; hent of took off G 983
hepe n heap Pa 380; on a ~ en masse C 1211; in a heap Pa 149; pl hepes heaps, numbers C 1775; (up)on hepes in a confused heap G 1590, 1722, into piles C 912
her poss adj (1) her Pe 4*, 163+; (2) their Pe 92+
herande see here (2)

herber (1) n shelter, lodging, hostelry G 755, 812
herber (2) v take lodging or shelter G 805; pa herbered G 2481
herde see here (2)

here (1) n army, band of fighting men G 59, 2271; followers, household C 902; troop, company C 409
here (2) v hear Pa 327+; ~ and see to hear and see Pe 96; pres heres Pa 123; pres ppl herande in the hearing of G 450*; pa and pa ppl herde heard Pe 873+, ~ tale/carp of heard any mention of G 704, 1057
here (3) v praise, compliment G 1634; pa hered praised C 1527
hereafter adv in future C 291
here-biforne adv in times past G 2527
here-biside adv near here C 926
hered pa (of ‘herien’) honoured, did reverence to C 1086
hereinne adv herein, in this place Pe 261, 577, Pa 364; in this matter G 300, in these circumstances C 1595; in this garment C 147*
heres see here (2)

here-utter adv outside of this place C 927
herken v listen to, hear C 980, 1369, G 1529; pres herk(e)nes G 592, 1708; pa and pa ppl herk(e)ned C 193, G 775, 1274; imp herk hear (me), listen Pa 431; herken tithynges search for information C 458
herle n strand, thread G 190
hernes n pl eagles C 537; cf. erne-hued
herre see high(e) (1)

hert(e) n heart, mind Pe 17+; (as organ) G 1594; courage G 2296, 2301; confidence G 2438; pl hertes hearts, minds C 516, Pa 2
herttes n pl harts, male red deer C 391, 535, G 1154

Hervest n the season in which crops are ripe and ready for harvesting C 523, G 521*
heryes pres plunders, ravages C 1294; pa and pa ppl heryed (up) ravaged, plundered C 1179, 1786*; dragged, pulled C 883*, Pa 178
hest(e) n command Pe 633, C 94, G 1039, 1092, pl hestes commands C 341; holde the/this hest keep the/this promise C 1636, G 1090
hete (1) n heat Pe 554, 643, C 524, 604, Pa 477
hete (2) v (a) promise, assure Pe 402, G 2121; pres hetes promises, vows C 1346; pa and pa ppl hyght(e) (2s hettes G 448) promised Pe 305+, vowed C 714; (b) 2s pres hetes command Pa 336; see also hyght(e) (3) and hatte (2) and cf. hetes
heter adj painful, harsh Pa 373
heterly adv fiercely Pe 402, Pa 477, 481, G 1587; violently, roughly C 1222; forcefully, sharply G 1152, 2291, 2311; quickly C 380; fervently, urgently Pa 381; eagerly, energetically G 1446, 2317; grievously G 1462
hetes n pl promises G 1525; cf. hete (2)

hethe n heathland, moorland C 535, G 1320, 1879
hethen adv hence, from here Pe 231, G 1794
hethyng n contempt C 710; mistreatment, abuse Pa 2, C 579
hettes see hete (2)

heved see hed(e)

heve(n) v increase Pe 16; wordes … ~ utter speech Pe 314; pres 2s heve raise Pe 473, 3s heves lifts G 1184, 2288, pl heven lift G 1346, hef pull, haul (at the oars) Pa 219*; pa hef rose Pa 477, swelled G 120; raised G 826, 1587; pa ppl hoven raised, set up C 206, 1451, lifted, raised C 413, has ~ thy hert have raised yourself in spirit (in self-glorification) C 1711
heven n sky Pe 988+; heaven Pe 473+; pl hevens the realm of heaven (the plural form imitates Vulgate caeli) Pe 423, 441, 620, 735; (oath) by heven G 323; gen heven wrake vengeance of the heavens Pa 185
hevened pa and pa ppl set up C 24, 1714; raised C 506, 920; G 349; ~ of extricated from C 1601
heven-glem n gleam of light in the sky C 946*
heven-kyng n king of heaven, God C 1628, Pa 257
heven-quene n queen of heaven G 647
hevenryche n the kingdom of heaven Pe 719, Pa 14, 28, G 2423
hevy adj heavy G 289; woeful, burdened with care or grief Pe 1180, Pa 2, G 496
hewe v cut G 1351; pres hewes, pl hewen … of cut(s) off G 1346, 1353, 1607; pa ppl hewen hewn, cleaved G 477; cut and shaped G 789; wrought G 211
hid see hyde
hider adv hither, to this place Pe 249+
hidor n dread, horror Pa 367
high(e) (1) adj high Pe 678, 1024, Pa 257, G 723, 742, 794; tall G 137, 281, 2197; great Pe 1051+; full C 604; in authority G 812; lofty C 1391; (of sound) loud G 1165, 1602, so as to be publicly heard C 1564; (of liturgical season or service) solemn, major Pe 39, G 932, 1033, 1963, full, formal Pa 9; ~ horses fine horses G 1138*; ~ hedes antlered heads G 1154*; ~ wede armour G 831; ~ elde full maturity G 844*; ~ gate main road Pe 395; ~ auter great or main altar G 593; ~ pryde Pe 400*; ~ dese/table the crossing table (dais) at the head of the side tables at public meals C 115, G 108, 222, 250, 2462; on ~ (high) up Pa 463, C 413, G 1607*, 2442, loudly G 67, 1602; upon ~ above G 2057, to a high degree G 48; comp herre taller G 333; super highest(e) highest C 406, 451, greatest G 57; highest in status C 1749; as n the high(e) high ground C 391, G 1152, 1169, 2004, the ~ and the lowe those of all ranks G 302, in ~ and in lowe in all matters G 1040; the Highest God C 1653; cf. hyght(e)

high(e) (2) adv high Pe 207+; loudly C 1206, 1783, G 307, 1445, publicly G 349, 468, 2212; intensely, vigorously G 1417; ~ out of age far beyond reproductive age C 656; super highest in the place of honour at table G 1001

High-Kyng n king of kings, God Pe 596, C 50, G 1038, 1963*
highliche adj noteworthy, impressive G 183
highly adv ceremoniously G 983, in due form G 755*; high (up) C 920, 1527, devoutly C 745*, G 773*, very much G 949, 1547, 1587, 1828
hightly adv highly, well G 1612
hil-coppe n hilltop Pe 791
hille n hill, mountain Pe 678+; raised site for castle headquarters G 59*; pl hilles hills G 742, 956, mountains Pa 463, C 380, 447; by hille ne by vale anywhere G 2271
himself, himselve(n) adj himself C 23+; pron nom he himself Pe 680, 1134, C 584, G 2109; non-refl pron in oblique case him Pe 896+
hindes n pl hinds, female red deer G 1158, 1320
hit (1) pron it Pe 10+; gen hit its Pe 108+, his Pe 460; hit are they are Pe 895, 1199, C 869, Pa 38, 40, 69, there are G 280, 1251, ~ were(n) they were C 253, 379, 657, 795
hit (2) see hitte
hitself, hitselven pron itself Pe 446, C 281, G 1847
hitte v hit G 2296; pres hittes happens Pe 132; arrives C 479; pa pl hitten G 1455, pa s and pa ppl hit(te) hit, struck G 1459, 1594, 2153, 2287; proceeded in a direction so as to make contact with something: hit to arrived at Pa 289; hit to the erthe struck the ground G 427; hit in dropped into Pa 380
ho pron she Pe 129+
ho-bestes n pl she-animals, female animals C 337
hode (1) n hood C 34, G 155, 881, 983, 1930
hode (2) n rank, profession G 297
hodles adj hoodless, bare-headed C 643
holde (1) n possession, keeping, control C 1597, G 1252*; stronghold, castle G 771; halte forcible detention Pe 1158*
holde (2) v (pres holde(s), pl holden; imp holde C 335, G 2297; pres ppl haldande (holding Pa 251); pa helde; pa ppl holden) hold(s) Pe 454, 490, G 436&, keep(s) C 335, 652 Pa 25, G 698, 1043, 1970, holden utter kept out C 42, holden in denied egress G 1158, holde aloft keep up; contain G 124; consider(s), considered Pe 301+; consider as, judge C 1062; restrain Pa 321; possess(es) C 35, 652, Pa 14, hold of possess property in subordination to C 1162; rules, presides over C 1349, G 53, 904, 2057; (of space) occupied Pe 1002, 1029, C 1387; proceeds, holdes out goes out Pa 434; preserve, protect G 2297; observe(d) (a promise) C 1636, Pa 333, G 1090, 1970, 2213, 2348, pa subj 2129; observe(d), keep to C 315, G 1677, held by C 244, hold good observe faithfully Pa 336; obliged, beholden G 1828, holden thereto beholden to do G 1040; helde him stayed, remained, holden me there remained within those limits Pe 1191
holde(ly) adv faithfully G 2129, carefully G 2016, securely G 1875, 2221
hole (1) n hole G 1338; pit Pa 306; opening G 2180; hollow in a hill or cliff G 1569
hole (2) adj whole, pure Pe 406; entire, perfect G 1338, 1346, 1613; sound of limb C 102, undiseased C 594; healed G 2390, 2484, without defect G 2296
hole-foted adj web-footed C 538
holkked pa dug C 1222*
holly adv wholly Pe 418, C 104, 1140, G 1049, 1257
holsumly adv healthfully, restoratively G 1731
holt n woodland G 1677; pl holtes groves Pe 921, G 1320; holt side edge of a grove G 1697
holtwodes n pl woodland trees Pe 76; forests G 742
holwe adj hollow G 2182, sunken C 1695
homered pa gave a hammer-blow G 2311
homly adj belonging to a particular household, domestic; ~ hyne household servants Pe 1211
honde see hand(e)

hondel v wield (a weapon) G 289; pres hondeles touches with thoughtfulness or curiosity G 570; pres pl hondel handle C 11; pa hondeled handled, fingered G 1633, 2505
hondelyng vn handling, touching, use of the hands C 1101; adverbial gen hondelynges by the use of the hands Pe 681*
hone v dwell, be situated Pe 921
honest(e) adj righteous C 14, C 594; decorous, seemly C 18; respectable C 166; decent, suitable C 638; belonging to the category of animals classed as ‘clean’ in the Old Testament C 505
honestly adv honourably, decorously C 135, without dishonour C 1083, without sin C 705
honour (1) n honour Pe 475, 852, 864, honour-worthiness G 1228, 1806, honourable conduct G 1963, 2056; status C 35; reverence Pe 424; pl honoures marks of honour G 1813
honour(e) (2) v show honour to C 1714, G 830, 1033; pres honoures bestows honour upon C 594; pa and pa ppl honoured honoured G 2520, revered G 2412, worshipped, paid reverence C 1340, G 593*, respectfully treated G 949
hope (1) n hope Pe 860; idea, thought C 1653; expectation, anticipation C 714
hope (2) v think, be of the opinion that, suppose, assume Pe 225, Pa 212, G 140, 352, 395, 926, 2301; 2&3s and pl pres hopes C 148, 663, Pa 123 thinks; pa hoped Pe 139, 142, 185, C 1681 thought; hope(d) Pa 315, C 860; hoped of expected G 2308
hore adj grey; shade-casting G 743*
hortyng vn hurting, harming C 740
horwed part adj defiled, ceremonially unclean C 335*
hostel n place offering shelter or accommodation, residence G 253*, 805; bone ~ good hostelry G 776
hot(e) (hate Pe 388) adj hot C 626, keen C 1195; intense, searing Pe 388, C 1602; angry C 200, Pa 481; adv hote hotly C 707; in hot and colde through thick and thin G 1844
houndes n pl dogs C 961, G 1139&
houre n hour Pe 530, 551, C 1779, Pa 498; pl houres Pe 555
hourle n water-surge Pa 319*; cf. hurles
hoven see heve
hoves pres pauses, rests C 485; is situated C 927; pa hoved paused, remained stationary G 785, 2168
hoves n pl hooves G 459
howso adv howsoever, in whatever manner C 1753, G 1662*
hue (1) n loud cry Pe 873
hue (2) n colour Pe 842, 896*, G 147, 157*, 234, 1471; form C 1707*; pl hues colours Pe 90, C 1119, 1483, G 867, 1738, 1761, singular sense at line ending 620, 707
hued part adj coloured C 1045, G 845
huge adj and adv of great size G 743, 844, 1633, 2047, 2081; exceeding(ly), enormous(ly) C 4, 1311, 1659, Pa 264, 420, G 788, 1436, 1820, 2420
hungeres pres pl ~ after hunger for Pa 19
hunt n huntsman G 1417, 1422, 1701; pl huntes huntsmen G 1147, 1428, 1604, 1910
hunteres n pl huntsmen, participants in a hunt G 1165, 1428, 1697; hunting-dogs G 1144*
huntyng vn (the act of) hunting G 1102
hurkeles pres crouches, adopts a hunched posture C 150*; pa hurkled sat C 406
hurles pres pl hurtle C 1204; pres ppl hurlande hurling, rushing C 413, 1211, hurtling Pa 273; pa and pa ppl hurled crashed Pa 149, dragged C 44, ~ in(to) hurtled into C 223, 376, 874; cf. hourle
hurrok n bottom of boat, bilge C 419, Pa 185*
hurt v inflict injury G 2291; pres hurtes injures G 1452, 1462; pa and pa ppl hurt injured G 1577, 2311, afflicted C 1195
huyle n mound, hillock Pe 41, 1172, 1205
hyde n skin Pe 1136, G 2312; animal’s hide C 630, G 1332
hyde(n) v hide C 682, G 2511, refl C 915; provide shelter for Pa 479; pa hid G 1875; pa ppl hid hidden C 430, Pa 325; unknown C 1600; as n hidden thing C 1628
hye (1) n haste; in ~ at once, immediately G 245
hye (2) v ~ me hasten G 2121; imp hye run, hasten C 33, make haste, hurry up G 291; pres hyes C 538, 610, 1762, G 521, 1462, pl hyes G 1351; pa hyed hastened C 392, 623, Pa 217, G 826, 1152, 1910; hastened (something or someone) on C 1584*
hyghe inter (hunting cry) hi! G 1445
hyght(e) (1) n height Pe 1031, C 317, G 788; in the ~ of in the high degree of Pa 398; on ~ up G 421, on high, above Pe 501; (high) upon ~ high C 458, rising tall G 332, to a high degree Pa 219, G 48; cf. high(e)

hyght(e) (2) see hete (2)(a)

hyght(e) (3) pres s and pl (of hete (2)) is/are named Pe 950, 999
hyghtled pa arrayed, embellished C 1290
hyne n pl (agricultural) labourers Pe 501, 632; servants collectively (of a particular household) Pe 1211; (disparaging) varlets C 822
hypped pa sprang G 1459, 2232
hyre (1) n wages, pay Pe 523&, Pa 56
hyre (2) v hire, employ; ~ … to hire for Pe 507; pa subj hyred Pe 560
hyrne n corner Pa 178, 289; pl hyrnes furthest corners C 1294*
hyve n bee hive C 223
ibrad see brede (4)

ichose see chose
idolatrye n worship of man-made images C 1173
ile n distinct realm, domain Pe 693; pl iles islands G 698; west iles western world, western realms G 7
ilk(e) adj same Pe 704+; as n this ~ Pa 414, that ~ this/that same thing G 1385, 1981, those ~ those persons C 930; with that ~ at that juncture C 511*; of that ~ matching in colour or material G 173, 1930, cf. of the same
ille (1) n harm, evil; pl illes evils C 577; tas to non ille do not be offended C 735, G 1811
ille (2) adj bad, unpleasant Pa 8; wrongful C 272, Pa 203, unbecoming C 864
ille (3) adv not at all well Pe 1153, 1177, C 73, 693, 1141, G 346; wrongly Pe 681; horribly C 955
ilyche adv alike, equally C 228, Pa 161, inlyche Pe 546, 603; ever ~ completely C 1386, continuously Pa 369, G 44, aye ~ without pause C 975; cf. aliche
inmong(es) prep among C 278, in among C 1485
in-mydde(s) prep and adv amid C 1677; in-mingled G 167; in the middle of Pe 222, 740, 834, G 1932; in the course of C 125; in between, in the middle G 167
inne prep (emphatic variant of ‘in’; used at line ending) C 1092, Pa 146, 318, G 2196, 2440, 2509
innocence n freedom from guilt or sin (especially of young children) Pe 672*, 708
innocent adj free from sin Pe 666; as n one free from sin (especially one below the age at which sin can be imputed) Pe 625*, 684, 696, 720
innome see nyme
inobedyent adj disobedient C 237
inogh(e), inow(e) adj and adv enough, sufficient(ly) Pe 612+; many C 116+; very Pe 636, G 514, 803, 888; plentiful(ly) Pe 649, G 219, 1401; widely, well Pe 637, C 297; n plenty, a great deal Pe 625; many men G 826*; inter enough! no more! C 669, G 1948
instrumentes n pl musical instruments C 1081
inwith prep within G 1055; adv from the inside Pe 970; on the inside C 14, G 2182
ire n (God’s) wrath C 572, 775, 1503; fierceness C 1240
irked impers v it became irksome or wearisome to G 1573
iwysse inter and adv indeed, in truth Pe 151+
iye n eye Pe 302+; pl iyen Pe 183+, ene Pe 200
iye-lyddes n pl eyelids G 446, 1201; cf. liddes
jacynght n jacinth Pe 1014
janglande pres ppl grumbling Pa 90, 433
jape n jest, joke, trick; did … such ~ pulled such a trick Pa 57; pl japes jests G 1957; jocular or jesting remarks G 542; lewdness C 272*; tricks, behaviour C 864, practices C 877
javeles n pl idle, ignorant fellows C 1495
jeauntes n pl giants C 272
jolily adv energetically, with a will G 42
joly, jolyf adj pleasing, beautiful Pe 842, 929; goodly, nice, amiable C 300, 864; energetic, lusty, frisky G 86*; joyful Pa 241
joparde n danger, hazard, uncertainty G 97, 1856; of … lys no ~ there is no issue to be decided as between Pe 602*
journay n day’s travel Pa 355
joyles adj joyless, unhappy Pe 252, Pa 1146, 433, G 542
joyne v encounter, meet G 97; ~ to be adjoined to C 726; pa and pa ppl joyned added Pe 1009; assembled together C 434; yet joyned also added Pe 1009
joyned pa and pa ppl (of ‘joyne’ [enjoin]) appointed C 877; ~ was was appointed as C 1235, Pa 62
joynt adv altogether; ful ~ without intermission Pa 355*
joyntes n pl joints C 1540
joyst see justed

Jue proper n Jew Pa 109, 182, 245; pl Jues Pe 804, C 1236, 1612
juel(e), juelle n jewel, gem Pe 23, 249, 253, G 1856*; specially valued person or thing(s) Pe 277*, 278, 795, 1124; as collective n jewels Pe 929; pl jueles valuable objects, treasures C 1441*, 1495
jueler n jeweller Pe 252, 264&, 730, 734
juelrye n jewel work, precious ornaments C 1309*

Jues see Jue
jugge v judge Pa 413, adjudge, sentence Pa 224; pa jugged appraised Pe 7*; put on trial Pe 804; pa ppl jugged sentenced Pa 245, adjudged, ordained G 1856
juggement n judgement, sentence C 726
juis n sentence, doom C 726, Pa 224

Juise n the Jews collectively, Jewry C 1159
justed pa jousted G 42; pa ppl joyst closely united C 434*
justise n judge, arbiter C 877
justised pa ruled over, held authority over C 1170
justyfyet pa ppl vindicated, proved to be just Pe 700
justyng vn jousting, joust G 97

Juyne adj of the Jews, Jewish C 1170
kakes n pl cakes of bread C 625, 635
kark n distress, difficulty, hardship C 4, Pa 265
kayre(n) v go G 1048, 1670 (refl C 945*), traverse Pe 1031; kayre at the kart do work associated with the cart (loading, helping to push free, etc) C 1259; pres kayres G 734; imp kayre C 901, pl kayres G 2120; pa kayred went C 85, turned G 43; pa ppl kayred brought, taken C 1478, 1765*
kayser n supreme head C 1322, 1593; pl kayseres rulers C 1374
kene adj sharp Pe 40, C 1253, 1697; fierce G 2406, warlike, fearless C 1339, G 321; redoubtable C 1374, 1593; powerful, destructive C 839; skilful, able G 482; super kennest most able C 1575
kenely adv sharply G 2001; urgently C 945, G 1048
kenne (1) v know, understand; hear Pa 357; teach C 865; pres kennes teaches G 1484; makes known; pa kende, kenned taught, showed Pe 55, C 697, G 1489; knew, recognized; kenned himselven remembered who he was, ‘came to himself’ C 1702
kenne (2) v (aphetic form of ‘bikenne’: see bikennes) commend G 2067, pres pl kennen G 2472
kennest see kene
kepe v (pres kepes, subj kepe G 293; pa keped, kepte; pa ppl keppte) cares for, cares about C 234, 508; in negative constructions + inf care(d), mind(ed), want(ed) Pa 464, G 546, 2142; guards, defends G 1059*, 2148, protect(ed) C 1229, subj G 2298, looked after G 2016; govern, keep in check C 292*; keeps up, engages in G 1688; received C 89; meet G 307*; awaited G 1312; obeyed C 979, ~ to observe, conform to C 264; ~ … with carp respond with speech G 307*; imp kepe thee … that conduct yourself in such a way that G 372*
kerre n low marshy ground G 1421*, 1431, 1434
kerve v cut, slice C 1104, 1108; pres kerves cuts, cleaves C 1547, rends, tears C 1582; pres pl kerven prune Pe 512; pa carf crafted, fashioned Pa 131; pa pl and pa ppl corven cut Pe 40, Pa 153; carved C 1382; modelled C 1407, 1452, chiselled G 797; cf. kyrf
kest(en) see cast
keve v sink Pe 320; pa ppl keved alighted, set down Pe 981
kever v recover, restore C 1700; succeed in, manage G 750, 804, 2298; acquire, get Pa 223, G 1221, 1254; ~ to arrive at Pe 319, make (your) way to; pres keveres brings, affords G 1539; makes his way G 2221; pa kevered recovered G 1755, ~ … of recovered, delivered or rescued from C 1605; I kevered me I managed to get for myself Pa 485
klubbe n club, cudgel C 1348*; pl klubbes C 839
knarre n crag G 1434; pl knarres G 721*, 2166
knaves gen (of ‘knave’) low-ranking menial’s C 801*; pl knaves wretches, rascals C 855
knaw(e) v (northern variant of know(e)) G 1645
knawlach n come to ~ recovered his reason C 1702
knawyng vn knowledge, perception, awareness Pe 859
kne n knee C 40; pl knes knees C 1541, G 577, 818
kneles pres kneels C 1345, 1591; pres ppl knelande kneeling Pe 434; pa kneled knelt G 368, 818, 2072
knewe(n) see know(e)

knit pa (pa pl knit(ten), pa ppl knit) (of covenants) concluded C 564, G 1642*; fastened G 1331, 1831; ~ … thereinne inherent in it G 1849
knokke n blow G 2379
knokkes pres pounds C 1348, 2s cnokes strike G 414*, pl knoken knock Pe 727
knot(te) n knot G 194, 630, 662, 2376, 2487; united group Pe 788; protuberance, mound G 1431, 1434; pl knottes knots G 188, clasps, (ornamental) fastenings G 577
know(e) (knaw(e) G 1645) v (pres 2&3s knows, pl knowe(n), knowes; pa knew, subj knewe G 1849; pa pl knewe(n); pa ppl knowen) know(s), knew, known Pe 410+; acknowledge(d), recognize(d) Pe 541, C 231, Pa 519, G 348, 633; (socially) acknowledges as a friend, behaves so as to show or seek fellowship G 937*; learned about C 61; known as, reputed C 1575, G 1511
knyf, knyve n knife C 1104, G 1331, 2042; pl knyves G 1337
knyghtly adv in such a manner as becomes a knight G 974
knyghtyly adj knightly G 1511
kok n cock G 1412, 2008
koynt see quoynt(e)

Krystyin adj and n Christian Pe 461, 1202
kuy n pl kine, cows C 1259
kyd see kythe
kyllen pres pl kill C 1267*; kylle of strike off C 876; pa ppl kylled killed C 1252, G 2111
kyn n kind, sort, manner Pe 794; followed by n manner of, sort(s) of Pe 619, 755, 771, C 100, 1483, G 890; pl all kynnes all the different sorts of Pe 1028, all kinds of C 303, G 1886; by no kynnes wayes by no manner of way Pa 346; cf. anyskynnes
kynde (1) n nature Pe 535+; species C 334, 505, 507, G 261; kindred, descendants G 5; inherent property C 1128; pl kyndes species C 336, 1483
kynde (2) adj natural C 697, appropriate G 473; grateful, thankful Pe 276*
kyndely, kyndly adv (a) with kindliness, in a kind manner Pe 369; (b) appropriately, correctly, properly C 1, 319, G 135
kyndom n kingdom Pe 445, C 161, 1700, 1731
kyng(e) n king Pe 448+; gen kynges king’s C 1221, G 100&; pl kynges kings C 1170, 1374, 1510, G 25
kynned pa ppl having been conceived C 1072
kynnes see kyn
kyrf n cut, slash G 372; cf. kerve
kyrk(e) n church Pe 1061, C 1270, 1431, G 2196
kyrtel n tunic-like garment (usually worn under a gown or mantle) Pe 203, G 1831
kysse v kiss G 1303, 1501, 1555; pres kysses G 605&, pl kyssen G 2472; imp pl kysse G 1794; pa 2s kyssedes G 2351, 3s kyssed G 1758, 1796, pl kysten G 596, 1118, pa ppl kyst G 1869; cf. cosse
kyssyng vn (act or practice of) kissing G 1489, 1979
kyst n chest, coffer, casket Pe 271; (used of) ark C 346, 449, 478, chyst 464*; pl kystes C 1438, Pa 159
kyth n homeland, native country Pa 462; nation Pa 377; land C 901, 912, 1110, 1201, 1305, G 460, region C 571, G 2120; out of ~ from anywhere C 1316; pl kythes lands, regions C 414, 1231, Pe 1198; Pa 18; gen pl kythyne of regional communities C 1366
kythe v make known C 1435, show, reveal Pe 356; acknowledge C 1368; imp pl kythes show Pe 369; pa kythed spoke of C 851; pa and pa ppl kyd made known, showed/shown C 23, 208, Pa 118, G 263; shown (a kind of behaviour), acted towards G 234, 775, 2340; part adj renowned, illustrious G 51, 1520
lace n cord, band G 217, 2226; belt G 1830, 1851, 2030, 2226*, 2487, 2497, 2505
lach(e) v (pres laches, pl lachen; subj lache C 166; imp lach(e); pa laght(e), pl leghten; pa ppl laght, lached) take(s)/took, receive(d), come/came by Pe 1205+; seized Pa 266; conceived Pe 1128; takes hold of G 936, 1029, 1131, 1906; laght to took hold of G 433; lach out take away Pa 425; laght fro removed from G 156; laches (lachen, leghten) leve take(s)/took leave G 595, 1027, 1410, 1870*
lachet n fastening G 591*
lad(de) see lede (2)

ladde n employed male, ‘hand’ Pa 154; low fellow C 36
laddres n pl (siege-)ladders C 1777
lade pa ppl (of ‘lade’) laden, filled to abundance Pe 1146
lady n mistress Pe 453, G 346, 1218, my Lady the Virgin Mary C 1084; mistress of the house G 933, 941, 1187, 1472, 1657, gen ladies lady’s 2030; woman of aristocratic status Pe 491, C 1059, G 947&, (in address) G 1810; pl ladies C 1352*, 1370, 1375, 1434, G 49&, 950&
ladyly adj pertaining to a noblewoman, aristocratic Pe 774
ladyschyp n status of a noblewoman Pe 578
laft(e), laften see leve (4)

laghe v laugh G 472; pres laghes C 661, G 316, 1479; pres pl laghe(n) G 464, 2514; pres ppl laghande laughing G 988, 1068, 1207, 1212, smiling G 1757; pa laghed(e), loghe laughed C 653, 668, 670, G 909, 1079, 1290, 1623*, 2389, grinned Pa 461, pl laghed laughed G 69, 1113, 1398, 1554, loghen C 495
laght(e) see lach(e)

laghter n laugh G 1217*
laghyng vn laughing, laughter G 1954
lake n body of water C 1023; (used of the Flood) C 438
lake-ryftes n pl clefts forming pits used by den-living animals C 536*; see also rayn-ryfte
lakked pa dispraised, found fault with G 1250; scorned C 723; impers was wanting G 2366
laled(e) pa called, cried out C 153, 913
lambe (Pe 1046*), lamp n lamp G 2010, lights of a lamp C 1273; pl lampes oil-lamps C 1485
langour n sickness, affliction, suffering Pe 357
lante(s) see lene
lantyrne n lamp, lantern Pe 1047
lappe n (pl lappes) fold of fabric hanging from sleeve G 936, pl Pe 201*; folds of deer’s flesh G 1350
lappes pres enwraps, embraces G 973; pa and pa ppl lapped entwined, wound G 217; wrapped, enfolded, clad C 175, G 575
large adj ample Pe 609; extensive C 438, 1658; large C 1549, 1773; long Pe 201, G 210, 2225; wide C 1386; as n width, breadth C 314
largesse n largeness G 1627; giving freely G 2381
lasched pa flashed, blazed C 707
lassen v lessen, diminish G 1800; pa lasned abated, lessened C 438, 441
last(e) (1) adj and n last Pe 547+; at the ~ (upon ~ Pa 194, by the ~ C 1327) in the end C 888+, lastly G 2497, finally C 1096
laste (2) pa ppl fully laden, fraught Pe 1146*
laste (3) v last C 894, continue Pe 956, subj C 1594, live G 1061, 2510; pres s and pl lastes last(s) C 1124, G 1235, endure(s) Pe 1198, C 561; pa last(e)(d) lasted (in time) C 1298, G 805, 1665, extended (in space) C 227, G 193
lastes n pl vices, defects C 1141, Pa 198
late adj and adv late in the day Pe 392, 538, 574, 615, C 1804, G 1027; reluctant Pa 419; unzealous C 1172; comp adv never the later none the less C 1352, none the less readily G 541
lathe pres pl urge C 900; imp pl lathes invite C 81; pa and pa ppl lathed invited C 163, 809, G 2403; urged C 936
launce (1) n lance G 667, 2066, 2197
launce (2) v charge, gallop G 1175, pres launces G 1464, pa launced G 1561
launces n pl branches Pe 978, C 1485*
launde n open space of ground, field, plain C 1000, 1207, G 765, 1894, 2146, 2154, 2171, 2333
lause(n) v (pres lauses, pl lause(n), pa laused) loosen G 1343, 1350, 1784; open, unlock C 1428; unties G 2376; loosen themselves, become detached C 966, G 526*; gave way C 957; remove, dispel C 1589; utter(ed) C 668, Pa 489, G 1212, 1766, 2124, imp Pa 350; vn lausyng unfastening G 1334
lave v bail out (water) Pa 154; pres laves pours out Pe 607; pres ppl lavande streaming, swelling C 366
lawe n raised piece of ground, mound C 992, G 765, 2171, 2175
law(e) n law C 263, Pa 259, legal formality G 1643; religious creed C 723, 1167, 1174, 1307, Pa 405; system, manner G 790; pl lawes laws, commandments Pe 285; legal claims, titles C 188
laweles adj not observing the moral code of any religion Pa 170
lay see lye
lay(e) v lay low, bring down C 1650; put C 425, set G 96, imp lay C 1025; pres lays up puts away G 1874; pres pl set Pa 173, cast Pa 174; pa layd (G 419, 1480), pl layden (Pa 106*) laid; refl layd him doun lay down G 1190; layd him biside parried G 1777*; pa ppl layd(e) felled C 1307; laid (in a grave) Pe 958, 1172; lying G 156; laid, set Pa 37, disposed Pa 168; imposed, laid down C 263
layk n (pl laykes) (pattern of) action, behaviour C 1053, 1064; practice, exercise Pa 401, G 1513; actions C 274; recreational activity/activities, games, sport(s) G 262, 1023, 1125; amusements, entertainments C 122
layke v indulge in play, game or sport G 1111; pres laykes G 1178; imp pl laykes play, sport C 872; pa layked amused himself/themselves G 1554, 1560
laykyng vn playing, performance G 472
layne v conceal G 1863, 2124, 2128, imp pl 1786; pa ppl layned concealed, hidden Pe 244
layte v look for, seek Pa 180, G 411, 449; 2&3s pres laytes Pa 201, 277, G 355; imp pl laytes C 97; pa ppl layted kept watch upon, watched for (an opportunity to trap) C 1768
layth adj (Norse-derived cognate of lodly) foul Pa 401
lazares n pl diseased people C 1093
leaute n loyalty, faithfulness, good faith C 1172, G 2366, 2381
lebardes n pl leopards C 536
lecherye n sensuality, lasciviousness C 1350
led n lead C 1025
ledden n voice, words, song Pe 878
lede (1) man Pa 347+; (used of God) C 1093, Pa 281; servant C 614, G 851, 1119; group of people, community C 691, 772; feudal community, liegemen G 833, 1113, 1124; (in address) Pe 542, G 258*, 449, 675, 1675; gen ledes man’s G 2499; pl ledes men C 1193+; people C 993; subjects, liegemen G 679, 849, servants G 1989
lede (2) v lead G 849; engage in, ply Pa 428; lif … ~ live G 2058; adj + lif … ~ lead a (certain kind of) life Pe 392, 409, 774; pres ledes G 936, pl leden G 977; pres ppl ledande engaging in G 1894; pa and pa ppl lad(de) led Pe 801, G 947, 1729, 1989; ladde much joye made very merry G 1927
ledeles adj without attendants G 693*
leder n lord, leader G 679; pl lederes leaders, officials C 1307
ledische adj ~ lord(es) lord(s) of particular people(s) C 73, 1375; what ~ lore ne langage what people’s script or language C 1556
lee n (place that provides) shelter, protection Pa 277; stronghold G 849, 1893
lef (1) n leaf Pe 77, foliage Pa 447; pl leves leaves C 488, 605, 609, 1464, 1485, Pa 453, 466, 475, G 526; pages Pe 837, C 966; cf. leved
lef (2) adj (inflected form: leve) dear Pe 266, C 772, G 1133, 1924, 2054; welcome, pleasing G 909, 1111, 1719*; as n dear one, beloved; His ~ (anyone who is) beloved by Him Pe 418, His dear one C 1066, his ~ his wife C 939; comp lever dearer, preferable G 1251, as n someone dearer G 1782; super levest most pleasing G 49; most precious G 1802
lefly adj dear, beloved C 977
lefsel n leaf-hall, bower Pa 448
lege n feudal superior, liege-lord C 1368; adj owing or entitled to (feudal) allegiance to; that he was ~ tille to which he owed allegiance C 1174; ~ heste command from a liege-lord C 94; ~ lord/lady overlord/mistress to whom allegiance is due Pa 51, G 346, 545*
legg n leg Pe 459; pl legges G 575, 2228
leghten see lach(e)

legioun n legion, regiment C 1773; pl legiounes Pe 1121, C 1295
leke see loukes
lel(e) adj loyal, faithful, pious C 1069, G 1513, 1516; reliable, sound, authentic C 425, G 35
lelly adv loyally, faithfully Pe 305, C 1066, G 449, 1863, 2124, 2128
lemande pres ppl flaming, shining G 1119; pa lemed flamed, shone Pe 1043, C 1273, 1486, G 1137, 1180, 2010, 2226, ~ of shone with Pe 119, G 591
lemman n beloved, lover Pe 763, 796, 805, 829, sweetheart, mistress C 1352*, G 1782, pl lemmanes C 1370
lende imp remain, stay G 1100*; reside G 1499; pa ppl lent placed C 256, 1084, Pa 260, G 1002; come, arrived Pa 201; stayed, resided G 2440; lent on engaged in G 1319*
lene imp grant, give Pa 347; pa 2s lantes C 348, 3s lante G 2250
lened pa ~ him sat C 784; ~ with the nek leaned his neck forward G 2255; to … ~ leaned upon G 2332
leng(e) v (pres lenges, pl leng; pa lenged, pl lenged(e), pa ppl lenged) linger, stay, remain(ed) Pe 261+; stay(s) (as guest) C 81, 614 (imp), 800, 803, Pa 42, G 254, 1068, 1672, 2446, detained as guest G 1684; stayed put C 497; resides, resided, lived C 772, 891, 960, Pa 366, G 2446; were placed C 1419; ceased moving about Pa 281
lenger, lengest see long(e)

lenghe n length Pe 416; (with ‘look’) on lenghe/lenthe for a long time Pe 167, G 232
lent see lende
lenthe n length Pe 1031+, duration C 568; into ~ of dayes for ever C 1594*; forty dayes ~ for forty days C 224; (with ‘look’) on lenthe/lenghe for a long time Pe 167, G 232, some way away G 1231; spere ~ spear’s length C 1383, G 2316
lepe v subj lepe let him run G 292; pres lepes runs, darts G 328, 1709*, leaps, jumps G 981, 2154; springs C 966; pres pl lepes (C 1209), lepen (G 1131) leap; pa lep ran Pa 154, 179; pa ppl was lopen had leapt G 1413, were ~ had run C 990
lepre adj afflicted with leprosy C 1094
lere n complexion, face Pe 210*, 398, C 1687, G 318, 943, 2051, 2228
lere(n) v teach C 843, G 1878*
lerne v learn, discover G 918, 927; ~ at learn from G 1532; pa lerned was informed, heard G 908; pa ppl lerned expert, skilled G 1170; learned C 693, mastered G 2447
lesande pres ppl loosening; unclosing, unsealing Pe 829; cf. lause
les(e) adj untrue, false Pe 865*; empty, fictive C 1719, mendacious, lying Pa 428
lese v lose G 2142; pa and pa ppl lest lost Pe 9, lost from sight Pa 88; failed C 887; lestes (thou) lostest Pe 269; pa ppl lorne lost, destroyed C 932; cf. lose(n)

lesse comp adj (also used as n) and adv lesser, less Pe 491+; ~ ne more to a greater or smaller degree, in any way G 1524; the ~ lesser because of that Pe 852&, C 215, G 87, 2368, any lesser for any consideration Pe 900; super lest least G 355, 591
lest (1) see lesse
lest (2), lestes see lese
lesyng n lie, untruth Pe 897
let(e) v behave G 1206; allow C 732, G 1063; imp let let, allow Pe 718, 901, 912, 964, C 1434, G 360, 1893; imp pl letes let G 2387, let see let it be seen G 299*, 414, let we hit one let us say no more about it C 670, let(es)  one leave alone C 872, G 2118, let(tes) be cease G 1840, desist Pe 715; pres letes lets, he ~ me alone he will leave me alone Pa 88; pa pl letten the renk one left the man alone Pa 216; pa let (a) allowed, let Pe 20, 813, G 248, 420, 423; let fall G 817, 2309; let out, uttered G 1086*; (b) considered, rated C 1174, 1320; intended, desired G 1733; (c) caused G 1084; (d) acted as if, behaved G 1634, let as behaved as if G 1281, pretended G 1190*, 1201, 2257
lethe (1) n assuagement, relief Pa 160
lethe (2) v ease, assuage Pa 3; abate, bring down G 2438; set free, spare C 752; die out C 648; pres lethes is eased Pe 377; cf. lythe
lether n leather C 1581; stomach-lining of deer G 1360
lette v hinder G 2142, 2303; pa lette impeded Pe 1050, letted of that prevented from doing that G 1672; pa ppl of … letted barred from, deprived of C 1803
letten see let(e)

letter n lettering C 1580; pl lettres letters C 1536, 1549, 1565, 1634, written words, writing C 1561, 1596, G 35
lettrure n learning, scholarship Pe 751; learning or doctrine embodied in writing G 1513
leve (1) n leave, permission Pe 316, G 133, 971; permission to depart G 545*, 1288, 1670, 1960 or move G 1218; departure C 401, G 595&; inter (polite) with thy/your ~ if you would permit me/us to speak C 94, 347, 715
leve (2) see lef
leve (3) v allow, grant G 98
leve (4) v leave, desist from Pa 403, C 1233; decline to take G 1502*; pres leves leaves, parts from C 1678, G 1583, 1870, 2154; pres pl leven desist from Pa 401; leves leave C 378; pa and pa ppl laft(e) left C 1004; bequeathed C 1337; relinquished G 369; left behind G 2030; pa pl laften departed from Pe 622; desisted from Pa 405
leve(n) (5) v believe Pe 69+; pres 2&3s leves Pe 302, 304, 308, pl leven on believe in Pe 425; subj lest  thou leve lest you should believe Pe 865; imp leve thou believe C 1493; pa leved C 1703, Pa 405
leved pa ppl endowed with leaves, leafy Pe 978; cf. lef (1)

lever, levest see lef (2)

leves see lef (1), leve (4)

lewed adj lay, unlettered C 1580, ignorant C 1596, G 1528
leyen see lye (2)

liddes n pl eyelids G 2007; cf. iye-lyddes
lif (inflected forms lyve, lyves) n life Pe 1078+, pl lyves lives G 1516, 2112; soul Pe 305*, 687*; condition of life Pe 247, 392, 409, manner of living Pe 774, C 1658, conduct of life G 675, 1878*; living being Pa 260, creature G 1780; gen lyves life’s, of life Pe 578, 908; (up)on lyve alive, living Pa 293, C 356, G 385, 2054, 2095, anywhere, ever Pa 51, G 1187*, 1717, 1786; in thy lyve in your lifetime C 173; his lyve (C 1321), his lyves long (Pe 477) all his life
liflode n means of sustaining life, sustenance, food C 561, G 133
lik v lick C 1000, taste G 968; pres pl likkes lick C 1141*; pa likked imbibed C 1521*
like (a) impers v please C 1064; pres likes C 1726, Pa 397, G 1234; subj like C 717, Pa 42; pa liked (it) pleased G 87, 976; me (him, hem, yow, us, thee) likes/liked (it) please(s)/pleased me (him, them, you, us, thee) Pe 566+; liked  ille it displeased G 346; (b) personal v likes, liked C 36, Pa 47, G 694, 1281*, 1682, 2134, like(s), be/was pleased C 36, 73, was well pleased G 893, chose C 411, 435
lithernes n (see luther) adj hideousness, horribleness G 1627
livres n pl garments worn as livery Pe 1108
lo inter see! Pe 693+; followed by direct object Pa 349
lode n load, baggage; mental or physical circumstances Pa 156, G 1284; on ~ in her leading and care G 969, in my leading or governing care Pa 505
lodesmon n pilot, navigator C 424, Pa 179
lodly see lothelyche
lof n praise; of ~ of value, estimable Pa 448
lofden see lovy
loft(e) n height; upstairs room G 1096, 1676; up(on) ~ aloft, on high C 206, 808, 1273, in the sky C 947, in(to) heaven C 692, 1803, up(wards) C 1004, 1342, G 788, 2261, at/to the top C 318, 1407, Pa 449, on the surface C 1025, aloud, loudly C 1210, Pa 237, elevated (in status) C 1649; upon ~ wonnen succeeded in reaching the top C 1777
loge n dwelling place C 800; bower constructed of leaves and branches Pa 457*, 461; pl logges buildings C 1407; loge dor n house door C 784
logge v find lodging, take shelter C 807*
logges see loge
logging n house C 887
logh n body of water Pe 119, C 366, 441, 1031, Pa 230
loghe, loghen see laghe
loke (1) n look, glance G 1480, 2438; pl lokes manner of looking, expression, demeanour Pe 1134
loke (2) v look, see Pe 934+ (subj Pe 710, imp Pe 463, C 1069, G 448, imp pl C 903; pres ppl lokande looking Pa 458; pa loked Pe 1145+); watch over G 2239, loked hem looked after them Pa 504; loke if see if C 691; lokes to looks towards C 401; loke to take heed to C 263, 1059, lokes him aboute attends to matters C 817; loke ye make sure to C 905, 944, ~ even that make quite sure that C 317; imp pl lokes take care that C 905; pa appeared G 199*, behaved G 970; loked how looked and saw how C 269, 495, ~ to (Pe 167), loke(d) on (C 1580, G 1063) looked upon; loked … brode opened the eyes wide G 446
loken see loukes
lokkes n pl locks, hair G 156, 419, 2228
lokyng vn act of looking G 232, gaze Pe 1049
loltrande pres ppl sprawling Pa 458
lome (1) n tool, weapon G 2309; container, (sea-)vessel C 314*, 412, 443, 495, Pa 160
lome (2) adj lame, disabled C 1094
lomerande pres ppl ?groping, ?stumbling C 1094
londe n land, territory Pe 148, G 411, 1055, 1133, 1319, 2440, 2445; kingdom Pe 937, C 909, 932, 1797, Pa 201; dry land C 308, Pa 288, 322, shore Pa 237; world C 308, 568; in ~ in his lands C 122, G 679, in this land G 36, in that place G 486, in the world G 1802; upon ~ on earth G 2058; pl londes lands, regions C 1293, 1768, pieces of landed estate, fields, etc G 1561
longande see longes
long(e) adj and adv long Pe 477+; this dayes ~ all this day Pe 533, his lyves ~ all his life Pe 477; the ~ day/night for the whole day/night long Pe 597, C 807; for ~ yore for a very long time Pe 586; upon ~ after a long time C 1193; comp lenger longer Pe 168, 977, C 810, 982, Pa 428, G 1043, 2063, 2303, ever the ~ in progressive proportion Pe 180, 600; super lengest longest C 256
longed pa (of impers v ‘long’ [to afflict with longing]) me ~ I longed Pe 144
longes pres is proper to G 2381; pres ppl longande  to belonging, pertaining Pe 462; pa longed to belonged to G 2515, pertained to, related to C 1090, G 1524; were politically under the authority of C 1747
longing n grief or anxiety for (the fate of) a loved one Pe 244*, 1180, C 779, 1003, G 540
lopen see lepe
lord(e) n (heavenly or earthly) lord Pe 108+; husband Pe 403*, C 656, G 1231, 1271, 1534, 1863; gen lordes lord’s, of the lord C 1797; inter Pe 108, 1149, 1199, Pa 264; (in address) C 94, 2505, to God C 612+; pl lordes lords, leaders C 1375; great ones, magnates C 1375, 1521, G 49, 595, 1115, 1229, 2515
lordeschyp n territory over which a lord governs C 1658, G 849
lore n learning G 665; script C 1556*; in wommon ~ in woman’s propriety Pe 236; my/thy ~ my/thy teachings Pa 350, 428
lorne see lese
los n reputation, fame G 258, 1528
lose(n) v lose Pe 265, Pa 364; perish, be lost Pe 908; ruin, destroy Pa 198; pres loses loses, suffers the loss of C 1141, pl losen will destroy C 909; pa ppl lost (losed C 586) lost Pe 1092, C 1797, Pa 515, G 69, destroyed C 909, Pa 198, G 675; cf. lese
losse n loss Pa 174; loss of happiness, reversal of fortune C 1589, G 2507
losyng n state of being lost C 1031*
losynger n deceiver, sneak Pa 170
lote (1) n expression, demeanour, (tone of) voice Pe 238; cry Pe 876, G 1623; shriek (of winds) Pa 161; sound G 119, 1917, 2211; speech Pe 896*, G 639, words C 668; pl lotes words G 244, 988, 1954, conversation Pa 47, G 1116, 1399; cries G 1086*; flod lotes noise of the sea Pa 183
lote (2) n lot Pa 194, lot-casting Pa 180; allotted destiny: this ~ I laght this befell me Pe 1205; pl lotes objects used in lot-casting Pa 173
lothe (1) n harm, pain Pe 377, 2507; reluctance G 127
lothe (2) adj thoght  ~ were reluctant G 1578
lothelyche, lodly adj loathsome, disgusting C 1350, Pa 230; detestable C 274; as n abhorrent persons C 1093; adv lodly with loathing, with abhorrence C 1090, G 1634; in an ugly way, unpleasantly G 1772
loud(e) adj loud C 1207, G 64, 909; adv loude loudly Pa 195+
loue v recommend Pa 173; pres loues allows, grants the validity of Pe 302, 308; cf. alow
loukes pres locks, entwines G 628; keeps closed G 2007; pres ppl loukande togeder closing up, shrinking C 441; pa louked, leke came together, was fastened G 217, 1830, formed an enclosure G 792, locked, enclosed Pe 210*; pa ppl loken enclosed Pa 350, G 765, embedded G 35, tied G 2487
loupe n tie, cord G 591; windowed embrasure G 792
loute (1) pres pl lie quietly, remain, rest Pe 933
loute (2) v bend, bow (to) G 248; pres loutes bows C 798, bends G 1306, 1504; makes his way G 833, 933*; pa lut(te) bent, bowed G 418, 2236, 2255; made his way G 971*
love (1) see luf and lovy
love (2), lowe v praise, honour Pe 285, 342, 1124, 1127, C 1289, G 1256; admire G 1399; pres ppl lovande praising, glorifying C 1719; pa and pa ppl loved praised G 1281*, glorified C 497, 925, 987, 1703; worshipped Pa 168; cf. lovyng
love-chere n loving expression C 28*
lovely (1), luflych(e) adj lovely, goodly, fair Pe 693+; fine G 792; nice, likeable G 1469, 1657; warm, friendly C 809, G 1480; comp loveloker lovelier Pe 148; as n G 973; super lovelokkest (G 52), loveliest (G 1187) loveliest
lovely (2), luflyly, luflyche adv delightfully, beautifully Pe 880, 978; fairly, neatly G 1606; duly, fairly, without mishap G 1583, 2176; charmingly G 1206; in a manner showing good will, amicably, with friendliness C 81, 163, G 254, 369, 595, 981, 1306, 1410, 1757, 2389, 2514, graciously G 1002
loves n pl (palms of) hands C 987*
lovy, love v (pres 2s lovies, 3s loves; pa and pa ppl loved; pa pl loved, lofden) love(s), loved C 21&, G 702&; woo, court Pa 30; love(d), like(d) C 823 (pres pl loves), G 87, 126; was/were disposed (to) G 21
lovyng vn (act of) praising, worship C 1438, Pa 237; cf. love (2)

lowande pres ppl shining, glowing G 679, 868
lowe (1) see love (2)

low(e) (2) adj low G 1170, 1761, low-lying C 1761, G 1170; as n G 302, 1040; adv low Pe 236, 547, C 798, G 972, 2236; on ~ downstairs G 1373
lowed pa ppl lowered, brought low C 1650
lowly adv deferentially, humbly C 614, G 851, 1960
luchen pres pl throw, pitch Pa 230*
luf n love Pe 467+; affection, regard G 1810, 1927; advances G 2497; pleasure, happiness G 1086, 1893, 1927, 2054; loved one C 401, pl love 1419; for luf of G 540, for thy ~ G 1802 on your/(his) account, for your/(his) sake; pl lufes conjurations that begin ‘for the love of’ G 1786
luf-daungere n frustration in love Pe 11*
luf-lace n belt given as a token of love G 1874, 2438
luf-laghyng vn laughing gallantries G 1777
luf-longing n love-yearning Pe 1152
luf-lowe n flame of love C 707
luflych(e) see lovely (1), lovely (2)

luflyly see lovely (2)

lufsum adj that ~ that lovely creature Pe 398, G 1814
luf-talkyng n pl pleasing talk G 927*
lulted pa ppl raised (a sound), sounded C 1207*
luly-white adj as n tho ~ those lily-white (= lovely) maidens C 977*
lumpen see lympes
lur n loss G 355; perdition, destruction G 1284; harm, evil Pa 419, G 1682; pl lures losses, harms Pe 339, 358
lurkkes pres remains or lies under cover Pa 277, G 1180*; pa lurked proceeded under cover, went under shelter Pe 978; pa ppl lurked stayed under the bed-covers G 1195
lusty adj warm-blooded, full of life C 981
luther n and adj evil, wicked(ness) Pe 567*, Pa 198; upleasant, grievous Pa 156; unwholesomeness C 1090; the ~ the base ones C 163; adv likes thee so ~ pleases you so ill Pa 500; lutherly badly, poorly C 36; cf. lithernes
lut(te) see loute (2)

lye (1) n make a ~ utter a falsehood Pe 304
lye (2) v lodge, reside, pass the night(s) Pe 930*; be or stay in bed G 88, 1096, imp 1676; pres lys, pl lye lies Pe 602, Pa 458, G 1469, 1686, is/are placed G 1780; lys in Him lies in His power Pe 360; pa lay (Pe 214+), pl leyen (C 936) lay; resided G 37; pa ppl leyen lain C 1003; (line-ending forms) pres 3s lygges (C 1126, 1792, G 1179), pl lygges (C 99), pa lyggede (Pa 184) lie(s), lay
lyft (1) n sky, firmament, heavens C 212, 366, 435, 1356, 1448, 1493, 1761, G 1256
lyft(e) (2) adj left C 981*, 1581, Pa 515, G 698, 947, 2146, 2487
lyft(e) (3) v institute C 717; elevate in status C 1649; pres lyftes lifts G 2309; produces C 586; lyftes up erects G 12; pres pl lyften rise G 505; pres ppl lyftande rearing upwards C 443; pa and pa ppl lyft(e), lyft up raised (up) C 1407*, 1777, G 258, 369*, 433, 446, turned Pe 567
lygges, lyggede (line-ending forms) see lye (2)

lyght(e) (1) n light, radiance, brilliance Pe 69, 119, 1043, 1073; (source(s) of) illumination C 1272, 1486, torchlight G 992, 1885, 1989, morning G 1675; lyves ~ spark of life C 648
lyght (2) adj bright, radiant Pe 500, 1046, G 199; clear, pure Pe 682; untroubled, serene, good-humoured Pe 238*; happy C 987, cheerful G 1119*; active, swift G 87, 1464; light in weight C 1126; set at ~ put small value on G 1250; comp lyghtloker less difficult Pa 47
lyght (3) adv lightly Pe 214; let ~ by, let of  ~ put little value on, esteemed lightly C 1174, 1320
lyght(e) (4) v (pres lyghtes, pl lyghten, pa lyght(e), pa ppl lyght) alight(ed), descend(ed) Pe 943, 988, C 476, 691, 1069, G 822, 1373, 2220; dismount(s), dismounted G 329, 1175, 1583, 1906, 1924, 2176, imp 254; pause from travel (at) C 800; fall, fell C 213, 235, G 423, 526; pause C 800; placed, set down Pe 247
lyghten v decrease the weight of Pa 160
lyghtloker see lyght (2)

lyghtly (1) adj made of soft material, fabric G 608, 1830*
lyghtly (2) adv quickly, promptly C 817, 853, Pa 179, G 292, 328, 1131; easily Pe 358, Pa 288, G 423*, 1299, 2309; quite possibly Pa 88
lykker comp more consonant with Pa 493; super lykkest most like C 261
lykkerwys adj delicious, delightful G 968*
lyknes pres is like, resembles C 1064; compares, likens: lyknes hit to applies it to Pe 500*
lyknyng vn resemblance Pa 30
lykores n pl liquids, drinks C 1521
lykyng n pl pleasure, delight Pe 247, C 239; will, desire C 172; pl lykynges C 1803
lym n body part, member Pe 462; pl lymmes limbs, members Pe 464, C 175, G 868; legs G 139, 1332
lympes pres befalls Pa 174; subj lymp G 1109; pa lymped on fell upon Pa 194, him ~ happened to him Pa 265, befell him G 907; pa ppl lumpen befallen C 424, 1320, Pa 520
lynde n tree G 526, 2176; lyndewodes of the wood G 1178*
lyndes n pl lower or lumbar portion of the torso G 139
lyne (1) n line G 628; by ~ straight away Pe 626
lyne (2), lynne adj linen Pe 731, G 1814*
lyounes n pl lions C 536
lyppe n lip G 2306; pl lyppes G 962, 1207
lyre n flesh G 418
lys see lye (2)

lyst (1) n art, skill, trick C 693
lyst (2) n desire Pe 173, C 843; joy, pleasure Pe 467, 908
lyst(e) (a) impers v me/her/thee/yow ~ it pleases me/her/you C 872, 1766, Pa 42, G 1111, 1502, 1784, subj 2133, 2142; pa lyste it pleased G 941, me/him lyst it pleased me/him, I/he wanted Pe 146, 181, G 2049; (b) personal v like C 1000; desired, wished Pe 1141, Pa 51; chose C 1356; went as hit lyste went its own uncontrolled way C 415
lysten (1) n power of hearing C 586*
lysten (2) v listen to, hearken Pe 880, G 30; ~ his lif hear his confession G 1878*; pa lystened listened G 2006
lystily adv with careful dexterity G 1190, 1334
lyte (1) n little amount; few (persons) C 119, G 701; a ~ somewhat G 1777
lyte (2) n delay; draw allyt hold back, delay C 599; allyte drowen held back, remained at a distance G 1463*; on lyte lette put off, hold up G 2303
lyth n limb; lufsum of ~ and lere lovely in form and face Pe 398
lythe v assuage, soothe Pe 357; cf. lethe (2)

lyve (1), lyves see lif
lyve (2) v (pres lyvyes, pl lyves; pa and pa ppl lyved) live(s), lived Pe 477+, subj C 581; pres ppl lyvyande living Pe 700
ma v (northern contracted form of make) imp C 625, pres mas C 695, pl man Pe 512; ma fest celebrate, rejoice Pe 283; mas  rescowe effects deliverance Pe 610; mas mery/mirthe makes merry, is festive G 106, 1885
mach n mate, mess-mate C 124*, partner C 695
mach v oppose G 282; pres maches him with bargains with Pa 99, for ~ serves C 1512
mad(de) adj perverse Pe 267*, 1199; wanton, madcap Pe 290*; morally stupid C 654; so ~ arayed in so frenzied a state Pe 1166
madde subj be beside oneself, behave wildly Pe 359; commit folly G 2414
maddyng vn reckless folly or imprudence Pe 1154
maden pa pl (of ‘make’) made G 71, 542, 910, 1405, 1953, 1957
maghtyly adv mightily, with violence C 1267 G 2262, 2290
make n mate, lover C 703, spouse Pe 759, C 994; peer, equal C 248; pl makes spouses C 331; companions C 334
maked pa (variant of ‘made’) (used at line ending) C 1071, 1308, Pa 303, G 1112, 1142, 1324, (and for b-verse metre) C 254
makeles adj without mate Pe 785; peerless Pe 435, 733, 757*, 781
males n pl leather bags used when travelling G 1129, 1809
malicious adj wicked, sinful Pa 508; fierce, merciless Pa 522
malscrande pres ppl bewildering, confounding C 991*; pa ppl malskred dazed Pa 255
malt(e) v flow from a melting heart C 776; mynde myght ~ in the mind could comprehend Pe 224*; ~ my mynde within sink into my comprehension C 1566*; pa malt melted, collapsed Pe 1154*; condensed into rain G 2080
malyce n ill-will, fierceness C 250, Pa 4, 523; sinfulness, wickedness C 518, Pa 70
man(ne) (1) n (a) man, person Pe 69+, C 869*; servant C 436, 613, 771, 1512, Pa 287; (in address) G 1746, 1800; gen manes man’s Pe 223+; my manes mynde my mortal mind Pe 1154; pl men men Pe 290+; servants C 818; (b) impers pron one Pe 165+, me C 553*
man (2) see ma
manace v threaten Pa 422; pa mansed G 2345
manayre n manorial estate
mancioun n dwelling place C 309
maner (1) n manor-house Pe 918, manorial estate Pe 1029
maner (2) n custom, habit G 90; kind(s), sort(s) G 485; modality, mode of proceeding C 701; on this ~ in this way G 1730; pl maneres (good) manners G 924, seemly behaviour Pe 382*; ways, respects Pa 22
manerly adj seemly G 1656; adv with propriety C 91
manes see man(ne) (1)

mangerie n banquet, feast C 52, 1365
mankynde n mankind C 278, 564; ~ grete the great race of man Pe 637
manne see man(ne) (1)

mansed see manace
mansede part adj ‘excommunicated’, i.e. cursed, accursed C 774, Pa 82
mantyle n mantle, sleeveless garment worn over tunic Pa 342, G 153, 878, 1736, 1831
mare adv (northern variant of more) Pe 145
margery(e) n pearl Pe 1037; ~ perle pearl C 556; pl margarys Pe 199, 206
marre v destroy G 2262; pres 2&3s marres destroy, spoil Pe 23, perishes Pa 172, pl marre destroy, harm C 279, subj marre go distracted, be distraught Pe 359; pa marred was distraught Pa 479; were destroyed C 991; pa ppl was marred had been destroyed Pa 476
marryng vn undoing C 186
marschal n an official responsible for protocol in hall C 91*, 118, 1427
maryage n marriage Pe 779; to His ~ in marriage to Himself Pe 413; pl maryages C 186
marye v marry C 52; pa ppl maryed married C 815
mas see ma
mascle n spot Pe 726*, 843; C 556
mascelles adj spotless, immaculate Pe 732*, 7445, 756, 7689, 7812, 900, 923
mase n confusion C 395

Masse n Pe 1115, C 51, G 592, 755, 1135, 1311, 1414, 1558, 1690 (Messe Pe 497, 862*) Mass; highe ~ full Mass for Sundays and festivals Pa 9; Masse-while time at which Mass is said G 1097*
masseprest n priest G 2108
mate (1) adj distraught Pe 386; agitated, discomposed G 336; exhausted G 1568
mate (2) v confound, baffle in argument Pe 613*
mater n subject matter, content or meaning of words C 1566*, 1617, 1635; pl materes myn my own materials Pa 503*
matynes n Matins (sung between midnight and daybreak) G 756*, 2188
maugre n ill will, wrath C 250; prep despite: ~ his mun/my chekes/his hed against his/my will Pa 44, 54, G 1565
mawe n stomach Pa 255, 299
may n maiden Pe 435, 781, 961, G 1795*
mayden n maiden, virgin Pe 162, C 248, 1069; pl maydenes Pe 869, 1115, C 815, 867, 934, 1267, 1299
maymes pres maims, mutilates G 1451
mayn(e) adj outstanding, noteworthy G 94; large C 514*, strong G 497*, mighty, powerful G 187, 336
maynful(le) adj powerful Pe 1093; mighty C 1730
maynly adv forcefully, loudly C 1427
mayntnaunce n abetting C 186*
mayntyne v engage in Pa 523; pres maynteines provides for G 2053
mayster n master C 771, 1512, Pa 10, man one is assigned to serve G 2090; Lord (= God) Pe 462, C 1113; Pa 238*; overlord, commander C 748, 1237; man of social consequence G 136; leader or lord of a nation or household Pe 900, C 125, 1427, 1793; pl maysters masters, rulers C 252, 1740; masters of their craft, professionals G 1603
maysterful adj asserting one’s own will, domineering Pe 401; tyrannous, coercive C 1328
maystery n feat, achievement C 1241, Pa 482; pl maystres theological mysteries Pa 329*; special skills, arts G 2448
me (1) acc and dat of ‘I’ me, to me Pe 10+; ethic dative Pa 108, G 1905, 1932, 2014, 2144
me (2) see man(ne) (1)

mede n meed, reward Pe 620, C 12, 1632, Pa 11, 22, 39, 55; pl medes C 24
medoes n pl meadows, grasslands C 1761
megre adj emaciated C 1198
meke adj meek Pe 404, 815, 832, 961, C 815; merciful C 771; as n thy ~ your meek ones C 776
mekely adv humbly, respectfully G 756; quietly, unassumingly C 783
mekenesse (mekenisse Pe 406*) n meekness Pa 15, 32
mekned pa humbled, softened C 1328
mele (1) n meal G 999; grain C 625, flour C 226
mele (2) (melle Pe 797, 1118) v (pres meles; pa meled) speak(s)/spoke, say(s)/said, tell(s)/told Pe 497+
meled see mele (2) and melle (2)

melle (1) n midst: in ~ in the midst of, among Pe 1127, thereto, as well G 1451
melle (2) v mingle, go into G 2503; pp meled been concerned with Pa 329*
melle (3) see mele (2)

melly n combat G 342, 644
membre n part of body G 2292; pl membres members, parts of the body Pe 458
mended pa improved G 883; cf. amende
mendes n pl amends, remedy Pe 351*
mendyng vn amendment, improvement Pe 452; reform of behaviour C 764
mene (1) adj poor, undistinguished C 1241
mene (2) v mean, signify Pe 293, 951*, G 233, 1197*; say, tell C 1635; pres menes means C 1567, 1730, 1733, 2s menes speak of Pe 937
meng imp mix together C 625; join, unite C 337; pa ppl menged mixed, mingled G 1720
mensclaght n homicide C 182
mensk(e) n honour C 121, 522, nobility, high class Pe 162, C 1740; social and/or moral excellence G 914, 2052; as adj comely, elegant G 964*; with ~ with honour, honourably Pe 783, G 834; of ~ speken say gracious things C 646; pl menskes courtesies, graces G 2410*
menskes pres graces, adorns C 141; pa ppl mensked graced, adorned G 153; honoured C 118
menskful(le) adj elegant, fine G 1809; as n high-ranking or distinguished person(s) G 555, 1268
menskly adv courteously, honourably G 1312, 1983
menteene v stand by, defend Pe 784
menyng vn cognition, understanding G 924
mercyable adj merciful, forgiving C 1113, Pa 238
mercyles adj merciless C 250
mere (1) n stretch of water Pe 158, C 991, Pa 112; pl meres lakes, pools Pe 140; waters Pe 1166
mere (2) n limit, boundary Pa 320, border C 778, demarcated place G 1061
mere (3), merier, meriest see mery
merier, meriest see mery
merk (1) n darkness C 894, Pa 291
merk (2) adj dark, obscure C 1617
merk (3) n target, place aimed at G 1073*
merkkes pres takes aim at G 1592; places C 637; pa and pa ppl merked inscribed, recorded C 1617, 1727; tooled C 1487; ordained, appointed C 558; sited, placed Pe 142
mervayl(e) n (as sensation or phenomenon) marvel Pe 157+, wonder C 586; horror G 718; as adj extraordinary Pa 81; no ~ no wonder G 2307; pl mervayles wonders Pe 64*
mervelous adj wondrous Pe 1166
mery, mere adj and adv pleasing(ly), beautiful(ly), splendid Pe 23+; goodly, fine C 331, 783, 934; lovely G 1447, nice, convenient C 417; happy, glad C 130, G 497, merry G 1086, ‘on good form’ G 1891, joyfully, happily G 1623; in the mery morning conveniently in the morning C 804; make/mas/made/maden  mery make/made merry, be festive G 1313, 1681, 1885, 1953, 2468; comp the mo the merier the more numerous (they are) the better pleased (they are) Pe 850*; super meriest most beautiful Pe 199, 435, most handsome C 254, G 142, most pleasant C 701, most splendid G 1915; cf. mirthe
meryly adv joyfully, joyously C 493; fairly, in due course G 740*; cheerfully, good-humouredly G 2295, 2336; in sport, without aggression G 2345
meschaunce n mishap, evil G 2195
meschef n misfortune, affliction, harm Pe 275, Pa 209, 484; destruction, perdition C 373, G 1774; pl meschefes crises C 1164, evils, mischances C 708
mese v temper, moderate C 764
message n message Pa 81; messenger C 454

Messe see Masse
messe n serving of food or course at a feast G 1004; ?meal G 999; pl messes portions C 637, dishes G 999
mester n need C 67; ~ were it would be necessary Pa 342
mesurable adj temperate C 859
mesure n dimensions, measurement G 137, extent Pe 224; moderateness, temperateness C 215, 247, 565, Pa 295
metail n metal, metalwork G 169; pl metalles (precious) metals C 1513
mete (1) n food Pe 641+, meal C 118, 125, G 543, 887, 1097, 1312, snack G 1414; pl metes foods, dishes C 1354, G 121, 1952; mete tyme mealtime G 71
mete (2) adj fitting, appropriate Pe 1063, C 637; corresponding C 337, commensurate Pa 420; thereto ful ~ most consistent with that Pe 833; ~ to commensurate with C 1662, extending to G 1736
mete (3) v (pres metes, pl meten; pa mette, pl mette(n), pa ppl met) meet(s), met Pe 380+; goes/went forward to meet G 1932, 2235; meet/met with, find Pe 329, C 86, G 1720, 1723; congregate Pe 918, assembled C 1394
metely adv in due or regular manner G 1004, 1414
meten v measure Pe 1032
methe n restraint, self-control C 215*, 247, 565; relenting mercy C 436
methles adj without restraint, violent C 273, G 2106
mette(n) see mete (3)

mettes n pl measures C 625
meve v move G 1565, go G 1965; prompt, cause G 985; ~ to move against G 1157*; pres meves moves C 303, pl meven arise, occur Pe 64; pres ppl mevande walking, proceeding C 783; pa meved stirred, made busy Pe 156; motivated, prompted G 90; went G 1312
meyny n those serving a particular master Pe 542; followers, retinue Pe 892&, Pa 10, G 101; household C 331, 454, G 1957&
mirthe n pleasure, joy, delight Pe 1149+; revelry G 45, 1656, 1952; singing, music Pe 92; festive game, sport C 1519; mas/make/made ~ makes/make/made merry, is festive G 106, 899, 982; speches of ~ cheerful talk G 860, talked aye ~ spoke all the while cheerfully C 132, nevened bot ~ spoke only cheerfully G 541; pl mirthes sources of joy, delights Pe 140; gaieties, amusements G 40; cf. mery
mirthes pres gladdens, gives joy to Pe 862
mislikes impers v ~ me displeases me G 1819; subj him mislike G 2307
misschapen part adj deformed, perverted C 1355*
mistrauthe n unfaithfulness, disobedience C 996
mo adj more (in number) Pe 151, 870, 1194, C 98, 1303, Pa 180, G 23, 730, 770; the ~ Pe 340*; no ~ no others C 940, G 2322*; any ~ any others G 2324; the ~ the merier see mery
mod n heart, spirit Pe 401, 738, 832, C 215, 565; anger C 764; intention, purpose C 1635; state of mind C 713, attitude G 1475
moder n mother Pe 435, G 754, 2320; gen moder mother’s C 1303
mody adj brave C 1303; bold in wrongdoing, arrogant Pa 422
moght(e) pa (variant form of myght(e) (2)) might, could G 872; 2s moghtes couldst C 655
mokke n dirt, dust; bot ~ and mul mere dust and ashes Pe 905
mold(e) n earth Pa 479, C 514, 522; (up)on (the/this) ~ on the earth C 279, 286, 558, 613, 1114*, 1656, in the world C 708, G 137, 914, 964, 1795; pl moldes clods of earth Pe 30; patches of earth, dry land C 454; wrapped in moldes in the grave Pa 494
mon pres (ON equivalent of mot) must G 1811, 2354
mone (1) n lament G 737*, lamentation, mourning C 373; grief Pe 374
mone (2) n moon Pe 10445, 10567, 1072, Pa 167, G 1313; the lunar cycle that constitutes a month Pe 1080, G 532*; (an)under ~ beneath the skies, in the world Pe 923, 1081, 1092, in existence, at all Pe 1068
mony adj and pron many, many a Pe 160+; ~ a many a, many Pe 775+; ~ one many a man G 442
monyfolde adv many times over C 278
monyth n month C 427, 493, 1030
mor n moorland, wasteland C 1673, G 2080; on ~ on earth C 385
more see much
morn(e) n morning C 493+; morrow, next day C 1001, 1793, G 566, 1404, 1670, 1680, 1884, 2350; cf. moroun
mornyf adj mournful, grieving Pe 386
moroun n (variant of morn(e)) G 1208, 1213
morsel n small meal G 1690; bite, small portion C 620
most(e) see much
mot pres must Pe 25+; (in wishes and blessings) may Pe 397, C 580, G 342, 387, 2053, 2120, 2239, 2378; 2s most must Pe 319, 348, C 1673; pa most(e) (pl moste) must, had to Pe 623, C 407, 1331, G 1287, 1958; would have to C 1031, Pa 55
mote (1) n defensive ditch, moat G 764; (community belonging to a) castle, court, community or city ruled over by a lord Pe 142, 948*, 973, G 635, 910, 2052; pl motes Pe 949
mote (2) n speck, spot Pe 726*, 764&, C 556, Pa 299; speck of dust Pa 268, 456; a mote a whit, at all G 2209
mote (3) n dispute, argument Pe 853
mote (4) n note on a hunting horn; pl motes G 1141, 1364
moteles adj spotless, flawless Pe 899, 925, 961
motes 2s pres argue, allege Pe 613*
moul n earth, dirt Pe 23
moun see mowe
mount n mountain Pa 320; hill, high ground Pe 868, C 994, G 718, 740; pl mountes G 1730, 2080
mountaynes n pl mountains C 385
mountes pres ~ to amounts to Pa 322, pl mountes increase Pe 351; cf. amount
mounture n riding horse G 1691
mourkenes pres grows dark, becomes overcast C 1760
mourkne v rot C 407*
mourne v grieve, be unhappy G 1795*; subj mourne Pe 359; pres pl mournes mourn for sins, repent Pa 508; pres ppl mournande grieving C 778
mournyng n sorrowing, lamentation Pe 262; regret G 543; grief, distress G 1751, 1800
mowe, moun pres pl (variants of ‘may’; used for rhyme) Pe 536, G 1397
much adj and adv much Pe 234+; large, great G 182; comp more more Pe 144+; larger G 2100; greater Pe 576, Pa 114, G 1881; further C 759, 762; moreover Pe 565; as n what is greater Pe 600; super most(e) biggest C 254, 385, G 137, 141, greatest G 914, most G 985
muckel adj (earlier form of much) great C 52, 366, 514, 1164, Pa 268; as n great size G 141; adv much Pa 324
mudde n mud C 407
muged pa drizzled, smurred G 2080
mul n dirt, dust, ashes Pe 382, 905, C 736
mulne n mill G 2203
multyplyes pl imp reproduce C 522; pa multyplyed multiplied C 278
mun n Norse-derived word for mouth Pa 43
mused pa used their minds, lived G 2424*
mute n pack (of dogs) G 1451, 1720, baying of a pack G 1915
myddelerde n earth, world G 2100
myddes n in the ~ in the centre C 1388, Pa 380, G 74, 1004; cf. in-mydde(s)

mydmorn n about 9.00 a.m. G 1073*, 1280
mydnight n midnight C 894, G 218
mydoverunder n ?noon G 1730*
myght(e) (1) (myste Pe 462*) n might, power Pe 765+; pl myghtes powers C 644, strength G 282; alle myghtes, ~  alle all forms of power C 748, 1699
myght(e) (2), pa 2s myghtes (Pe 317), pl myght(e), myghten (C 1720) might, could Pe 34+, was capable of G 1569; could potentially Pa 181; as he myghte to the best of his ability, as promptly as he could Pa 351
myghty adj mighty, possessed of power or authority C 273, 1237; as n the ~ the powerful C 279
myke n crutch to support mast C 417
mylde adj gentle Pe 961; lenient, benevolent Pa 400, 522, C 728; meek, respectful Pe 1115; as n mild ones Pe 721; super myldest kindest, most benign G 754*
myle, myles n pl miles C 674, 1387, G 770, 1078
mylke n milk C 637; v milk C 1259
myn poss adj (used before words beginning with an ‘h’ or a vowel) my Pe 128+; by ~ one alone Pe 243; (used predicatively or following a noun) myn(e) my Pe 335; mine, my own C 1668, G 342; pron mine Pe 1208, G 1816, 1942, what is mine Pe 566
mynde n mind, heart Pe 156+; memory G 1484; decision C 1502*
mynes see mynne (2)

mynge v give mind to Pe 853; pa ppl mynged drew attention to, announced G 1422
mynne (1) comp adj smaller, lesser G 1881
mynne (2) v have in mind, be mindful of C 771; think about G 1992; record, report, say G 141; of ~, ~ (up)on be mindful of, attend to Pe 583, G 1681, subj 1769, think of, remember C 436, G 1800; pres mynes remembers, commemorates G 995; as impers v me mynes on I remember C 25; pa mynned exhorted G 982
mynster n minster, (cathedral-)church Pe 1063, Pa 268; temple C 1267
mynstralsye n music, playing of musical instruments C 121, G 485, 1952
mynt n aim, intention Pe 1161; aimed blow, feint G 2345, 2350, pl myntes G 2352
myntes pres ordains (to happen) C 1628; directs a blow G 2290; pa myntest, mynt directed a blow G 2262, 2274
mynystered pa ministered, served C 644
myre n mire, (literal or moral) slough C 1114, Pa 279, G 749
mys n amice, overgarment Pe 197
mysboden pa ppl mistreated, ill-treated G 2339
mysdede(s) n pl transgressions, sins Pa 287, G 760, 1880
myself, myselven adj and pron myself G 1052, 2434+; non-refl pron in oblique case me Pe 52, 414, C 1572, Pa 386
myserecorde n clemency, pardon, forgiveness Pe 366
mysetente pa ppl mis-attended to, misconsidered: your tale ~ chosen your words wrongly Pe 257*
mysse (1) n want, deprivation, need, bereavement Pe 262, 364; sin, misdeed Pa 420; pl mysses misdeeds G 2391
mysse (2) v lack, be without Pe 329, 382; fail to get or attain to C 189, 551; pa ppl myst unobtainable C 1198; absent C 994
mysseleve n misbelief, heresy C 1230
mysse-payed pa ppl dissatisfied, displeased Pa 399
mysse-yeme v heed amiss, fail in proper care for Pe 322
myst see mysse (2)

myste n see myght(e) (1)

mysterys n pl spiritual mysteries, divine truths Pe 1194
myte n mite; not a ~ not one jot Pe 351
mythe subj conceal, suppress (feelings) Pe 359*
naf (= ne haf have not G 1066), nade (= ne hade) had not C 404, Pa 257, G 724, 763, 1815
naght n (variant of night(e); used for rhyme) Pe 1203
nappe v sleep Pa 465
nakerys n pl kettledrums G 1016; gen pl nakryne of kettledrums C 1413, G 118
nas (= ne was) was not C 727, 983, 1226, Pa 222
nase n nose G 962
nature n the material world Pe 749, C 1087; the laws governing the world C 709
naule see navel
nautheles adv nevertheless Pe 877, 889, 950
nauther adj and adv neither G 1552; conj nor G 1552, ~  ne neither  nor Pe 465+; ne  ~ nor  either Pe 751, C 1028, 1226, Pa 392, G 203, 659, 2367; ne  ~  ne nor  nor  nor C 1556
navel, naule n navel Pe 459; (poeticism) stomach Pa 278*
nay (1) adv no, nay C 729, 746, 758, G 256, 279, 1222, 1813, 2250, 2407, 2471; as n G 706, 2471
nay (2), nayed pa denied C 805*, G 1836; said no, declined C 65
nayles n pl nails, studs G 603
naylet pa ppl nailed, studded G 599*
nayte v use C 531; pa ppl nayted uttered, repeated G 65
naytly adv effectively, aptly C 480
ne (or ne  not) adv not Pe 4+; conj nor Pe 262+; ne no nor any G 204, 205, 696
nece n niece Pe 233
nedde see nedes
nede (1) n need Pe 1045, C 1163; pl nedes needs, business G 2216
nede (2), nedes adv necessarily, inevitably Pe 25+
nedes impers v pres hit ~ there is needed G 404; pa hem nedde there was necessary for them, they needed Pe 1044
nedles adj pointless, fruitless C 381, Pa 220
negh (1) adj, adv and prep near(ly) C 484, 803, G 929, 1671, 1771, 1922; wel ~ very nearly, almost Pe 528, 581, C 704, 1422, G 7, 867, ful ~ into very close to G 697; cf. ner(e) (1)

negh(e) (2) v come near, approach C 143, 805, 1017, G 1054, 1575, 1836; pres neghes G 1998; subj neghe C 32; pa neghed (to) approached C 1754, Pa 352, 465, G 132, 697, 929
neked n mere small piece, scarcely anything G 1062, 1805
nek(ke) n neck C 1638, G 420, 2255, 2310, 2484, 2498, 2506
neme see nyme
nemme v name Pe 997
ner(e) (1) prep near C 414, 1558, G 322; this blisse ~ into the vicinity of this bliss Pe 286; Him ~ near Him, in His company Pe 404; adv nearly G 729, 1995; wel ~ very nearly C 1585, Pa 169; comp nerre nearer Pe 233, Pa 85, G 237, 556, 1305; super next closest to G 1780, nearest, soonest C 261; cf. negh
nere (2) (= ne were) were not C 21, Pa 244
nerre see ner(e) (1)

nesch adj as n what is soft Pe 606
neve n nieve, fist C 1537
neven v name, specify C 1376, cite G 58; pres nevenes names, calls by G 10, pl nevenen call upon C 1525*; pa and pa ppl nevened uttered G 541, rehearsed C 410, G 65
never adv never Pe 4*; (with wit [know]) not at all Pe 376, G 399, 1487
neverthelesse adv nevertheless, none the less G 474; cf. never the  later C 1352, G 541
new(e) adj new Pe 155+; different G 118, 132; distinctive G 636*; novel G 1401, 1655; as n Pe 943, gen newes by way of a new thing G 1407*; adv anew Pe 662, 1080, 1123; newly G 60, 599, 2223; New Yere G 60, 105, 284, 404, 1062, 1668, 1998, 2244, 2400, New Yeres morne/day New Year’s Day G 453, 1054, 1075, 1669, 1675, 1968
next see ner(e) (1)

nice adj foolish C 824, G 323, 358; frivolous, foppish C 1354; (morally) obtuse, dissolute, depraved C 1359
nieghbor n neighbour Pe 688
nif (= ne if) if  not C 21, 424, G 1769
night(e) n night Pe 116+, Pa 294*; pl nightes G 730; on nighte(s) in the evenings G 47, at night Pe 243, G 693
nikked pa gave a negative reply G 706, 2471
nis pres is not Pe 951, 1071, 1266*; ~ no wye there is not any man Pe 100
nobelay, nobleye n nobility, superiority C 1091; nobleness of mind, honour G 91
noble adj (of persons) noble C 1218, 1338, 1430, G 675, worthy G 1912, 2149, superior C 1302; (of non-animates) noble C 167, grand C 1372, G 1873, fine C 121, excellent G 118, 514, 917, 1858, sumptuous G 753, valuable C 1281, Pa 531; as n noble man G 1750, his ~ his noblemen C 1226
noght(e) (1) n nothing Pe 274+; oght of ~ something out of nothing Pe 274; right ~ nothing at all Pe 520; noght () bot nothing except, simply Pe 337, 657, 955, G 1267, 1833; for ~ under any consideration G 1865; in vain C 888
noght (2) adv not at all, by no means Pe 588+
noghty adj worthless, immoral C 1359
noke n corner, angle Pa 278, G 660
nolde (= ne wolde) pa would not Pa 91+
nome(n) see nyme
non adj (used before vowels and w-, and sc- at C 21) no Pe 206+; after n Pe 1141; pron none Pe 764+, none of them G 657, 1457; no man, no one Pe 544+; nothing Pe 215; after negative any Pe 812, 825; pl pron and adj none C 101, 262, 426
norne v say, tell, call (on) G 2443, ask C 803; turn G 1661; proceed G 1669*; return G 1823; pa nurned declared, said C 65, 669; turned, pushed G 1771
north-est n north-east Pa 137
note (1) n business, matter, affair Pe 155*, C 1233, G 358, 420, 599, 1669; practice, usage C 727; all was nedles her ~ all their efforts were futile C 381, Pa 220
note (2) n tune, melody Pe 879; notability C 1651; pl notes notes, music Pe 883, C 1413, G 514
note (3) n construction, edifice Pe 922
note (4) adj famed G 2091; part adj noted made famous C 1659
nothing adv not at all G 2236
notyng vn making use, partaking C 1354
noumbre n number, amount C 737, 1283, 1376, 1731
now adv and conj now Pe 271+, now that Pe 283, 327, 389, now  now 377

Nowel n (a cry celebrating Christmas) Noel! G 65*
nowthe adv (variant of now; used at line ending) Pa 414, G 1251, 1784, 1934, 2466
noye v inflict harm or damage upon C 1236, G 1575; pres nyes distresses, angers C 578; pa nyed caused trouble and affliction to C 1176; pa ppl nyed troubled, distressed C 306, 1603; cf. nye
noyse n resounding sound C 1413+; loud words C 849, 873, Pa 490, G 1423, 1448
nurned see norne
nurture n good breeding, cultivation of mind and/or manners C 1091; courtly and gracious manners G 919, 1661
nye n trouble, difficulty C 359*, 1376, G 58; pain G 2002, harm G 2141; displeasure, anger C 301; distress C 1002; pl nyes afflictions, harms C 1751
nyed, nyes see noye
nyl (= ne will) am/is determined not to C 513, 1261, Pa 41; 2s nylt Pa 346
nyme v (pres nymes, pl neme; imp nym; pa nome, nem; pa ppl nomen) take(s), took C 480, 505, Pa 66, G 993, 1407, 2141, has/have taken Pe 587, 802*; received G 809, taken, seized C 1281, 1291, Pa 360; consider G 1347; took/taken captive C 1613, Pa 360; adopted G 91; experienced C 1002; innome caught out Pe 703*

obes pres pl make obeisance to, bow before Pe 886; pa obeched C 745
odde n one left over after division into pairs C 505; adj additional C 426
oddely adv exceptionally C 698, 923
of prep of Pe 12+; by Pe 11+; out of, from Pe 3+; with Pe 206, 207, C 1404, 1433, 1475; with regard to C 440, 1390, G 142, 2238; a number of C 1179, 1247, 1343, G 863, 1452*, 1455, some (of) G 338, 1533, something of G 1815, 1816; adv off C 630, 876, G 773, 1147, 1921; has ~ takes off G 2408
offer v make ritual offering Pa 335; pa offred participated in the liturgical offering G 593
ofte adj frequent Pe 388
oft(e) adv often Pe 14+; comp ofter more often Pe 621
oghe, owe v owe Pe 543; pres pl oghe ought G 1526*; pa oghte ought Pe 1139; with pronouns generally impers in the sense ‘ought’: subj us oghe we ought Pe 552; thee oghte it behoved you, you ought Pe 341
oght n aught, anything Pe 1200, C 663, 1092, G 300, 1815, 2215, something Pe 274
oke n oak tree C 602; pl okes G 743, 772
olde adj old C 601, 1123, G 1001, 2182, 2183; former Pe 941, 942; ‘good old’ G 1124; for ~ because of being old G 1440; comp the alder thay were the longer they lived Pe 621; alder men elders Pe 887, 1119; super aldest eldest Pe 1042, C 1333; as n the alder the elder one G 972, 1317; alderes elders, leaders G 95; cf. elde
olipraunce n pomp, display, ostentation C 1349
olyve n olive tree C 487
on (1) prep and adv on Pe 41+; thereon Pe 77
one (2) num (before nouns) one Pe 530+, 860*; on the most/sellokest/fautleste/uglokest singly (i.e. incomparably) the biggest/most prodigious, etc C 892, G 137, 1439, 2363
one pron one Pe 293+, gen ones one’s Pe 864; that one the first C 299, one of them G 952, 954; that ~ and that other the one and the other G 2412; mony ~ many a one G 442; at ~ united, not at variance Pe 378; adv only Pa 208*, 291, 354, G 2074, 2249, 2345; alone Pa 216, 216, 240, C 178, 731, G 2155; his ~ of himself alone Pe 312, alone G 1048, him ~ singly G 904, our ~ on our own G 1230, 2245, by myn ~ on my own Pe 243, thyn ~ yourself alone C 923, hit ~ on its own C 927, all him ~ all alone G 749; letes … ~ leave alone C 872, let … ~ have nothing to do with G 2118, let we hit ~ let’s say no more about it C 670
oneliche adv (variant of ‘only’) C 1749
ones adv once C 982, G 2280; on this one occasion C 761; ever, at any time C 1146, G 2512; formerly C 1144, G 2218; on a certain occasion C 23, 600, 601, 1357; at ~ together C 672, all together C 732, G 895, at one and the same time C 402, 909, G 1425, 1713, 1913, at once C 519, 566, 963, 1086, 1672; at this ~ on this occasion C 624, 801, 1090
onhede n in ~ in the singular C 612*
onhit pa ppl struck Pa 411*
on-yed adj one-eyed C 102
open v open G 1183; bring to light C 1660; pres ppl openande opening C 318; pa opened Pa 250
ordaynt pa ppl ordained, destined C 237
ordenaunce n divine plan or disposition of things C 698
ordure n filth C 1092, 1101
orenge n orange C 1044
ores n pl oars Pa 217, 221
orient n the Orient, the East Pe 3, 82; adj perle ~ pearls from the East Pe 255
orisoun n prayer Pa 328
ornementes n pl accoutrements: the utensils and furnishings of a temple or church C 1284*, 1799
orpedly adv boldly, stoutly G 2232, sturdily C 623
other conj or C 42+; or (…) elles/other or else G 1529, 1956; or/other … other/or either … or Pa 52, G 88, 702, 1772, 2216; or else G 2293; adj or pron another, the other, other Pe 206+; different Pe 319, 935, C 1165, Pa 86, G 90, 132; something else Pa 2, 408, G 1268; second Pe 297, C 235, 299, Pa 512, G 190, 2350; other person/people Pe 448+; otheres another’s Pe 450; that other adj the other C 149+, the second G 2350, pron the other man/woman/party C 765+, the next (day) G 1020; these other (C 279, 596, 741, 937, G 1445, 1914), those ~ (C 332, 340, Pa 176) (the) others, all ~ all others C 1389, G 1249, among ~ among the others C 25; non other nothing else C 342, 742, 1681, Pa 348, no one else C 1704, no other kind C 508; (with super) -st of (all) other -st of all C 256, 701, 1749, G 944
otherwayes adv in a different way C 448
otherwhile adv occasionally Pa 121
othes n pl oaths G 2123
out(e) adv out C 1679 Pa 314, 434, G 1727; utterly, everywhere G 1511; anywhere, at all C 1046; over, gone by C 442; worn out C 41*; has ~ takes out G 1612
outcomlyng n non-native, alien C 876
outfleme pa ppl driven out, banished Pe 1177
out-taken pa ppl discounting, except (for) C 357, 1573
outwith adv from the outside Pe 969; on the outside C 14
overal adv all over, completely G 150; most particularly, most commonly G 630*
overbrayden pa ppl covered over, overspread C 1698
overclambe pa climbed over, scaled G 713
overgrowen pa ppl overgrown G 2181, 2190
overloked pa looked over (their heads) G 223*
overseyed pa ppl passed by C 1686
overtake v gain G 2387*; pa overtok overtook, caught up with C 1213; pa ppl overtan overtaken Pa 127
overte adj open; unambiguous Pe 593
overthwert adj outspread C 1384; adv across C 316
overthwerte prep through G 1438
overtorned pa revolved, passed C 1192
overture n opening (at the neck or down the front of a garment) Pe 218
overwaltes pres overwhelms C 370*; pa ppl overwalt toppled, overthrown G 314*
overyede pa went by, passed C 1753
owe see oghe
owen, owne adj own Pe 559+
pace n passage, section Pe 677
pakke n group, company Pe 929
pakked pa ppl packed up together C 1282
palayce n palace C 83, 111, 1389, 1531
palays n palisade, enclosing fence G 769
palle n a type of fine or rich cloth C 1384*, 1637
pane n side or face of an architectural structure Pe 1034; (fur) lining or trimming, facing of a garment G 154*; pl panes panels or sections (of cloth) G 855
papejayes n pl parrots C 1465, G 611
parage n noble birth, noble rank Pe 419, C 167
paramores n romantic love, sexual love C 700
paraunter, paraventure adv peradventure, perhaps Pe 588, C 43, G 1009*, 1850, 2343
parchemen n parchment C 1134
pared pa and pa ppl cut C 1408, G 802; ~ on cut into C 1536
parformed pa carried out Pa 406, executed C 542
parfyt adj perfect Pe 1038; complete, consummate Pe 638
parlatyk adj paralysed, palsied C 1095
part v break open C 1107; pres pl parten part company G 2473; pa parted (genealogical) descended C 242
partles adj ~ of not possessed of Pe 335
partrykes n pl partridges C 57
passage n passage over water Pa 97; journey G 544
passe v (pres passes Pa 97, pl passe(n); subj passe Pa 393, imp passe C 615; pa and pa ppl passed) go(es), gone C 395, 942, 1672, G 265&, went C 72, 769, G 715, 1667; proceed Pe 1110, C 1780; went out of C 856; passed beyond Pe 528; pass(ed) over Pe 299, G 2071; pass(ed) by, pass through C 844, G 2129; escape, be acquitted Pe 707*; surpasses Pe 753, G 654, pres ppl passande surpassing C 1389, G 1014, pa subj passed surpassed Pe 428; passed out of emanated from C 1654

Pater n Pater Noster (the Lord’s Prayer) Pe 485, G 757
patrounes n pl lords G 6
paume n hand C 1533*; pl paumes hands, palms C 1542; flat parts of antlers G 1155*
paunches n pl stomachs (of animals) G 1360
pay(e) (1) n pleasure, satisfaction Pe 1, 1164&; payment G 2247
pay (2) v (pres payes; imp pay; pa and ppl payed) (a) please(s), pleased Pe 1165, 1201, G 1379; me payed it pleased me Pe 1177; (b) pay(s), payed, paid Pe 524*, 584, 603, 635, G 1941, 1945, 2341
payne (1) n penalty C 244, 716, penance Pe 665; physical discomfort G 733; pain, suffering Pa 525, 530 and/or punishment Pe 95; C 190; on ~ of under penalty of C 46; pl paynes discomforts, distresses Pe 124, Pa 528, pains C 1227
payne (2) v refl take pains G 1042; cf. pine (2)

paynted pa and pa ppl coloured by art G 800; portrayed, depicted Pe 750, G 611; cf. depaynt(ed)

payre (1) n pair C 335; ~ by ~ in pairs C 338
payre (2) v be weakened G 1735; pres payres suffers impairment C 1124; pa payred failed, weakened G 650, 1456; pa ppl payred impaired in health, languishing Pe 246
payttrure n poitrel, collar or plate for a horse’s breast G 168, 601
pece n piece (of armour) G 2021; creature Pe 192, 229; a piece or space of time C 1124*; peche patch Pe 841; pl peces fragments C 1348, G 1458
pelure n fur G 154; pl pelures pieces of fur G 2029
penaunce n suffering, tribulation Pe 477*, Pa 530; penance Pa 31, 376, 406; formal penalty imposed by confessor at shrift C 1116, 1131, G 2392; fare or food typical of a fast day G 897
pendauntes n pl pendant ornaments G 168; hanging ends of a girdle G 2038, 2431
penes n pl pens C 322; cf. penne-fed
penies n pl pennies, coins C 1118, G 79
penne n pen, stylus C 1546, 1724
penned pa ppl enclosed, shut in Pe 53*
penne-fed adj fed in a pen C 57; cf. penes
pensyf adj preoccupied with sad thoughts Pe 246
pentangel n five-pointed figure G 620*, 623, 636, 664
pented pa belonged (to), pertained (to) C 1270, G 204
peny n penny Pe 510, 546, 560, 562, 614; pl penies money C 1118, G 79
peple n people C 111, 396, 885, Pa 371, G 123, 664; nation C 651, pl peples C 242
pere n peer, equal C 1336, G 873; opposite number C 1214; her precious ~ her equal in value Pe 4
perelous adj perilous G 2097
peres n pl fruit-trees Pe 104
perfet pa ppl perfected: ~ upon perfectly fashioned upon it Pe 208
peril n danger C 856, 942, Pa 114, G 733, 1768; withoute ~ assuredly Pe 695; pl periles Pa 85
peritotes n pl peridots C 1472*
perle n pearl Pe 1&, C 556, 1068, 1116–7, 1124, G 2364; collective s Pe 207, 219, 229; pl perles Pe 82&, C 1132, 1467, 1472, G 954
perre n jewellery, precious stones Pe 730, 1028, C 1117
persoun n self, being; his ~ his self, him G 913
pertly adv openly, clearly C 244 (apertly), G 544, 1941; cf. apert
pese n peace Pa 33, G 266 and/or reconciliation Pe 952, 953, 955; acceptability to God Pe 742; her ~ gete make their peace Pa 423; holden her ~ refrain from protest Pa 25
pich n black and sticky woodtar C 1008
piche v pitch, set C 477; pa ppl piched set, placed G 576, 768; see also pyght
pikes pres pl get, acquire Pe 573; subj pike eat Pa 393; pa ppl piked cleaned from dirt G 2017; piked of pecked at, eaten from C 1466
pinacle n pinnacle G 800, pl pinacles C 1463
pinacled pa ppl having pinnacle-like upward projections Pe 207
pine (1) n severe pain, torment Pe 330, Pa 43, G 747; distress, vexation Pa 412, G 1812; penance Pa 423; exertion; difficulty G 123; exertion, pains G 1985, don gret ~ take great pains, exert themselves Pe 511; pl pines torments Pa 91
pine (2) v ~ yow take trouble G 1538; pa subj pined me gave myself pains or trouble G 1009; cf. payne (2); pa ppl pined in fires ?suffering from fever C 1095*
piped pa piped, cheeped G 747
pipes n pl wind instruments C 1081, 1413, G 118; vn piping music of pipes G 1017
pitously adv with pity, compassionately Pe 370; movingly, in a moved manner Pe 798; pitifully, pitiably Pa 371, G 747
place n place Pe 175+; (grand) place of residence, mansion, estate, manor Pe 405, 1034, C 72, 146, 238, 785, 1385, G 398, 786, 2240; pl places C 1013; into place to that place C 1443
planed pa ppl planed, smoothed C 310
planted pa planted C 1007*; formed, created Pa 111*
plaster n pl plastered surface of a wall C 1549
plat (1) pa swiped, chopped C 1265*
plat (2) adj flat C 1379
plate n pl plate armour G 204, 583; pl plates pieces of plate armour G 2017; plates (constructed of a mineral and inscribable) Pe 1036
plater n dish C 638
platful adj completely full C 83
play (1) n merriment, revelry C 1494, 1502; (usually pleasurable) occupation or interengagement C 700, G 1014, 1379
play (2) v (pres playes; pa played) pass(ed) the time pleasurably Pe 261, C 787, G 1664; interengage in recreational pastime G 262; refl play with entertain oneself with the company of Pa 36, G 1538; pres pl playes seethes Pa 319
playferes n pl playfellows, companions Pa 45
playn (1) n field, meadow Pe 104, C 1379; pl playnes Pe 122, C 1216, G 1418
playn (2) adj smooth, pure Pe 178*, C 1068, 1134; flat, level C 1531; ~ … fro bare of Pa 439*; adv plainly, clearly Pe 689
playnes pres ~ on makes complaint or accusation against Pa 376; pa and pa ppl playned lamented, mourned Pe 53, 242, Pa 371
playnt n legal complaint, protest Pe 815
plede, plete v sue for, argue a case for Pe 563, G 1304
plek n patch of land C 1379
pleny v make a complaint or accusation Pe 549
plesaunce n pleasure G 1246
plesaunt adj pleasing Pe 1; courteous, complaisant G 808
plese v please Pe 484, C 338, find favour with G 1659; pres pleses G 1249; pa subj plesed Pa 376
plete see plede
plonttes n pl vegetation Pe 104
plow n plough C 68
plye v be applied to, be set on Pe 1039; pres plyes deviates C 196; pres ppl plyande overarching Pa 439; pa plyed was enfolded C 1385
plyght, plyt n (pl plytes) (a) state, condition Pe 1075, Pa 114, pl C 111; state of affairs, circumstances C 1494; occasion, matter Pe 1114*; in to pore a plyght of too inferior a nature Pe 1075; (b) hard plight, danger, harm Pe 647, 1015, pl G 733; strife, battle G 266*; sin, guilt G 2393
pobbel n pebble, small stone Pe 117
pole n body of water Pe 117; pl poles Pa 310
polle n (top of the) head C 1265
polment n vegetable broth C 628, 638
polyce v ~ him give himself a lustre C 1131; pa ppl polysed polished, burnished G 576; rubbed free of blemish C 1068, G 2393, smoothened C 1134; decorated, embellished G 2038
pomegarnades n pl pomegranates C 1466*
porchas n what is acquired, gains G 1941
porchase v acquire, obtain Pe 744; pres pl porchases Pe 439
porche n space (with no walls and a roof supported by columns) in front of a dwelling C 785
pore adj poor, humble, lowly Pe 573, 1074, G 1538, 1945; inferior Pe 1075; thy servant … ~ (C 773), as n thy ~ (C 615) your poor servant; as n the ~ the poor C 127; adv poorly C 146
porfyl n ornamental border (of a garment) Pe 216
port (1) n gateway C 856; (as sobriquet) de la Porte G 555
port (2) n port Pa 90, 97
portales n pl portals, gateways Pe 1036
porter n gatekeeper, entrance guard G 808, 813, 2072
portrayed pa and pa ppl decorated, adorned C 1271; fashioned, depicted C 700, 1465; ~ lettres engraved letter-shapes C 1536
porvay v me ~ provide myself with Pa 36; pres porvayes a mynde adopts a plan C 1502*
postes n pl pillars, columns C 1278
potage n gruel, soup C 638
poursent n precinct, (limits of) circumscribed area C 1385; in ~ in the perimeter Pe 1035
poverte n poverty Pa 13, 31, 35, 41, 43, 45, 528
powdered pa ppl scattered Pe 44, G 800
poynt(e) n point G 2392; condition, attribute C 196, Pa 1*, 531; health G 2049; (constituent part) instance, particular subdivision Pe 309, article (of faith), principle Pe 594; (smallest part) note of a song Pe 891, point of time, critical or decisive moment G 2284; (centre, midpoint) ~ of her play height of their revelry C 1502, ~ of his pryde height of his pomp C 1677; put to a ~ placed in a condition Pa 35; at the ~ at the relevant moment Pa 68; at this ilke ~ in this state of things C 628; pl poyntes heads of arrows G 1456; points, tips, angles G 627, 658; constituent parts G 654, qualities G 654; issues raised, observations G 902*
poynte v set down in writing G 1009*; pa ppl poynted of golde picked out with gold C 1408*
poyntel n pointed tool for incising letters into wax or parchment C 1533
poysened pa ppl poisoned C 1095*; cf. enpoysened
praunce v prance G 2064
pray (1) n booty, spoils; gain, enrichment Pe 439*; in ~ as captives C 1297*
pray(e) (2) v ask C 232, 615, G 1219, 1839, 2398, 2439; pray, pray to Pe 484, G 254, 757; pres pl prayen Pa 225; pres ppl prayande praying Pa 327; pa and pa ppl prayed asked Pe 714, 1192, G 1850, invited C 72
prayed pa made prey of, plundered C 1624
prayer(e) n prayer Pe 355, Pa 303, 412, 423, prayers, praying G 759; devotional observance Pe 618
prayse v praise Pe 301, C 195; esteem, value C 148, Pa 47, G 356, 1850; pres prayses compliments G 2072; pa praysed revered, esteemed, lauded C 1313; showed respect to C 146; praised C 642, 1479, G 1630, 1633, asserted to be impressive G 1633; pa ppl praysed highly esteemed, superior Pe 1112; commended C 1117, G 913, 1228; cf. pryse
prece see pres (1)

preche v preach Pa 81, 349, 416; pres ppl prechande making clear C 942*
precious adj precious, valuable, dear Pe 36&; sacred C 1282, 1496; her ~ pere her equal in value Pe 4
pref n to … put in ~ proved on assay as Pe 272
prelates n pl high-ranking clerics C 1249, Pa 389
pres, prece (1) n press, crowd, crowding Pe 1114, C 880
pres (2) adj precious, valuable Pe 730; cf. pris (2)

pres (3) pres pl press forward, hasten Pe 957, G 2097; pa presed exerted force upon, assaulted C 1249; pressed forwards, hastened G 830
prese n acclaim, honour Pe 419
presense n presence C 8, 147, 1496, G 911
present n presence Pe 389, 1193
presented pa and pa ppl (of captives) handed over to C 1217, 1297*
presoners n pl prisoners, captives C 1217, 1297, 1308
prest (1) n priest Pe 1210, C 1131, Pa 389, G 1877; pl prestes C 8, 1249, 1265
prest (2) adj prompt, ready C 147
prest (3), prestly adv promptly, quickly C 628, G 1304*; earnestly Pa 303, G 757; eagerly G 911
preue adj possessed of prowess, doughty G 262; tough, enduring Pa 525*
preve v prove to be, turn out to be C 704; imp preve thee show yourself to be Pa 288; pa ppl preved declared, demonstrated Pe 983; shown, established C 1748
previly adv privately, discreetly G 1877
prik(e) v stimulate, incite G 2437; (of a horse) run, canter G 2049
prince n prince C 1570; lord, nobleman C 49+; lord (= God) Pe 1201&, C 167, 195, 1654, 1660, Pa 225, 282, 412, G 2473, gen princes Pe 1, 1164&; gen prince G 1014; pl princes noblemen, aristocracy C 1215, 1518, G 2398; cf. prynces etc
pris (1) n price, (great) value, worth Pe 193, 746, G 1247*, 1249, 1277, 1850, 2364; excellence, status, honour, renown Pe 419, G 912; (of a knight) superior prowess G 1630; pre-eminence C 1117*, distinction G 1379*; of ~ of value Pe 272, G 79, 615, of high standing G 1770, great G 2398; ~ of the prophecie the cream of the body of prophets C 1308, ~ of the worlde the best in the world C 1614
pris (2) adj valuable, precious G 1945; cf. pres and pryse
privy adj hidden Pe 12*; obscure, not obvious G 902*; private, personal, one’s own Pe 24; super to … privyest most in the confidence of C 1748
profecie n body of prophets C 1308
profecies see professye
proferes pres ho ~ presents herself Pa 40; pres pl proferen proffer Pe 1200; pa profered proffered G 1494; announced readiness for Pe 235*; aimed a blow at G 2346*, 2350
profert pa projected, jutted up C 1463
professye n prophecy, divinely revealed truth Pe 821; pl profecies contents of a Book of the Bible attributed to an Old Testament prophet C 1158
proper adj goodly, excellent of its kind Pe 686, C 195
property n inherent quality Pe 446; pl propertes attributes, qualities Pe 752
proud(e) adj proud C 232, G 1277; contemptuous G 2269; great C 1177, G 830; fine, magnificent C 1772, G 168, 601, 2049, 2104; super as n the proudest those of most magnificence C 1300; adv proudly with pomp C 1379, in splendour C 1466
prowes n military prowess G 912, 2437, excellence G 1249*
proved pa knew at first hand, met with Pe 4*; pa ppl proved professionally valued G 79, demonstrated G 1630, manifest C 1168, established C 1496
province n nation, land C 1300, 1614, 1624; pl provinces G 6
pryde n pride, arrogance Pe 401, C 179, 1349, 1450, 1657, G 681, 2437; pomp, state, magnificence C 1227, 1677, G 2038; of ~ magnificent C 1389; with ~ finely, impressively G 587
prymate n supreme official (especially in an ecclesiastical hierarchy) C 1570*
prynces n noblewoman G 1770*; cf. prince
pryncipal adj pertaining to a prince, royal C 1531*, 1781
pryncipalte n rulership, princely power C 1672, 1738
prys n capture G 1362*, 1601*
pryse v most to ~ most to be valued Pe 1131; cf. pris (2) and prayse
prysoun n prison Pa 79; prisoner G 1219
pryvyly adv in a secluded fashion C 238*; ?smoothly C 1107
pulle v pull, draw C 68; pa pl pulden tugged, dragged C 1265
pure (1) adj pure Pe 745, 1088; faultless, excellent Pe 227, C 1271, G 262, 654; true, properly so-called C 1570*, G 664; (of gold) unalloyed G 620; emphatic very, actual Pa 319, G 1247, 2398; ~ Paradise Paradise itself C 704
pure (2), purely adv with pureness Pe 1004; quite, completely C 1660, absolutely, perfectly G 808; veritably G 802, 813
pure (3) v ~ thee with purify yourself by C 1116; pa ppl pured(e) purged of flaws G 2393, perfect G 912; (of fur) treated so as to enhance and regularize colour G 154*, 1737; (of metal) refined G 633*
purpose n purpose, plan G 1734; phenomenon Pe 185*; put in a mad ~ embarked on a perverse course of action Pe 267; to his ~ appropriate to his purpose Pe 508
purpre adj purple, violet Pe 1016, C 1637; n purple fabric C 1568, 1743
pursued pa proceeded, made his way C 1177
puryte n purity, cleanness C 1074
pyes n pl magpies C 1465
pyght pa and pa ppl (of piche) set Pe 117&; decorated, studded Pe 192, 217, 229, 768; filled C 83; ~ in was attached to G 1456, 1566; was set in G 1735; ~ … of set with, adorned with Pe 205; ~ to adjoining C 785
pyked (1) adj spiked G 769
pyked (2) see apyke
pyled pa and pa ppl pillaged, plundered C 1270
pyleres n pl pillars, columns C 1271, 1479*
pynes pres pl pen, enclose Pa 79; pa ppl pyned penned, enclosed G 769*
pyonys n pl peonies Pe 44
pyty n pity Pe 355, C 396, Pa 282, 327, compassion C 232, G 654*; emotion, grief Pe 1206; piety, righteousness Pa 31*
quavande pres ppl shaking, palpitating C 324
quayle n quail Pe 1085
qued n bane, evil C 567, Pa 4
quelle v kill, slay Pe 799, C 324, 567, G 1449, 2109, pa and pa ppl quelled Pa 228, G 1324; quench, bring to nothing, dispel G 752, pres quelles Pa 4
queme adj pleasing, pleasure-giving Pe 1179, G 578, 2109
quenches pres dowses with water, extinguishes Pa 4
quene n queen Pe 415&, C 1351&, G 74&
quest n cry of hounds engaged in a hunt G 1150; chase, pursuit Pa 39*; calle of a ~ bay to announce a quarry detected G 1421
quik(e) adj living C 324, Pa 387, G 2109; lively, fresh, active C 624, G 177; vivid Pe 1179*; adv earnestly, eagerly G 975; as n all quikes all living things C 567
quikken subj should arise Pa 471
quikly adv actively, vigorously G 1324; promptly G 1490
quoth pa said Pe 241+
quoynt(e), koynt adj wise, skilled, accomplished Pe 690*, 889; skilfully made or fashioned C 1382, 1459, G 877, 999; of excellent quality Pa 417; exact, precise G 1525; smart, well dressed C 160*; pretty C 871; cf. coyntly
quoyntyse n skill, artistry, ingenuity Pa 39*, C 1287; subtlety of intellect C 1632; lore, arts G 2447; elegance of clothing, ornamentation or appearance C 1809; finery C 54
quyte pres reward, pay C 1632; repay G 2244, 2324; 2s quytes requite, reward Pe 595
rabel n noisy crowd G 1899, 1703
race (Norse-derived cognate of res) onward rush, headlong course Pe 1167, G 1420; sweep (of sword) G 2076
rach n smallish scenting hound, also called brach G 1903; pl raches G 1164*, 1362, 1420, 1426, braches 1142, 1563, 1603, 1610; gen pl rach mouthes G 1907
rad adj frightened, alarmed C 1543, G 251
radde see rede
rad(ly) adv promptly, directly Pa 65+
rafte see reve (2)

raght(e) see reche
rak n layer of clouds G 1695, group of storm clouds, storm Pa 176, C 433; pl rakkes storm clouds Pa 139
rake n path G 2144, 2160
rakel adj hasty Pa 526
ramel n refuse, waste matter Pa 279
ran see renne
rand(e) n strip of land: strothe-rande strip of marshy scrubland G 1710*; pl randes strips of land bordering water Pe 105
rankor n rancour C 756
rape n blow, stroke C 233
rapely adv quickly Pe 1168, ~ I rave I am quick to go off course Pe 363; busily G 2219
rapes pres hastens, hurries G 1903, refl G 1309
rasch adj hasty, impetuous Pe 1167
rased pa tore G 1907
rases pres rushes G 1461
rasores n pl razors G 213
rasped pa and pa ppl scraped, scored C 1545, 1724
rasse n clear space: ledge, plateau C 446; inlet of level ground G 1570*
ratted part adj ragged, torn C 144
rave v stray, deviate Pe 665; make mistakes Pe 363
ravyste pa ppl carried away in spirit, transported Pe 1088
rawes n pl hedgerows G 513; places where trees and shrubs grow Pe 105
raxled pa stirred, came to Pe 1174*
ray n beam of light Pe 160
rayke v go, set off C 671; pres raykes goes, sets out Pa 89; raykes him proceeds C 465; imp rayke go Pa 65, pl (polite) raykes go, set out G 1076; pres ppl raykande moving, proceeding Pe 112, C 382; pa rayked her proceeded, G 1735; out rayked went into the open G 1727
rayled pa ppl spread G 952, bestrewn G 745*; set, mounted, displayed G 163, 603
rayn n rain C 440, 953, 959, G 506
rayne (1) n rein G 2177; pl raynes G 457
rayne (2) v rain C 354; pres ppl raynande raining C 382
rayn-ryfte n rain-channel C 368*; cf. lake-ryftes
rayse v your lif to ~ to raise your soul from death Pe 305; pa and pa ppl raysed raised G 1916, bade to rise G 821
rebounde pa sprang, bounded C 422
rech v reck, care; pres reches C 465; pa roghte Pa 460; rech I never for to I don’t care if I Pe 333
rechatande pres ppl blowing the hunting horn (to announce location of hunt) G 1911; pa rechated G 1446, 1466
reche (2&3s pres reches; pa and pa ppl raght(e), 2s raghtes) give, grant, tender C 1369, G 66, 1804, 2059, 2324; held out to G 1817, gave, conferred upon C 561, G 1874, 2297; delivered, handed over G 1874, 2351, raght is has been handed over to C 1739; receive, get C 1766 (subj); reach, get to C 890; proceeded C 766, reche after go for, seek after C 619, ~ to get as far as, succeed in reaching C 906, be equal to G 1243*; extends, falls G 183; reached, extended C 1691; raght out reached out G 432
reches see rech and reche
rechlesse adj carefree, uninhibited G 40
recorde n attestation, recorded testimony Pe 831
recordes pres records (in writing) C 25; pa recorded rehearsed G 1123*
recoverer n relief, shelter C 394, Pa 279
red(e) adj and n red Pe 27+; (of gold) Pe 1111, G 663*, 857, 1817
rede v (pa radde (red C 194), pl redden) read Pe 709, C 1555, 1596; advise(d) Pe 743, Pa 406, G 363, decided; counsel, direct, guide G 738, subj C 1642*; interpret C 1578, 1633; have one’s way G 2111*; redes (2s pres)/reden (pres pl) him right give him what he asks for C 1346, G 373*; pres pl reden and syngen read and chant divine service C 7; pa ppl redde stated, pronounced G 443
redily adv readily G 373, 2059, quickly G 1821, 2324, exactly G 392, certainly C 105*
redles adj without recourse, desperate of remedy C 969, 1197, 1595; for ~ out of helplessness; as n tho ~ those unable to help themselves Pa 502
redy adj ready Pa 98, prompt in response Pe 591; eager C 724, zealous C 294; prepared C 345; ~ to manne ripe for mating C 869*; adv promptly, readily G 1970
refet n refection, nourishment Pe 1064
refete v nourish, restore strength Pe 88; pa ppl refete fed Pa 20
reflayr n fragrance Pe 46; rose ~ fragrance of rose C 1079
refrayne v check, restrain C 756
reghtful adj upright, righteous C 724; cf. right(e)

regioun n realm Pe 1178; region C 760, 964, Pa 298; pl regiounes Pa 344
regne n realm, kingdom Pe 501, 692, C 1642, 1652, 1739; royal power, sovereignty C 1334, 1734; cf. rengnes
regretted pa ppl bewailed, wept over Pe 242
rehayte v^1 address in such a way as to sustain or cause good cheer, speak encouragingly to C 127; pa rehayted G 895; hunting cheered on, encouraged G 1422
rehayted pa (of ‘rehayte’ v^2) rebuked, reproached G 1744
reherse v set out, describe G 1243; pa ppl rehersed rehearsed, recited G 392
reken (1) adj fine, splendid Pe 5, 92, 906, C 1082; fair, becoming C 756; good, worthy C 738
reken (2), rekenly adv finely, splendidly G 39; worthily, with propriety C 10, 1318, G 2206*; graciously C 127, nicely, respectfully, courteously G 251, 821
rekken v recount, relate Pe 827; ~ up add together, list C 2
rele imp lay about us G 2246*; pres ppl relande reeling Pa 270; pa reled reeled, rolled Pa 147; swerved G 1728; (of eyes) rolled, cast, threw G 229*, 304
relece v legally release, remit G 2342*, grant remittance of penalty to C 760
reles n cessation, intermission Pe 956
relusaunt adj reflecting light, resplendent Pe 159
relygioun n religious creed, church C 1156; renkes of ~ men of the Church C 7
relykes n pl sacred objects of value and/or antiquity, Church treasures C 1156, 1269
reme (1) n realm Pe 448, 735, C 1572; pl remes realms, domains C 1316; cf. ryalme
reme (2) v cry out Pe 1181; pres pl remen cry out, wail Pe 858
remembred pa refl I ~ me I remembered Pa 326
remnaunt n remaining persons C 433, 738; remaining part or quantity Pe 1160, G 2342*, 2401
remorde v recall with remorse G 2434; pa ppl remorde afflicted with mordant pain Pe 364
remue v remove, take away Pe 427; move, depart Pe 899; alter, change G 1475; pa ppl remued removed C 646, exiled C 1673
renay pres pl refuse G 1827; pa and pa ppl renayed rejected, refused C 105, Pa 344, G 1821
renden v tear, rend Pa 526; pres rendes splits G 1608; pa rent of tore off G 1332; pa ppl rent rent, torn C 40, 144, 1595 (rended), wounded, maimed Pe 806
rengnes pl imp reign C 527; pa and pa ppl rengned reigned C 1321; in … rengned lived according to C 328*
renischche see runisch(e)

renk n man Pa 216+; pl renkes men C 7+; gen the renkes selven the man’s self, the man himself C 786
renne v run C 527, G 1568; go speedily on foot Pa 52*; gallop C 1392; pres rennes prevails Pa 514, flows G 731, 1570; pl rennen run C 1514; rennes of (fame) spreads, is current G 310, 2458; pres ppl rennande running, sliding G 857; pa ran Pe 646, 1055, C 797, Pa 378, pl ran, runnen C 391, 1208, 1269, 1782, G 66, 1420, 1703 ran; pa ppl runne(n) run Pe 874*, G 1727, is runne has run Pe 26, be ~ may have been run up Pe 523*
renoun n worth, excellence Pe 986, G 2458, 2519; honour, status G 231, 313; pomp G 2434; of (rich) ~ of great excellence, splendid Pe 1182, G 2045
renowles pres pl renew, are renewed Pe 1080
rent see renden
reparde pa ppl fenced off; fro … ~ barred to Pe 611
repayre v be assembled, be present at a place Pe 1028; pres repayres G 1016
repreved pa reproached G 2269
requeste n request, petition Pe 281
require v ask as a request of G 1056
rere v rise Pe 160; subj rere raise, awaken Pa 188; pres pl reres rise up C 1461; pa and pa ppl rered rose, rose up C 366, 423; raised, brought into being G 353; rerd raised C 873; evermore rert ?established for ever Pe 591*
res, resse n rush, impetus Pe 874; in/on a ~ in a rush C 1782, G 1164, 1899; cf. race
resayte n hunting station G 1168*
resayve v receive G 2076
rescowe n rescue G 2308; mas … ~ delivers Pe 610*
reset(te) n shelter, accommodation Pe 1067; refuge C 906
resoun n (a) rightness, sense of rightness Pe 52*; righteousness, justice Pe 665, C 328; by ~ rightly G 1344, 1804; (b) cause, reason Pe 268, Pa 191; meaning, signification C 1633; (c) speech, discourse G 227, 392; pl resouns words, statements Pe 716, C 184, 194, G 443; arguments (in favour) C 2
resounable adj just, fair Pe 523; just, righteous C 724
respecte n in ~ of in comparison with Pe 84
respite n reprieve Pe 644; stipulated interval before something is to take place G 297*
resse see res
rest(e) (1) n bed, place to sleep C 890, 1208, G 1223; repose Pe 858, C 1766, G 1990; ease Pa 279, restfulness Pe 1087
rest (2) v rest Pe 679*; restes imp pl rest C 619, pause C 906; pres is disposed, is C 738; pa rest came to a rest C 446, rested leant G 2331; pa ppl rested rested C 616
restay v pause Pe 437; pa and pa ppl restayed restrained, held back Pe 716, 1168, detained G 1672, checked G 1153
restles adv without pause C 527
reve (1) n reeve, estate-manager Pe 542*
reve (2) v forcibly remove G 2459; my solace to ~ deprive me of whatever gives me comfort Pa 487; pa and pa ppl rafte reft, forcibly removed, seized C 1142, 1431, 1739
revel (1) n revelry, festivity C 1369, G 40; song, dance, music accompanying a feast G 538; pride, defiance G 313*
revel (2) v spend (time) in revel G 2401
rever n river Pe 1055; pl reveres waterside fields Pe 105
reverence n reverence C 10, honour, respect, esteem C 1318, 1369, G 1243, 2206*
reverenced pa greeted respectfully G 251
rewarde n regard, esteem, standing Pe 604; return, repayment C 208; reward C 1346, G 1804, 2059
rewardes pres rewards G 1610*, pl rewarde G 1918
rewfully adv sorrowfully, with grief Pe 1181
rewled pa ~ him governed his behaviour C 294

Reynarde proper n Reynard (nickname for fox) G 1728, 1898, 1920; gen Reynarde Reynard’s G 1916
rich(e) (1) adj (of things) splendid, magnificent Pe 68+, costly G 1827; (of buildings, cities, lands) great, grand C 216, 571, 786, 1073, 1159, 1197, 1223, 1514, G 243; (of colour, sound) rich, glorious G 952, 1470, 1916, 2036; (of words) glorious G 1744; (of persons: lords, magnates, etc) great, mighty C 1685+, grand, high-ranking C 1299+, wealthy C 51, 812, 878, G 1646; as n riche great man C 1321, great men C 1208, G 66, 362, rich people C 127; super richest mightiest, most powerful C 1217; greatest, most illustrious C 1572, G 1130
riche (2) (C 1411, G 159, 220, 879), rich(e)ly (C 1045, G 163, 308, 931) adv splendidly, impressively; vividly C 1045
riche (3) v (pres riches, pl richen; pa and pa ppl riched) arrange, make disposition G 360*, array G 1223; prepare Pa 101, dress C 10; adjusted, arranged G 2177*; made ready, prepared G 599, 2206*; pres ppl richchande making his way G 1898; refl directs his course G 8, made his way G 367, gets dressed G 1873, prepare themselves G 1130, turned himself G 303
ridlande pres ppl streaming C 953, Pa 254*
riftes n pl clefts C 964
rigge n back Pa 379, G 1344, 1608
right(e) (1) n right, justice Pe 496&, Pa 323, 493*; righteousness Pe 622, Pa 19; good reason C 1318*; of ~ true, trustworthy C 194; by ~ accurately C 1633, rightfully C 2, G 274, 1041, with ~ G 2346; pl rightes rights, claims G 2342; cf. reghtful
right(e) (2) adj right Pa 43, true C 282, G 1703, 2343; (as opposed to ‘left’) Pa 514
right (3) adv well Pa 326, C 1346; exactly Pe 298+; directly Pe 1055, fully G 1341, 2162; rightly G 373*; rightes exactly C 427
ripe adj ripe C 1045, G 522; sexually mature C 869
rise v (pres rises; subj rise; imp ris) rise(s) Pe 191+; rise to view Pe 103; pa ros (rised at end of alliterative line: C 509, 838, 971, 1203, 1778, G 1313) rose, arose Pe 437+, refl G 1736
robbed pa and pa ppl plundered C 1142, 1156
robbores n pl plunderers C 1269
robborye n robbery C 184
roche (1) n cliff, crag G 2199*; pl roches C 537
roche (2) adj rocky, stony G 2294
rocher n stony hillside, cliff G 1432; pl rocheres G 1427, 1698
rode n rood, cross Pe 646, 705, 806, Pa 96, G 1949
roffe n roof G 2198; pl roves G 799
rof-sore n wound from a gash G 2346; cf. ryfe
rogh(e) adj rough Pa 139, 147, C 382; hard-surfaced Pe 646, C 1545; rugged, wild Pa 254, 298, G 1432, 2162, 2166; crude, primitive G 2198, sturdy C 1724; spiky, gnarled G 2177; bristly, hairy G 953*, unflayed G 1608*; shaggy, dense G 745*; not allowing easy passage G 1898; as n roughness of sea Pa 144
roghly, roghlych adj grim, comfortless C 433*; (of speech) angry, unsoftened Pa 64
roghte see rech
rok n rocky eminence C 446; cliff or rocky bank bordering water G 1570, 2144; citadel, castle C 1514*; pl rokkes rocks, crags Pe 68, Pa 254, G 730
rollande pres ppl rolling, waving C 790*; pa rolled rolled C 423, G 428; hung loosely G 953
romaunce n (chivalric) narrative G 2521*
romes pres walks G 2198
rones n pl bushes, thickets G 1466
ronge see ryngande
ronk adj rich, flourishing G 513; (of women) blooming C 869; abundant Pe 844; fierce C 233; headstrong, willful, self-willed Pe 1167, C 455, 873; unrestrained Pa 490, incontinent C 760; as n thurgh ~ of his wille following the promptings of an unrestrained will Pa 298
ronkly adv fiercely, violently Pa 431
rop n rope Pa 150; pl ropes G 857
rores pres bellows, roars C 1543; pa rored C 390
ros see rise
rosted pa ppl roasted C 59, 959
rote (1) n root Pa 467; foot of tree C 619; root cause Pe 420; pl rotes roots G 2294
rote (2) n by ~ with due form G 2207*
rote (3) v decompose, rot Pe 958; pres rotes G 528
rotes n pl rotes (stringed instruments of the harp family) C 1082
rothun n ?redness C 1009*
roum n room, space C 96
roun (1) n secret, secrecy Pa 514
roun (2) v whisper, speak or confer in private G 362; pa rouned breathed words Pa 64; pres ppl rounande whispering Pe 112
rounde n and adj round Pe 5, 657, 738, C 927, 1121; on ~ around C 423, Pa 147; Rounde Table G 39, 313, 538, 905, 2458, 2519, the Table 2515
route n group of associated persons, entourage Pe 926; pl routes companies C 969, 1197; on ~ in crowds C 1782
routes pres snores Pa 186; pres ppl routande roaring C 354
routhe n (a) grief, sorrow Pe 858; ~ to here grievous to hear G 2204; (b) ruth, pity Pa 21, 284, 396, C 972; piteousness, occasion for pity C 233
rove see ryfe
roves see roffe
rowe (1) n row, line Pe 545
rowe (2) v row, use oars Pa 216, 218
ruby n ruby Pe 1007*; pl rubies C 1471
ruddon n redness C 893*
rudede pa ppl ruddied, made red G 1695
rudnyng n reddening Pa 139
rue v take pity Pa 176, 502; impers v hit me rues I regret C 290, pa him rued C 561
ruful(le) adj piteous, sorrowful, sad Pe 916; sorry, lamentable G 2076
ruly adv piteously Pa 96, C 390
runisch(e) see ryngande
runische, renischche adj (a) strange, foreign C 96, undecipherable C 1545*; (b) rough, decisive G 457; adv runischly (a) undecipherably, in the manner of a cipher C 1724; (b) fiercely G 304*, roughly Pa 191, G 432
runne(n) see renne
rurd n noise, sound Pe 112, C 390, Pa 64, 396, G 1149, 1698, 1916, 2219, 2337
rusched pa rushed C 368; made a rushing sound G 2204, 2219
ruthes pres ~ him rouses himself G 1558; pres pl ruthen rouse C 895*; pa ppl ruthed of her rest roused from their beds C 1208*
ryal(le) adj royal Pe 193, G 905, splendid, magnificent Pe 160, 191, C 786, 790, 1082, G 2036; as n royal city Pe 919
ryally adv royally, magnificently Pe 987, C 812, G 663*
ryalme n realm G 691; pl ryalmes realms, kingdoms G 310; cf. reme (1)

ryalty n royal state, pomp C 1321, 1371
rybaudes n pl knaves, wrongdoers Pa 96, C 873
rybbe n rib G 1356; pl rybbes G 1343, 1378
ryche n kingdom Pe 601, 722
rychess n great worth, richness Pe 26
ryd v free, extricate G 364; separate (combatants) G 2246; pres pl ryde … of clear away G 1344*
ryf adj rife, abundant Pe 770, 844
ryfe v rive, split C 363*; pres ryves cuts G 1341; pa rove cut G 2346
ryg n storm C 354*, 382
ryght pa ~ him sat upright G 308*
ryghtwys adj righteous, virtuous Pe 675+, right Pa 490; as n just man Pe 689
ryghtwysly adv correctly, rightly Pe 709
rynes pres strikes, pierces G 2290
ryng n ring G 1817, 1827; pl rynges rings G 857; links in chain mail G 580, 2018
ryngande pres ppl ringing, resounding C 1082, G 2337; pa ronge rang out G 2201, pa pl rungen rang G 195, 931, 1427, 1698
rynging vn (the sound of) ringing (C 1513)

rypande pres ppl searching (C 592)

rype adj ripe (figurative) C 869
rypes pres ripens, reaches maturity G 528
ryve adv plentifully, profusely G 2046
ryves see ryfe
sacrefyce n (ritual) sacrifice Pe 1064, C 507, 510, 1447*, Pa 239, 334; in His ~ in ritual sacrifices to Him C 1497
sad(de) adj solemn Pe 887, C 595, composed Pe 211; serious C 640; hard, stern C 525*; weighty C 1286*; considerable, great C 657
sadel (1) n saddle G 164&; pl of sadeles out of (their) saddles C 1213
sadel (2) v saddle G 1128, 2012
sadly adv sedately, calmly G 437; firmly G 1593; seriously, earnestly G 1937; (of sleep) deeply Pa 442; to a considerable degree G 2409
saf adj safe Pa 334; spiritually saved Pe 672, 684, 696, 720, comp saver morally and spiritually safer G 1202; vouche … saf vouchsafe, grant G 1390
saffer n sapphire Pe 118, 1002; pl safyres C 1469
sage adj wise, learned C 1576
saght part adj reconciled, at peace; sette ~ propitiate Pe 1199; set … ~ put at peace, reconciled Pe 52
saghtelyng vn reconciliation C 490; ~ makes with makes peace with, makes terms with C 1795
saghttel v make peace, be reconciled Pa 528; pa saghtled made his peace C 230; calmed, was pacified Pa 232; settled, came to rest C 445; pa ppl saghtled reconciled, at peace with C 1139
sake n guilt Pe 800, Pa 84, 172; sake, behalf Pe 940, C 922, G 537, 1862, 2518
sakles adj guiltless C 716
sakred pa ppl consecrated C 1139
sale n the main hall of a castle or manor C 107&, G 197, 243, 349, 558, 1372, 1651
salt n salt C 823, 825, 997; adj C 984, 995, 999; adj as n no ~ nothing that is salty C 820
same adj same Pe 1099+; as n of the ~ of the same colour/material G 170, 881, with a matching second G 1640, cf. of that ilk(e)

same(n) adv together C 645, 1363, Pa 46, G 50, 940, 1318, 1345; all ~ all together C 400, 1291, G 673, 744, in common Pe 518, C 645, G 363
samen v (imp pl samnes you; pa and pa ppl samned) assemble(d), gather(ed) together C 53, 126, 361, Pa 385, G 1372; join with sexually C 870; merged G 659
samen-feres n pl travelling companions C 985*
sample n example, exemplum, parable Pe 499; pl samples illustrative instances C 1326*
sange see songe
sapyence n sapience, wisdom C 1626
sardonyse n sardonyx Pe 1006; pl sardiners C 1469
sarre, sarrest see sore (2)

satteled pa descended Pa 409
saudan n sultan, supreme ruler of an Eastern hegemony C 1323; gen saudans sultan’s C 1364, 1388
saule n soul Pe 461+; pl saules C 332

Sauter n Psalter (a text of the Psalms) Pe 593, 672, 698 Pa 120
sauteray n psaltery C 1516
save prep except (for) C 409, 1749, Pa 182, G 2171; conj ~ that except that G 394, 2229
save(n) v save C 332, 336, 358, 388, 988, G 2039, subj should save C 900*; give salvation to Pe 674, pres saves 666, pa ppl saved C 992, G 1879, subj save G 2073, so save me Dryhtyn so may God save me G 1548
savement n safety, deliverance C 940
saver see saf; saveres see savour (2)

saverly adj sapient, comprehending Pe 226*; adv with relish, savouringly G 1937; comfortably G 2048
savour (1) n taste C 995; smell C 510, 1447
savour (2) imp understand, bring home (to yourself) C 581; pres saveres seasons C 825; pa savoured smelled Pa 275; pa ppl savoured flavoured, seasoned G 892
savyte n safety, freedom from danger C 489
saw(en) see see
sawe n speech, words Pe 226 C 109, 1609, 1670, G 1202, 1246; saverly ~ say say anything testifying to real understanding Pe 226; pl sawes words Pe 278, C 1545, Pa 67, G 341; statements C 1599, 1737
say(e) v (pres 2&3s says, pl sayn; imp say; pa and pa ppl sayd(e); pa pl sayden) say(s), said Pe 3+, spoke G 2126, tell Pe 391, C 139, 1552, ask C 1112; refl sayd him said C 853; cf. segges
sayl n sail Pa 151, 218, C 420
saylande pres ppl ?flowing G 865; pa sayled sailed Pa 301
saym n grease Pa 275
sayn see say(e)

sayned pa and pa ppl blessed C 746, 986; refl ~ him/himself crossed himself G 761, 763, 1202

Saynt (1) n and adj saint Pe 457, 788, 818, G 774, 1021, 1644, 1788; pl sayntes holy ones Pe 835
saynt (2) n (length of silk forming) girdle, belt G 589, 2431*
scale n outer surface Pe 1005
scape v escape C 62, 928, Pa 155; pa scaped C 529; cf. ascaped and eschaped
scarres pres scatters, drives off C 598; pa scarred on flung up to C 1784*; pa ppl scarred alarmed C 838
scathe n harm, evil C 21&, G 2353; disaster C 600; hit is ~ it is a shame G 674
scathel adj harmful, presenting a threat Pa 155
scayled pa scaled, climbed by ladder over C 1776
schadden see schede
schade n shade, shadow Pa 440
schaded pa cast a shade Pa 442
schadow n shade C 605
schaft n shaft, spear G 205; arrow-shaft G 1458, axe-shaft G 2332; beam of light Pa 455; pl schaftes shafts of light Pe 982
schafted pa ?sent out low beams of light G 1467*
schal(e) pres (2s schal(t); pl schal, schulen (schyn C 1435, 1810, G 2401)) auxiliary forming predictive or non-volitional future shall Pe 283+, must Pe 328+; shall be G 1544; is/am/are to Pe 564, Pa 472, G 389; are about to, are going to Pe 265, 298, 315; pa: see schuld(e)

schalk n man Pa 476, C 1029, G 160, 424, 1776, 2268, 2372; attendant G 2061; pl schalkes C 762, G 1454
schame n shame C 1115, G 2372, 2504, shamefulness C 597; embarrassment C 850; indignation at imputed shame G 317*; for ~ shame on you G 1530
schamely adv shamefully, ingloriously Pa 128
schames pres feels shame C 580; pa schamed was embarrassed G 1189
schankes n pl shanks, legs G 160, 431, 846
schap n shape, form C 1121; pl schappes forms, designs C 1460
schape v happen, occur, come about Pa 160, G 1210*; arrange, ordain C 742, G 2138; address myself, take steps C 762; pres schapes forms, produces G 1626; pa schaped, schop brought about Pa 247; prescribed, provided G 2328, 2340; pa ppl schapen portrayed, drawn G 662, designed G 1832, constituted G 213
schaped pa ppl mounted, trimmed G 1832*
scharp(e) adj and adv sharp G 213, 269, 1331, 1337, 2267; keen, intense C 850, 1310; piercing(ly) Pe 877, C 840; swift C 475; as n blade G 424, 1593, 1902, 2313, 2332
schaved pa pl scraped G 1331; pa ppl schaven(e) scraped smooth C 1134, G 1458; planed
schawe n grove; thicket Pa 452; ~ side edge of a grove G 2161
schede v shed, depart Pe 411*; (of rain or snow) pres schedes G 506, 956 falls, pa pl schadden G 727 fell; pa sched(e) shed Pe 741; parted, severed G 425; fell C 1690
schelde n shield G 205&; pl scheldes tough hide at shoulders of a boar G 1456; slabs of boar’s flesh C 58, G 1611*, 1626
schemered pa shone, glittered G 772
schende v destroy C 742, G 2266; inflict punishment C 519; pa ppl schendede, schent wrecked Pa 246; ruined, destroyed C 580, Pa 476; beaten, punished Pe 668, C 47, executed C 1029
schene adj and adv bright(ly) Pe 80, 203, C 170, G 2314, fair(ly) Pe 42, 1145, C 1076, 1310; as n that ~ that fair one Pe 166, 965, the ~ the bright (sun), the glare Pa 440, the bright weapon G 2268
schent see schende
schep n sheep Pe 801
schepon n shed for cattle or sheep C 1076
schere v cut G 213; (of gold) cut into threads for fil d’or Pe 165*; pres scheres sheers, swerves Pe 107; pa pl scher cut G 1337; pa ppl schorne cut into fine threads Pe 213; cut through G 1378
schet pa ppl shut, enclosed Pa 452
schewe v (pres schewes, pl schewen; pa and pa ppl schewed) show(s), display(s) Pe 1210, G 1378, 1526, 1626, showed, shown Pe 692, C 919, 1310, 1805, reveal(ed) C 600, 1626, G 2256, 2498, sawes to ~ to reveal the meaning of utterances C 1599; make known G 27, thee to schewed declared to you C 662; exhibit(ed) C 122, 1117; appear G 507, be revealed or exposed G 420; make an appearance, enter C 553; refl show themselves, appear C 170; seen C 250, be seen G 2036; met the eye G 885; was visible C 791, having been seen G 315; brought G 619*, 2061; confess(ed) G 1880, 2504; utter C 840; provide, put on C 122
schine v shine, shine bright Pa 456, C 1115; pres s and pl schines Pe 28, 1074, C 1121; pres ppl schinande shining G 269, 772; pa schon Pe 166, 213, 982, 1008, 1057, G 956, schinde Pe 80, schined C 1532
schip n ship Pa 98, 108, 246
scho pron she Pe 758, G 979, 1259
schon see schine
schonied pa fled, eschewed C 1101
schop see schape
schor n shower, downpour C 227; pl schowres G 506
schore n steep slope(s) bordering water Pe 107*, 166, 230 G 2161; pl schores G 2083; upon ~ aslope, aslant G 2332
schorne see schere
schort adj short G 966
schort(ly) adv precipitately, without deliberation C 519; promptly C 742; plainly C 600; short Pa 128
schote v shoot, send missiles G 1454; pa schot(te) shot Pa 128; sprang Pe 58, C 850, G 317, 2318, spurted G 2314; pa pl schotten shot (arrows) G 1167
schout n shout, cry C 840
schowres see schor
schowted pa shouted itself out Pe 877
schowve v thrust (with a weapon) G 205; pres schowves in enters in G 2161, pl schowven to press forward G 1454; pa and pa ppl schowved shoved, thrust, pushed C 44, 1029, 1740, Pa 246, pushed their way G 2083
schrank pa sank G 425, 2313; shrank, flinched C 850, G 2267, 2372
schrewe n evil person, miscreant, cur Pa 197, G 1896; pl schrewes villains, wrong-doers Pa 77, C 186
schrewedschyp n wickedness, depravity C 580
schrof pa ~ him confessed G 1889
schroude pa ppl draped, decorated C 1076*
schrowde n clothing C 47, 170
schryfte n shrift, the sacrament of confession and penance C 1115, 1130, 1133
schrylle adj shrill C 840; adv shrilly, piercingly Pe 80*
schuld(e) (pl schulde(n)) pa (of schal) should, would Pe 186+; was to G 1286, 1752, 2075, 2076, 2244 were to C 61, 934, G 1692, had to G 1671, 2084; came to C 1107, G 2501, 2504, was due to, was about to Pe 1162, G 1902, were about to C 671; ought to Pe 153, G 248, 931; would normally C 249, 1077, Pa 462; could C 152, G 1816; am to, are to C 1110, 1112, G 398; as … schulde as if … were -ing G 2201+
schulder n shoulder C 981, G 1930, 2061; pl schulderes Pe 214, C 1690, G 156, 181, 1337, 2267, 2314, 2318
schulen see schal(e)

schunt (1) n jerk G 2268*
schunt (2) pa drew back, recoiled G 1902, 2280; pa ppl was schunt had retreated C 605
schylde v shield, protect Pa 440; prevent, forbid Pe 965; subj God schylde God forbid G 1776
schym adj shining, lustrous Pe 1077*
schymeryng vn a shimmering, a glittering Pe 80
schyn see schal(e)

schyndered pa split, shattered G 424, 1458, 1594
schyr(e) adj and adv bright(ly) Pe 28+; brightly coloured Pe 42; shining Pe 213, C 605; (of facial complexion and flesh) fresh, clear G 317, gleaming G 425, 1378, 2313; as n the/that ~ the gleaming flesh G 1331, 2256; comp adv schyrer brighter, more brightly Pe 982, G 956; cf. skyre
schyre-wykes n pl loins C 1690*; cf. wykes
schyrly adv completely G 1880
scole n drinking vessel C 1145
scoleres n pl scholars, learned men C 1554
scomfyted pa threw into confusion, dismayed C 1784; pa ppl scomfit confused, disconcerted C 151
scorne n scorn C 827; v pa scorned C 709
scowt-wach n watchmen C 838
scoymus adj ‘squeamish’, fastidious C 21, 598; ~ of innately revolted by C 1148
scrape v paw the ground G 1571; pa ppl scraped incised, scraped in C 1546
scrof adj ?sharp C 1546
scrypture n writing, letters Pe 1039, C 1546
se see see (2)

sech(e) v seek Pa 97, G 266, 395, subj sech(e) Pe 354, seek out C 1615, Pa 53, subj sech(e) to let him seek out C 1130; search for C 454, 471, 482, 1559, G 549, 2s What seches thou what are you after Pa 197, 3s seches looks for C 469, 478; arrive at C 29; sech to go to G 1052, ~ after travel towards C 420; pa and pa ppl: see soght(e)

secounde adj second Pe 652, 1002
sede n seed Pe 34; seed time C 523; female seed thought to be the equivalent of sperm C 660; male and female seed as reproductive potential C 336, 358; pl sedes seeds G 517
see (1) n sea Pa 140&
see (2) v (sene G 712) see Pe 96+; look at C 125, 262, G 2433; watch over, take care of C 988; inflected inf on to sene to look upon Pe 45; pres pl sye Pe 308, G 83, 200; imp se C 661, 1225; pa and pa subj saw Pe 158+, sye Pe 1033, pl sawen G 1911; pa ppl sene seen Pe 164+; part adj visibly seen Pe 787; clear G 341, apparent, evident Pe 1143, C 1169, G 468; visibly G 148
sege n seat, throne Pa 93; siege C 1185, G 1, 2525
segge n man Pa 301+; (in address) G 394; gen segge man’s G 574; pl segges men C 1401&, G 673&; gen pl segges men’s C 515
segges v (south-western variant of ‘says’; used at line ending) C 621
sekke n sackcloth Pa 382
seknesse n (figurative) spiritual malady C 1078
selcouth n wonder, marvel; miracle C 1274
selden adv seldom, rarely Pe 380, G 499
sele n well-being Pa 5, 242, 296; prosperity, profit G 1938; good fortune G 2409; gifts, blessings G 2422
self, selve(n) adj and n self, same Pe 203, C 660, 1769, G 751; oneself C 579; the self/selve God/sunne/chapelle etc the sun itself, God Himself, that very chapel etc Pe 1046, 1076, C 1418, G 2147; the burne selven that man, the man himself G 2377, similarly (the … ) selven C 243, 1068, 1399, 1745; with gen the renkes/burnes selven the man himself C 786, G 1616, Godes self Pe 1054, G 2156, Crystes selven G 51, thyn owen selven G 2301
sellen pres pl sell C 1038; pa sold Pe 731
sellokest see selly (2)

selly (1) n wonder, marvel Pa 140, G 28, 475; pl sellyes G 239
selly (2) adj wondrous, remarkable Pa 353, G 2170; super sellokest most prodigious G 1439; sellyly wonderful, lovely G 1962*
selly (3), sellyly adv wondrously, very G 963, 1194, 1803
selure n cloth canopy (over a throne) G 76
selve(n) see self
sely adj blessed, fortunate, happy Pe 659; innocent C 490
semblaunce, semblaunt n countenance Pe 211, 1143, expression C 640; bearing, behaviour G 1273*; external appearance G 468, visible form G 148; friendly bearing C 131, signs of favour G 1658, 1843
semble n assembly, group C 126, G 1429
sembled pa ppl assembled, brought together Pa 177; cf. assemble
seme (1) n seam, juncture; in ~ at the opening (of a scroll or book); mark of a wound C 555*; pl semes stitches, stitchwork G 610*, 2028
seme (2) adj seemly, comely Pe 1115, C 549, 1810, G 1085; adv becomingly, gracefully Pe 190
semed see semes
semely (1), semlyche adj comely, fair Pe 34+; fine, goodly Pe 789, C 262, 1299, G 685; seemly, fitting G 348, 1198; as n that semely that goodly one C 1055, G 672, tho ~ those comely women C 870; comp semloker more comely C 868, G 83
semely (2), semlyly, semlyche adv finely, beautifully C 1442, G 888; becomingly G 622, 865, 882, 916; sweetly, prettily G 1658, 1796
semes pres it beseems, it is fitting G 679; seems to be G 1827, 1847; pa semed seemed C 416, G 201, 235, 802, 866, 872, 948, subj Pe 760; appeared C 117; was apparent G 1551; looked G 840*; beseemed, became C 793, G 848, was fitting G 73, 1005; looked well G 1929
semloker see semely (1)

semlyche see semely (1) and (2)

sendal n a costly fabric G 76
sende v (pres sendes, subj sende C 1811; pa and pa ppl sende, 2s sendes) send(s), sent Pe 130+, shall send C 353; sent agents C 780; imp send word C 1615
sene see see (2)

sengel adj alone G 1531
sengeley adv singly, apart Pe 8
sere adj different, various C 336, 358, 1418, G 124, 822, 889; distinct, separate C 507, Pa 12, G 1985; as n fele ~ many different ones G 2417; adv in sythes ~ on various occasions G 761; ~ twyes on two separate occasions G 1522, ~ fyve sythes five times on each occasion G 632
serely adv variously, distinctly C 117*, serelyche severally, on distinct occasions Pa 193
sergauntes n pl officers C 109, Pa 385
serlepes adj separate, distinct Pe 994; adv separately G 501
sermoun n utterance, assertion Pe 1185
sertayn adj certain; adv in very truth G 174; surely Pe 685
servage n servitude C 1257
servant, servaunt n servant Pe 699, C 631, 773, G 976, 1240, 1278, 1548, 1845, 1971; pl servauntes C 988, G 2139
serve v (pres pl serven; imp pl serves C 820; pa ppl served) serve(s), served Pe 554+; be of service to C 530, G 827; serve(d) at table C 120, 1146, 1449, 1505, G 135, supplied G 1640, supply/supplied with food and/or drink C 38&, G 61&; be equal or sufficient for a purpose C 750; What serves what is the use of Pe 331; pa of … served provided with G 1640
served pa ppl (shortened form: see deserve) deserved C 1115, G 1380
servyce n service G 1246, 1985; liturgical service G 751, 940; provision of food to diners C 1401, G 130; in ~ of in the service (at table or altar) of C 1152; the ~ while for the duration of the service G 940
sese (1) v take hold of G 1825; pres seses enters into legal possession of C 1795; pa sesed took possession of C 1313; took hold of G 822, 1083, 1330, 2407; pa ppl sesed vested, put into legal possession Pe 417
sese (2) v cease, end C 523, pa and pa ppl sesed Pa 231, 369, G 1, 134, 2525; imp pl seses stop, prevent Pa 391
sesoun n time of year G 437, 516*, 1382, time of day G 1958, 2085; high ~ time of year in which a major feast day occurs Pe 39*; pl sesounes seasons C 523
set(te) v (pres settes, pl setten; imp set; pa set(te), pl set(en); pa ppl set) set(s) Pe 8+; set in place C 1449; created G 1318, instituted G 625, founds, founded Pe 1062, G 14; rate(d) Pe 307, 811, C 1710; made, rendered G 1883; appointed C 1364; ?assign, dedicate G 1246*; arranged Pa 193, disposed C 1226; deliver G 1937, (a blow) G 372*; settes on decides on C 469, art set … to art resolved to Pa 487; placed C 986, 1015; seated C 37, 1401, G 1083, 1651*, refl set(tes) her seats/seated herself G 1193, 1479, him set seated himself, settled himself G 437; set him applied himself C 1453; settes him out on … even makes right for G 1589
sete (1) n seat C 37, 92; throne C 176, 557, 1055, 1705, Pa 24; banquet C 59*; seat of residence C 1388; to ~ on his seat C 1395; to (their) seats G 72, 493; in ~ on (His) throne C 557
sete(n) (2) see sitte
sethe subj (should) boil C 631; pa ppl sothen G 892
seurte n safety, security Pa 58
sever v part G 1958, 1987; pres severes disentangles herself G 1797; pa severed broke G 2312
sewe (1) n stew, cooked sauce to accompany meat or fish G 892; food in sauce C 108; pl sewes sauces, dishes of meat or fish in sauce C 825, 1406, G 124, 889
sewe (2) v sew Pa 527, pa sewed Pa 382
sex-hundreth adj six-hundredth C 426
sexte adj sixth Pe 1007
seye v go G 1879; pa ppl seyed passed C 353, seyen arrived G 1958
side n side Pe 975+; part, direction G 2170, on uch a ~ (of) in all directions C 78, everywhere C 555, on uche ~ of all around C 228; pl sides sides Pe 198, 218, C 144, Pa 218, (of the body) Pa 374, (of an animal) Pa 302, G 1338, 1354, 1632, waist Pe 6*, G 152, 1830, side 589; slopes Pe 73; parts, regions C 956, 968
side-bordes n pl side tables (at a public feast) C 1398, G 115
sight(e) n sight Pe 226+, pl sightes Pe 1179, C 1722; set toward … her sight turned their eyes towards C 672; in sight(e) manifest(ly) Pa 530, G 28; see with/in sight by eye C 192, with one’s own eyes, for oneself C 1710, G 226, seen by any eye G 197, set eyes on G 1705; with sight of his iyen with his eyes C 576
siker (1) adj trusty, doughty G 96, 111, 115, 2493; sure, certain G 265; secure G 2048; firm, veritable G 403; adv trustably G 1637
siker (2) v assure, promise G 394; ~ … trauthe pledge faith G 1673
sikerly adv certainly, indeed Pa 301
sir n (unstressed form of syre) (in address) sir Pe 439, C 715, G 415, 477, 1035, 1050, 1056, 1091, 1481, 2366, 2395, good sir G 811, beau sir C 1622*, G 1222*, sir swete G 2237; (honorific preceding name) C 900, G 276, 552, 554, Sir Gawan G 377&
sithen adv then, afterwards, next Pe 643+; long ~ long ago G 1440; conj because, since Pa 46, C 684, G 358, 1234, 2094; after C 557, G 1*, since the time that G 1642, 2524; cf. syn
sitte v (pres sittes, pl sitte(s), sitten; pa sat, sete, pl set(e)(n); pa ppl seten) sit(s), sat Pe 161+; were seated Pe 835, C 1482, seated themselves C 829, G 1402; remain helplessly C 1257*; besits, impresses itself as C 550*, met the eye G 865
sive n sieve C 226
skarmoch n skirmishing, military encounters C 1186
skelt pa appeared, arose C 1186; ~ hem treated them C 827*; pa pl skelten appeared on the scene C 1554; pa ppl skelt raised C 1206
skete adj swift, energetic C 1186; adv swiftly G 19, suddenly, fiercely Pa 195
skowtes pres searches C 483*
skue n sky C 1784; under ~ through the air C 483*; pl skues skies C 1759, G 2167, the ~ anunder on the earth C 1206
skyfte v dispose, ordain Pe 569; pa skyfted altered, changed C 709, interchanged, alternated G 19
skyg adj inclined to shy away, nervily sensitive C 21
skylful adj well judging, discriminating, righteous C 1148
skylle n reason C 62, G 1296, 1509; logic, sense Pe 674, C 823, meaning C 1554; judgement, wits Pe 312, C 151; plan, determination C 569, 827; will, purpose C 709; pl skylles thoughts Pe 54
skyre adj (Norse-derived variant of schyr(e)) clear, shining C 1776
skyrtes n pl lower portions of a garment G 865; skirts or flaps of a saddle G 171, 601
slade n valley, river-valley Pe 141, 1148, G 2147; pl slades G 1159
slaght(e) n slaughter Pe 801, C 56; blow, stroke: slepyng ~ sudden fit of sleep; pl slaghtes of sorw baleful onslaughts Pa 192
slake v die away, come to an end Pe 942; pa slaked died away G 244
slauthe n sloth C 178
slayn(e) see slow
sleght(e) n skill C 1289, G 1542, stratagem G 1858, sleight G 1854; pl sleghtes skills, arts Pa 130, G 916; cf. sleye
sleke v quench C 708
slepe (1) n sleep Pa 200, 466, G 244, 1095
slepe (2) v sleep Pa 192, G 1734, 1746; pres slepes Pa 323, G 1686, 1731, 2007, pl slepe Pe 115; subj slepe G 1991; pa slept(e) Pa 292, 442, G 729, 1190; pres ppl slepande sleeping, in sleep C 1785
sleper n sleeper G 1209
slepyng vn ~ slaght sudden fit of sleep Pe 59
slete n sleet G 729
sleye adj skilfully or expertly made G 797, 893; adv sleyly furtively G 1182
sloberande pres ppl producing spittle Pa 186
slode see slyde
sloghe adj torpid, heavy Pa 466
slot n hollow at base of throat G 1330, 1593*
sloumbe adj sleepy, heavy Pa 186*, 466
slow pa slew, killed C 1221, G 1321; pa pl slowen C 1247, 1264; pa ppl slayn(e) slain Pe 805, C 55, 1785, Pa 84, 200, G 729, 1854, 1950
sluchchede pa ppl besludged Pa 341
slyde v slip in G 1209; pres slydes slides, moves smoothly Pe 77; pa slode G 1182*, slydes/slode (up)on falls/fell into, sinks/sank into (sleep) Pe 59, Pa 200, 466*
slyp n at a ~ ?at a stroke C 1264*
slyppe v slip away, escape C 1785; pa and pa ppl slypped sped from the bow G 1160, escaped, got away G 1858, ~ by sped on C 985, ~ (up)on … slepe sunk into sleep Pa 186, G 244*
smach n odour C 461, 1019
smachande pres ppl smelling C 955
smal(e) adj small Pe 90; slender Pe 6*, 190, G 144; fine C 226; ~ sendal fine silk G 76
smart adj acid, biting C 1019
smartly adv clearly, concisely G 407*; hard, severely C 711
smelle n smell, odour Pe 1122, C 1019; had the ~ of got the scent of C 461
smeten see smyte
smethely adv (of a smile) calmly, quietly G 1789*
smoke n smoke C 955; v pres smokes forms a cloud resembling smoke C 226
smolt v slip away C 732*; pres smoltes slips, passes quickly C 461
smothe adj smooth Pe 6; amicable G 1763*
smothely adv without impediment, easily C 732*; fairly, well G 407
smyte v smite C 566, 711, G 2260, pierce G 205; pa pl smeten into fell into G 1763*; pa ppl smyten struck G 407
snaw(e) n snow C 222, G 956, 2003, 2088, 2315, on snowe snow-covered G 2234
so adv most, very Pe 74+; such Pe 95; to such an extent Pe 87+; thus Pe 97+; likewise Pe 467; conj as G 36; (introducing a wish) so may Pe 487, 850, G 387, 1055; ~ … as (G 592), as … ~ (G 199) as … as
soberly adv solemnly Pe 256, C 1497; seriously, earnestly C 799, Pa 334, G 1278, 2051; with appropriate seriousness G 940
sobre adj sober, serious, grave Pe 391, 532
sodenly adv without warning, suddenly, unexpectedly Pe 1095, 1098, 1178, C 910, 1769; precipitately C 201*
soft(e) adj (of weather) mild C 445, clement, not cold G 510*, 516; comp softer of softer material G 271
soft(e) adv softly Pa 469*, G 1687, 1929; comfortably G 1121: softly softly G 1193, 1479, with lowered voice C 822, G 915; meekly Pa 529*
soghe (1) subj cause suffering to Pa 391
soghe (2) imp sow, spread Pa 67
soght(e) pa and pa ppl (of sech(e)) sought Pe 730, C 201, 1282, G 1995, 2493, sought out, found Pe 518*; made one’s way (to) Pa 249, C 1371, G 1284; out ~ issued G 1438, ~ to passed to C 940, made its way to C 563; ~ to Him even made its way right to Him C 510; ~ fro departed from Pa 116, G 685; fro … ~ was had departed from G 1440*
sojorne n stay, sojourn G 1962
sojourned pa ppl lodged, stabled G 2048*, stayed as a guest G 2409
sokored pa ppl succoured, sustained, preserved Pa 261
solace n delight, happiness Pe 130+; his ~ the comfort he had afforded G 1985
solased pa gave happiness and comfort to C 131
solemne adj formal, ceremonial, ritual C 1447, Pa 165, 239; on ~ wyse in state C 1171
solemnete n ceremony; regal state, grandeur C 1678; formal feast C 1757; with ~ in a formal and dignified manner C 1313
solempnely adv with ceremony, in state C 37
solie n throne C 1171, 1678
somer n the warmer half of the year C 525, G 510, 516*; pl someres summers C 1686
somones n summons, express command C 1498
sonde (1) n sand, shore Pa 341
sonde (2) n that which is sent, message C 53, 781; of Godes ~ at God’s sending, sent by God Pe 943
sondesmon n messanger C 469
sone adv soon Pe 537+; quickly C 1150+; at once C 501, 1059, 1649, G 1309, 1872, 1906; ful ~ after only a brief interval Pe 1078, very quickly G 1289; conj ~ so, (as) ~ as as soon as Pe 626, C 219, 1550, Pa 232, G 864
sonet n melody C 1516; pl sonetes bells C 1415
songe (sange Pe 19) n song Pe 882, 888, 891, C 1080; pl songes G 1654
songe(n) see synge
sop n mouthful C 108; snack G 1035*
soper n evening meal C 107, 829, 997, 1763, G 1400, 1654
sore (1) n pain, grief Pe 130, 940, Pa 242; ~ of pain at the loss of Pa 507
sore (2) adj painful G 1793; bitter G 2116; wretched, evil C 1111; adv sorely Pa 495; hard Pe 550, Pa 140; bitterly C 290, 557, 1136; comp adv sarre more sorely C 1195; super adj sarrest most grievous C 1078
sorquydrye n pride G 311, 2480; overweening, arrogance, presumption Pe 309*
sorsers n pl sorcerers C 1579*
sorsory n sorcery, witchcraft C 1576
sortes n pl lots Pa 193
sorw(e) n sorrow Pe 352, C 563, 778, 1080, Pa 409, 480; repentance Pe 663; disaster, misery Pa 192, G 2383, 2415; curse, abuse G 1721; muck C 846, Pa 275; for her owne ~ to their own cost C 75
sory adj grieved G 1826, 1987
soth(e) (1) n truth Pe 482, 653, G 348, 355, 1786; troth G 1825, 2051; for ~ in truth Pe 21+, for a truth G 403, 2359, indeed G 415, 1222; pl sothes truths C 1598, 1626
soth (2) adj true Pe 1185, C 515, 1643, G 1385, 1488, 1637, 2457; adv with truth G 84, undeniably G 2110
sothefaste adj true, genuine C 1491
sothen see sethe
sothfol adj truthful Pe 498
sothly adv truly, indeed C 299+
sotte n fool C 581; pl sottes Pa 509
sotyle adj lacking density, fine, pure Pe 1050
soufre n sulphur, brimstone C 954, 1036
soughed, swey pa soughed, made a sighing, swooshing sound Pa 140; made the sound created by a roaring sea or a high wind Pa 429*
souly adj muddied, dirty C 168, 1111*
soumme n sum, number Pa 509, G 1321
soun n sound C 973; voice Pa 429; tone of voice Pe 532; talk, report C 689
sounande pres ppl sounding pleasingly, melodious Pe 883; pa souned sounded C 1670
sounde (1) n good health, uninjured state G 2489
sounde (2) adj sound, healed C 1078; uninjured, undamaged C 555; adv soundly, securely, thoroughly C 1795; wholesomely Pa 291
sounder n herd of wild swine G 1440
soundyly adv soundly G 1991
souped pa ppl supped, eaten an evening meal C 833
sour(e) adj acrid C 1036; unattractive G 963, unsavoury, nasty C 192; as n no ~ nothing that is sour C 820
soverayn n master, mistress G 1278; sovereign, monarch C 93; (used of God) C 178, 210*, 552&, gen 1670, Pa 429, as adj highest ranking, supreme C 1454
soyle n soil, ground C 1039, Pa 443; upon ~ on the ground C 1387
space n space, extent Pe 1030; space of time; in ~ then, thereupon Pe 61; in due course C 1606, G 1199, 1418; at any time G 1503; in that ~ at that point Pe 438, Pa 365; spied a ~ seen an opportunity C 1774; in ~ of in accordance with C 755*
spak(ly) adv quickly, promptly C 755, Pa 104, 338
spakest super adj readiest, most ready-witted Pa 169
spakk see speke
spakly see spak(ly)

spare (1) adj sparing G 901*; clear, bare Pa 338*; (nautical) reserved for special purpose Pa 104*
spare (2) v desist, forbear C 755, 1245; spare from affliction C 776; pres with … spares spare from Pa 484*; pa ppl spared spared G 1935
sparred pa sprang, leapt Pe 1169, G 1444
spec n speck C 551
speche n speech, words Pe 37+; discourse C 3; statement C 26; pl speches remarks G 860, locutions, phrases G 1261, 1778
special adj excellent, precious Pe 235, 938; especially trusted, intimate C 1492*
specially adv particularly G 2093
specialte n special affection G 1778*
sped n success, prosperity, felicity G 918; efficacy, power C 1607; speed G 1444; in a ~ while in a very short time C 1285*
spede v (pres spedes) succeed(s) C 1058, prosper G 410; give(s) success to C 551, G 1292, 2120; further G 2216; be sufficient to cause C 551; subj (in prayers) so God me ~ so may God prosper me, God help me Pe 487, cros Cryst me ~ G 762; pa speded sped, hastened G 979
spedly adv efficaciously C 1729; effectively, in proper form G 1935
speke v speak, utter, say C 301, G 226, 308, 1859; subj Pe 422; pres 2&3s spekes Pe 594+, pl speken C 646, G 1117, of speken speak of C 845, G 1242; pa spakk Pe 938, speke(d) Pe 438 C 1220, G 1288, 2461; pa ppl spoken Pe 291+
spelle (1) n speech, words Pe 363, 793, G 209, 1199, 2184
spelle (2) v tell, speak Pe 793; 2s pres spelles sayest G 2140
spend see spenned
spende v expend G 2113; ~ no speche say nothing G 410; pa ppl speche spent spoken Pe 1132
spenne n patch of ground G 1709*, 1896; in ~ in the place G 1074
spenned, spend pa and pa ppl clasped Pe 49; fastened Pa 104, G 587; spenned on firmly enclosed G 158
spenne-fote adv with feet together G 2316*
spent see spende
spere n spear G 269, 983, 2066, 2143; a/twenty ~ lenthe a spear’s/twenty spears’ length C 1383, G 2316
sperred pa struck G 670*
spied see spye
spitous adj merciless, grim G 209; despicable C 845
spitously adv without mercy, ruthlessly C 1285; harshly, scornfully C 1220
spones n pl spoons G 886
spot n stain, blemish Pe 12&, C 551; place Pe 13, 25, 37, 49, 61; pl spottes spots, stains Pe 945
spoyle v despoil, plunder C 1774; pa spoyled carried off by force C 1285
sprad see sprede
sprang see spryng(e)

sprede v of … ~ flourish in Pe 25; pres spredes in is serially unfolded in C 1565; pa sprad spread Pa 365, ~ him within was diffused in him C 1607*
sprenged pa sprang, dawned G 1415*, 2009
sprent pa (of ‘sprente’) sprang, spurted Pe 1137, G 1896
sprit pa spurted, sprang G 2316
spryng(e) v come into being, be born Pe 453; become known, spread C 1362; pres ppl spryngande sprouting, burgeoning Pe 35; pa sprang sprang Pe 13, 61, G 670; (of words) came forth, were uttered Pa 365, G 1778; in sprang lived in C 408*
spumande pres ppl foaming, forming a scum C 1038*
spured pa and pa ppl (of ‘spire’) questioned G 901, 2093; that he ~ him which he put questions to him about C 1606
spures n pl spurs G 158, 587*, 670
spyce n spice, spicery or spice-bearing plants Pe 104; (metaphorical) precious person, sweet being Pe 235, 938; pl spyces spices G 892, spice-bearing plants Pe 25, 35; spiced confections G 979
spye v look for, watch out for G 1896; observe, gather intelligence C 780; pa and pa ppl spied espied C 1774; made enquiries G 901, 2093; cf. aspye
spylles pres destroys C 511; pa spylled, spylt killed, destroyed C 1220; shed C 1248
spyrakle n breath C 408*
spyryt n spirit Pe 61; the Holy Spirit C 1607
spyseres n pl apothecaries C 1038
spyt (1) n act of malice, piece of cruelty Pe 1138; hostility C 755
spyt (2) n boute ~ without delay, at once G 1444*
stabeled pa put into stable G 823
stable v fix Pe 683; pa and pa ppl stabled fixed G 1060*; made secure, confirmed C 1334, 1652; set firmly in place C 1667
stad(de) pa ppl (of ‘stede’) placed, set C 90, 1506, G 33, 644, situated C 806; in the condition of C 983; furnished G 2137
staf (dat stave) n staff, pole G 214, 2137
stalked pa walked with care or deliberateness Pe 152, G 237; strode G 2230
stal(l)e (1) n place, position Pe 1002, C 1506, G 104, 107
stalle (2) v detain, hold in place Pe 182; hold back C 1184; pa ppl stalled set, installed C 1334; situated C 1378
stalworth(e) adj sturdy C 884, G 846; immoveable C 983; super stal-worthest C 255; as n that swalworth that stalwart man G 1659
stamyn n stem of ship, prow C 486
stanc n pond C 1018; pl stanges pools C 439
stande v (pres standes, pl stand, stonden; pa stod(e), pl stod(e), stoden; pa ppl standen) stand(s), stood Pe 182+, refl Him stande Pe 867; stand out, shine Pe 113; endure, bear G 294, 344; remained Pe 597; existed G 1768; stod on rested his feet on G 170; pres ppl stondande alofte projecting G 1818
stanges see stanc
stapled pa ppl secured with staples or metal pins G 606
stare (1) n sightedness, ability to see C 583*
stare (2) v stare, look fixedly; pres pl staren catch the eye, shine Pe 116; pres ppl starande shining G 1818; pa stared stared C 389; gazed C 787; shone, stood out C 1396*, 1506
start(e) v leap Pe 1159; leap aside G 1567, flinch G 2286; pres startes springs G 2063; pa start started, sprang G 431; start astray leap/leapt from one’s place Pe 1162, G 1716*
stave see staf
stayned pa ppl stained, coloured G 170
sted(de) n position, place C 389, 1378, G 2213, 2323; in his ~ in his place C 1334; in ~ in the place, there G 439
stede n steed, knight’s horse, charger G 176, 281, 670, 823; pl stedes G 260
steke (strong counterpart of weak v ‘stike’: see stykes) lock up, restrain C 754; imp pl stekes thrust C 157, ~ yow shut yourselves up C 352; pa stek was fixed; stek on clung to G 152; stek up stopped up C 439; pa pl steken fastened C 884; pa ppl stoken barred, shut Pe 1065, G 782*, closed; confined, held in C 1199; locked up, locked in C 1524; shut in C 360; firmly embedded G 33; fixed (appointment) G 2194; stoken of packed full of G 494
stele (1) n shaft (forming) handle G 214, 2230; side of ladder Pa 513
stele (2) n and adj (made of) steel or hardened iron G 211, 426, 570, 575, 580
stele (3) v steal, creep Pe 20; pres steles out issues cautiously G 1710; pa stel stole, went quietly C 1203, G 1191; pa pl stelen stole into, secretly occupied C 1778; part adj stollen secret, stealthy C 706, G 1659*; cf. astel
stele-bawe n stirrup G 435*
stele-gere n steel trappings, armour G 260
stemme v pause C 905; pa stemed paused from movement or speech G 1117*
stemmed pa pondered, cogitated G 230*
stepe (1) n sole of the foot, foot Pe 683
stepe (2) adj bright Pe 113, C 583; adv brightly C 1396*
steppes pres steps G 435, 570, 2060; pres pl steppen walk Pa 402; pa stepped G 1191
stere v steer, have in charge Pe 623; restrain Pe 1159; control Pa 27
sternes n pl (Norse-derived variant of sterres) stars Pe 115, Pa 207
sterres n pl stars C 1378
steven (1) n voice C 770, Pa 307, G 2336, spoken word(s) C 1524, Pa 73, G 242, cry Pe 1125, C 1203, 1778; sound, noise C 1402; at ~ vocally, verbally Pe 188
steven (2) n command, instructions C 360, 463; agreement, appointment, rendezvous C 706, G 1060*, 2008, 2194, 2213, 2238
steward n official in charge of the domestic affairs of a household C 90
stif(fe) adj strong, sturdy Pe 780, Pa 234, G 107&; firm G 34, 431, 846; solid, unmoving C 983; hard, difficult G 176; super stifest strongest, doughtiest C 255, G 260, as n G 1567
stif(ly), stiflyche adv firmly C 157, 1652, G 104, 606, without moving G 294; securely C 352; sturdily, staunchly G 287; forcibly G 671, 1716
stightel v stand against G 2137; imp stightel thee upon hold yourself to, observe a limit of G 2252; pres stightles presides G 2213; keeps (his) place G 104*; assigns Pa 402; pa ppl stightled assigned lodgings C 90
stik see stykes
stille (1) adj calm, quiet Pe 20, C 1203, G 1996; covert, secret, secretive C 589, 706, G 1659; motionless, speechless C 1523; comp stiller with less motion and/or sound G 301
stille (2) adv without motion and/or sound Pe 182*, 1085; C 936, G 1687, 1994, 2252, 2293; quietly, peacefully G 1367; docilely, with meek patience C 486, 497, submissively Pa 371, 402, G 2385; privately G 1085; stealthily C 1781, G 1188; for ever Pe 683*
stilly adv quietly G 1117, stealthily C 1778, G 1191, 1710; without ado, simply C 806
stirop n stirrup G 2060; pl stiropes G 170
stod(e)(n) (1) see stande
stode (2) n position, place Pe 740
stok n tree-stump: by ~ or stone at any landmark, anywhere Pe 380; pl stokkes blocks of wood C 1343, 1523, 1720; the stocks C 46, 157, Pa 79
stoken see steke
stollen see stele (3)

stomak n stomach Pa 274
stond- see stande
stone n stone Pe 380+; stony ground G 2063, 2230; jewel Pe 206, 994, 1006; pl stones stones Pe 113, C 1343, 1523, 1720, rocky outcrops G 2166, stony ground G 2282; jewels Pe 997, C 1120, 1280, 1396, G 1738, 2027
stonefire n sparks struck from stone G 671
stone-hard adv very firmly C 884*
stonen adj made of stone C 995
stone-stille adv still as a stone G 242
stonge pa (of ‘sting’) stabbed, pierced Pe 179
stonyed pa stunned G 1291*
stoped pa closed (a watergate) C 439
store (1) n supply, great number Pe 847
stor(e) (2) adj strong, powerful G 1291*, 1923
stote v come to a halt, stop Pe 149
stounde n (a) moment, point of time Pe 20; pl in/by stoundes on occasions, at various times C 1603, G 1567; in sely/waryed stounde(s) in a blessed/cursed hour Pe 659, C 1716; (b) pang, shock C 1540; pl delfulle stoundes (G 1517), wo-stoundes (Pa 317*) painful throes, grievous passes
stouned pa were stunned with astonishment G 242; stunned, astonished G 301, 1291*; ~ his mynde gave him a shock Pa 73
stout(e) adj valiant, doughty Pe 780, C 1184; sturdy, solid Pe 935; fine, excellent C 1343*, 1396; high in status, princely C 787
stoutly adv firmly G 1614, loudly G 1153, 1364, 1923

stowes pres provides lodging for C 480; pa ppl stowed found places for, seated C 113; stowed on board ship C 352, 357, 360
strakande pres ppl blowing (on a horn) G 1364*, 1923; pa pl strake sounded out, blew (on a horn or trumpet) C 1402*
strange, straunge adj not a resident of, or not native to, a certain place C 875, G 1028*; not one’s own, adopted C 411; (place) remote, unfamiliar Pe 175, G 709, 713*; beyond normal bounds, extreme C 861, extravagant C 1494*
strates see strete
straunge see strange
stray (1) adv astray, off course Pe 179
stray (2) v move out of a set place or course; get out C 1199; pa strayd fell, slipped Pe 1173*
strayn v constrain, control Pe 691, G 176; refl hem … streny exert themselves Pe 550; pres straynes (con-)strains Pe 128*; pa strayned crushed C 1540*; had in control, carried along Pa 234; cf. constrayne
strayt adj close-fitting G 152; adv narrowly, tightly C 880, 1199
strech v proceed, walk Pe 971, imp pl streches C 905; myght on strech could be located upon Pe 843
streght adj straight, direct Pe 691; ‘stretched’, taut G 152; propulsive Pa 234
strem n stream, any body of water with a current Pe 125, 1159, 1162; pl stremes streaming waters C 364, 37, Pa 162, currents Pa 234, 311
stremande pres ppl streaming out light Pe 115
strenthe n strength Pe 128, C 1667, Pa 395; force C 880, 1155, G 1496; political and/or military power C 1430
streny see strayn
stresse n distress Pe 124
strete n city street Pe 971, 1059, C 787, 806; pl stretes Pe 1025, C 77, strates Pe 1043
strike v strike G 287, deliver a blow G 331, 2099, 2305; ~ thurgh penetrate Pe 1125; pres strikes runs Pe 570; pa strok out struck Pe 1180, flew up G 671
stronde n stream Pe 142; pl strondes currents Pa 254
strong(e) adj strong Pe 531, C 1034, 1181, 1540, 1652, G 1618; solid, secure G 34; intense, grievous C 1227, Pa 305; adv strongly Pe 476; comp as n the stronger C 835
strot n contention, quarrelsomeness Pe 353, 848
strothe n marshy scrubland: strothe-men men who inhabit this (dank and dreary) world Pe 115*; strothe-rande strip of scrubby marshland G 1710
strydes pres strides G 1584, 2232; ~ alofte mounts, gets astride G 435, 2060
strye v destroy C 307, G 2194; ravage; conquer C 1768; pa stryed(e) destroyed C 375, 1018; cf. disstrye
stryf n strife Pe 848, G 2369; contention, resistance G 2323; troubles, affliction Pe 248, 776
stryndes n pl streaming waters Pa 311
stryng n string Pe 91
strythe n ?stance G 846, 2305
stryven pres pl agayns … ~ oppose, resist Pe 1199; pres ppl stryvande striving forward, driving Pa 311
studie v try to deduce G 230; pa studied fell into a study, were nonplussed G 237
study n deep thought G 2369
stuffe n padding G 581*
stuffed pa ppl padded, stuffed G 606; (military) supplied, manned C 1184
stures see styry
sturne adj brave, undaunted G 334; doughty, tough G 846, 2099, 2136; physically demanding, tough G 494; harsh, loud C 1402*; formidably solid G 143; as n the ~ the strong man G 214
sturnely adv stoutly, strongly G 331
stye n path Pa 402
styghe pa pl ascended, climbed C 389
stykes (weak counterpart of strong v steke) 2s pres are set (as a jewel) Pe 1186*; imp stik set firmly C 157; pa stykked placed C 583
styngande pres ppl stinging, biting C 225
stynkes pres stinks C 577, pres pl stynkes C 847; pres ppl stynkande stinking C 1018
stynt(e) v desist C 1261; come to an end C 225, cease C 381; pres styntes ceases C 359; subj stynt cease from Pe 353; pa ppl stynt finished, ended Pa 73
styry v stir, show signs of life C 1720, pa styryed C 403; pres stures swings, brandishes G 331
stythly adv firmly, strongly G 431
sue v follow Pe 976; pres sues ensues G 510, pursues G 1562, pl sue follow, are in attendance on Pe 892; pres ppl suande pursuing G 1467; pa sued followed C 87, 681, G 501, pursued G 1705
suffer v (pres sufferes; pa ppl suffred) (a) allow, permit G 1967, bear patiently Pa 5*, 46, bear passively G 2040; (b) undergo Pe 940, C 716, 718, be/is afflicted Pe 954, Pa 6, 113, endure(d), go through Pe 554, C 1256, 1701, Pa 44, 242, 276; experienced C 892
suffraunce n patience, acceptance Pa 3, 417, 529
suffyse v ~ to suffice to, have sufficent capacity to take in or retain Pe 136
sulpen pres pl morally soil or pollute C 15, imp sulp C 1135; pres ppl sulpande polluting Pe 726; pa ppl sulped C 550, 1130; cf. bysulpes
sum adj some, one (undefined) Pe 428+, pl summe G 28, 891, 892, sum 1527; adv partly, somewhat G 247; pron of all and sum in all and part, completely Pe 584, pl summe some (animates or things) Pe 508, C 388, 389, 1094, 1497, Pa 165, 166, 507, G 1328, 1699
sumned pa ppl summoned, called upon G 1052
sumoun n a call to appear or assemble Pe 539, 1098
sumtyme adv at one time Pe 760, C 1152, 1157, 1257, 1260, Pa 61, G 2449; at some time or another Pe 620, C 582
sumwhat n something C 627, G 1799; adv somewhat, to some degree G 86
sumwhyle adv at one time Pa 57, G 625, formerly C 1496; ~ … ~ at one time … at another G 721–2
sunder adv in ~ asunder G 1563
sunder pres pl separate G 1354; pa sundrede came apart G 659
sunderlepes adv separately, individually Pa 12
sunes n pl sons C 112, 258, 298, 331, 350, 1221, Pa 26
sunkken see synk
sunne n sun Pe 28+
sunnebemes n pl sunbeams Pe 83
suppe v drink, quaff Pa 151, swallow C 108
sure adj sure Pa 117, confident Pe 1089; trusty G 588; adv firmly Pe 222; surely confidently Pa 315; indubitably C 1643, securely G 1883
sustnaunce n nourishment, food C 340, G 1095
sute n suite, correspondence; of self ~ matching, of the same colour Pe 203; in ~, of (a) ~, of folwande ~ matching Pe 1108, C 1457, G 180, 859, 2518, to match G 191
swalt see swelt(e)

swanes n pl swans C 58
swange (1) n waist G 138, 2034
swange (2) pa pl (of ‘swinke’) toiled, laboured Pe 586; cf. sweng
swange (3) see swynges
swangeande pres ppl swirling Pe 111
swap n blow, stroke C 222
swap imp exchange G 1108*
sware (1) n measurable side or dimension of a geometrical figure Pe 1029*
sware (2) adj square Pe 837, 1023, C 319, 1386; squarely built, thick-set G 138
sware (3) v answer, reply to Pe 240, pres pl C 1415, imp G 1108; pres swares G 1756; pa and pa ppl swared G 1793, 2011
swarmes pres swarms C 223
swart adj black Pa 363
swat pa sweated, perspired Pe 586
swayf n impetus, sweeping blow C 1268*
swaynes n pl attendants, serving boys C 1509
swayves pres whirls, sweeps Pa 253; pa sweved swept C 222
sweande see swey (1)

swelme n heat, fire Pa 3*
swelt(e) v perish C 108, Pa 427; kill C 332; pa swalt perished Pe 816, 1160, subj swalte should die Pe 1160
sweng n toil, labour Pe 574; cf. swange (2)

swenges pres swings Pa 108; comes or goes fast Pa 253, G 1756, pl swengen C 109, G 1615, pa swenged Pa 250, G 1439, swenged forth came out promptly C 667; cf. swynges
swepe v sweep along Pe 111; sweep up, seize Pa 250*; pres pl swepen rush, speed, ~ theretille run to the spot C 1509; pa swepe swept Pa 341*
swere v swear G 403, 2122; pres sweres G 2051; pa swer swore C 667, G 1825
swete (1) adj sweet, pleasing, lovely Pe 19+, dear Pe 763, 829, C 816, Pa 156, G 2237; goodly C 788; good-humoured, complaisant C 640; as n that ~ that lovely one Pe 241, G 1222, (in address) ~ dear man G 1108*, my ~ my dear one Pe 325; comp swetter more welcome Pa 427, as n one more welcome Pa 236; super swettest most lovely C 1006, 1247
swete (2) adv pleasingly, beautifully Pe 111, 1057, G 1757; swetely gently, graciously Pe 717; neatly, nicely G 2034
swetnesse n pleasingness C 525
swetter, swettest see swete (1)

sweved see swayves
sweven n dream; in ~ in sleep Pe 62; pl swevenes G 1756
swey (1) v proceed C 788; imp sweye hasten Pa 72; pres ppl sweande sweeping (something) on C 420; pa sweye(d) hastened, swept Pa 151, G 1429; transitive swept Pa 236; fell C 956, sank Pa 151; sweye doun bent down G 1796
swey (2) see soughed
swoghe adj aswoon, trancelike G 243*; cf. swowed
swolgh n maw, jaws Pa 250
swolwed pa swallowed, destroyed C 1268, Pa 363
swone n swoon Pe 1180
sworde n sword C 1253, 1268, G 2319
swowed pa swooned; poeticism for slept Pa 442*; cf. swoghe
swyeres n pl squires C 87, G 824
swyft(e) adj swift, fast Pe 572; alert, prompt C 1509
swyft(ly) adv swiftly Pe 354, C 87, Pa 72, 108, 250, 363, G 1354
swymme v swim Pe 1160; pa swymmed swam C 388
swyn n swine, boar C 58, G 1439&
swynges pres dashes G 1562; pa swange dashed, swung Pe 1059; cf. swenges
swypped pa slipped away, shot away C 1253
swyre n neck, throat C 1744, G 138, 186, 957
swythe adv very, very much C 816, 1176, 1283, 1299, G 1281, 2259; fast Pe 1059, C 1211, 1509, Pa 236, G 815, 1424, 1615*; earnestly Pe 354, C 987, G 1860, 1866; powerfully, forcefully, keenly C 354, G 1897; firmly G 8, 2034; as ~ as quickly as possible, at once C 1619, Pa 427, G 1400; swythely not tentatively G 1478
swythes pres scorches, parches Pa 478*
syde adj extensive Pa 353, long G 2431
sye see see (2)

syence n skill, art, knowledge C 1454, 1599; pl syences skills, body of knowledge C 1289
syfles pres (of wind) blows with a sibilant sound G 517, subj syfle should puff Pa 470
sykande pres ppl sighing C 715, G 1796; pa syked sighed Pa 382, G 672
sykyng adv sighing, with a sigh Pe 1175, G 753
sykynges vn pl sighings G 1982
sylence n silence G 243
sylkyn adj silken, made of silk G 610
sylver n silver Pe 77, C 1277, 1344
sylveren adj silver G 886, were of ~ sight shone silver C 1406; as n silver vessels G 124
symbales n pl cymbals C 1415
sympelnesse n guilelessness, honesty Pe 909
symple adj humble G 503, not grand, not proud Pe 1134, G 1847; modest, mild C 746; super symplest humblest in status C 120
syn conj and prep since Pe 13+, ~ that since the time that G 2320; adv then, afterwards Pe 1207, synne since then G 19; cf. sithen
synful(le) adj sinful C 15, 716, 1111, Pa 197
synge v sing Pe 891, G 472, 923; pres pl syngen sing G 509, chant C 7; pa pl songe(n) Pe 94, 882, 888, 1124, C 1516, 1763
synglere adj singular; in ~ as unique Pe 8
synglerty n uniqueness Pe 429
syngne n figure, symbol G 625; sign, indication C 489, G 2164, 2433; pl syngnes events assumed to be divine signs C 1710
syngnettes n pl seals Pe 838
synk v sink C 910, pres synkes C 1026, Pa 172; drown C 398; synkes in my eres assaults my ears C 689, synk to my herte deeply distress me Pa 507; pres ppl synkande sinking C 445; pa pl and pa ppl sunkken had sunk C 968, sunk C 1014
synne (1) see syn
synne (2) n sin Pe 610+; pl synnes Pe 823, C 514, Pa 401, 405
synne (3) v commit sin Pa 517; pres synnes Pe 662; pa ppl synned C 679
syre n master (= God) C 661, 1112, Pa 93, 261, 413 (in address), G 751; master of a household G 1083, 1372*; great man G 685; gen of a lord C 1299; pl syres lords C 1260, (in address) sirs, my lords C 799; cf. sir
syt n misery C 1257; remorse Pe 663*; distress Pa 5; occasion of distress, provocation C 566, Pa 517
sythe n time, period of time C 1169, 1188, 1453; pl sythes, sythe times Pe 1079, C 1686, G 632, 656, 1868; by sythes at various times G 17; fele sythe (C 1417), upon mony sythes (G 982) frequently, in sythes sere several times G 761
ta v (contracted form of take) pres tas takes G 2305, tos goes Pe 513; pres pl ta(n) (they) take Pa 78, G 977, 1920; imp ta G 413, refl G 2357, pl tas C 735, G 1390, 1811; pa ppl tan taken Pe 614, G 1396, 1978, circumstanced G 1811, captured G 1210, detected G 2488, 2509, got, found C 763, ~ on honde G 490, ~ up begun C 735*, tone betaken G 2159*
tabarde n sleeveless overgarment C 41*
tabelment n horizontal section of a structure: step, tier Pe 994
table n board (forming table-top) C 832, 1419, G 884*, pl tables 1648; dining table C 39, 132, G 112, 345, the highe ~ the dais at feasts G 108; horizontal slab of masonry Pe 1004, pl tables top parts of a wall, cornice G 789; the (Rounde) Table see rounde
tabornes n pl drums C 1414
taches pres attaches G 2176; pa ppl tached Pe 464, G 219, 579, 2512
taghte see teche
take v (pres pl take(s); imp take (thou take C 330), pl takes C 154; pa toke, pl toke(n); pa ppl taken) take(s), took Pe 387+; refl C 1201; acquired G 2448*; take up Pe 944; give Pe 1158*, consign G 1966; apprehended G 2488, seize C 836, captured C 1192, 1297; received C 1130; seen, understood Pe 830, C 935; ~ to … self/selven take up, take on G 350, 1540; cf. ta
takel n nautical tackle Pa 233; pl takles gear G 1129
tale n words C 48* Pe 257, G 2133, remark G 1301, utterance, report Pe 865, 998, G 1056, 2124, statement Pe 311, 897, C 587, 662, 1557; speech G 638, conversation C 676, G 1236; story, account G 93, 1626, 2483; pl tales tales, stories G 1541
talent n will, desire Pa 416
talenttyf adj eager G 350
talk n talk, dialogue C 735
talk v speak G 2133; pres talkes C 154; pres ppl talkande talking G 108; pa talked said G 2372, uttered C 132
talkyng(e) vn speech, conversation G 917, 977
tame adj make … ~ subdue G 2455; as n tame animals C 311, 362
tan see ta
tapit n cloth G 568*; pl tapites hangings G 77, 858*
tappe n tap, blow G 406*, 2357
tars(e) n costly fabric associated with Tharsia G 77, 571, 858
tary v detain, cause to pause G 624; tarry Pa 59, pause G 1726, stay Pa 87
tas see ta
tasseles n pl tassels G 219
tayl n tail G 191, 1726; pl tayles G 1377*
tayt (1) n pleasure, fun, sport C 889, 935
tayt (2) adj trim, pleasing; bodily well grown C 871*, G 1377; makes hit ~ is jolly G 988*
tech(e) (1) n blemish, vice Pe 845, C 943, 1230, G 2488; pl teches blemishes, stains G 2436; traits, marks C 1049
teche (2) v teach C 160, Pa 10, G 1527; show C 676, G 2075; ~ thee of inform you about C 1733, G 407; tech(e) me/yow (the gate) to show me/you the way towards Pe 936, G 1069, imp G 401, 1966; pres teches him to shows him, points out to him G 1377; imp pl teches G 1533; pa taghte taught G 1485, 2379
techeles adj without blemish, faultless G 917
tee v go, make (my) way Pa 78*, 87, 416; pres pl teen go C 9; subj tee C 1262, 1573*; pa ppl towen journeyed G 1093
telde (1) n (place constructed for) shelter, residence C 866, G 1775; pl teldes houses G 11
telde (2) v ~ up raise, erect C 211; pres teldes up raises, arouses C 1808; pa and pa ppl telded raised, erected G 795, ~ on loft(e)/alofte, ~ up set up C 1342, G 884, 1648
telle v (pres 2&3s telles, pl tellen; subj telle C 1634, G 380, 1057, 1785; imp telle; pa and pa ppl tolde) tell(s), told Pe 134+; relate(s), related C 1153, G 31, 480, 1951, 2501, 2494; say G 272, 291; speak of G 2130; uttered Pe 815; recite G 2188; of ~, ~ (there-)of give an account of (it) G 165, 719, 1008, 1514, 1656
teme (1) n theme, subject Pa 358, pl temes G 1541, homiletic theme or text Pa 358*; discourse Pe 944
teme (2) v produce offspring C 655*; be united as a follower with Pa 358*, pres pl temen attach themselves as followers to Pe 460*, C 9*
tempre imp temper, moderate C 775
tempte v put to the test, require proof from Pe 903*; pres ppl temptande distressing, perturbing C 283
tender adj tender C 630; susceptible, morally weak G 2436; ~ of age young Pe 412
tene (1) n anger C 283, 1137, Pa 90, soreness C 1137; pain C 687; distress G 22; trouble C 1232, G 22, 1008; pl tenes ills, troubles G 547, with ~ painfully Pe 332
tene (2) adj angry, upset C 1808; difficult to traverse G 1707*, terrible G 2075
tene (3) v afflict C 759, G 2002; pa and pa ppl tened tormented, harassed G 1169; felt pain G 2501
tenfully adv painfully C 160
tenor n purport, main point Pa 358
tenoun n tenon; of rich ~ splendidly joined Pe 993
tent v give attention to Pa 69; tend, look after Pa 498; ~ Him with tale pay Him the courtesy of conversation C 676; pa tented attended to G 1018, 1019, heeded C 935
tente n purpose, intention G 624; attention: ye take thereon ful little ~ you care little about that Pe 387
teres n pl tears Pa 383
terme n (a) (appointed) time Pe 503, span of time C 568; ~ of the tyde … of date appointed for the time of C 1393; of termes so longe of such long duration Pa 505; the lenthe of a terme for an appointed length of time C 239; (b) limit, boundary: goal of a journey G 1069*, 1671; pl termes borders Pa 61; (c) term, word C 1733; pl termes words Pe 1053, phraseology G 917*
tethe n pl teeth C 160
teveled pa opposed, did battle C 1189
tevelyng vn struggle, combat G 1514
thagh conj though, although Pe 52+
thar pres need G 2354
thare see there
that dem adj and pron that Pe 12+, the C 594+; conj that Pe 185+; so that Pe 119+, in order that C 553; in that C 694, 1090, G 559; when C 1169; where C 1532; rel pron that, which, who Pe 15+ (including ~ … hit etc); that which, what (Pe 269+), whoever C 580, G 926, 985, the one who G 2529, those who C 376, 719; introducing parallel clause G 346; where ~ where, when ~ when C 961, how ~ how G 1752; if ~ if C 759; that that that which Pe 536, the one who Pe 570, the thing which C 1144
thay pron they Pe 80+
thayr poss adj (Norse-derived equivalent of her) their G 1359, 1362; pron thayres theirs, their own C 1527, G 1019
thede n nation, country Pe 483, G 1499; people: in ~ in public C 1717*; cf. arethede
thef n thief Pe 273, G 1725*; pl thewes thieves C 1142
thefte n theft C 183
then(ne) (1) conj than Pe 134+
then(ne) (2) adv then Pe 155+; also Pe 213, C 1054, G 169; thus C 179
thenk(e) v think G 2397; resolve Pe 1151, intend (to) C 304, 711, 1729; to ~ when thinking, in thinking Pe 22; pres thenkes C 749, G 534, on … ~ is attentive to G 2052; imp thenk G 487, 1680; imp pl thenkes on take care that C 819; pres ppl thenkande thinking Pe 370, Pa 294; pa and pa ppl: see thoght(e) (3)

there conj where Pe 26+; adv there Pe 28+; (variants for rhyme) thore Pe 562, G 667, 2356, thare Pe 830, 1021, G 463, 1889, (non-rhyme) 2508; (as indefinite before a verb preceding its subject) Pe 21&; (introducing a wish) Pa 188, G 839, 1893, 2120*
thereaboute adv in the area C 1796, G 705; about it, engaged in that affair G 613; around it G 2485
thereabove adv over it Pa 382; above it, above them C 1481
thereafter adv after (that) C 93+; then, as a consequence G 671
there-alofte adv thereabove, thereon G 569
thereamonges adv included therein G 1361
there-anunder adv underneath C 1012
thereas conj where Pe 129+; along ~ along the route where C 769
thereat adv at it G 1634; in response to that, thereupon C 1509, G 909, 1463, 1514; at that place Pe 514
thereby adv from them C 1404, G 117; beside it C 1034
therebiside adv nearby C 673; beside it G 1925
therefore adv for that reason, therefore Pa 424+; for that G 1392, at that G 1142; in exchange for that G 1107
therein(ne) adv therein, in that place Pe 447+; in it C 311&, Pa 458, G 846, 1849, 2174, in that Pe 1168, in them C 1715, G 1767; amid it all C 527
thereof(fe) adv of it, of that Pe 99+; out of them C 1499, 1507
thereon adv upon it/them Pe 1042+, (up)on that place or thing Pe 387, C 507, G 570, over them C 1719; for that Pe 645
thereoute adv out (of there/here) C44+, out of them G 518; on the outside C 1184, 1196; outside, outdoors Pe 930, C 807*, G 2000, 2481
thereover adv over them C 1407
therethurgh adv through it Pa 354
theretille adv thereto, to that G 1110; to that spot C 1509, G 1369
thereto adv to/upon it/them Pe 664, G 219, 576, 650; to that Pe 833, 1140, G 1040, 2325, to that place C 1394, G 401, 933, 1325; for that C 701, to that end G 757
thereunder adv underneath (it) Pa 459, G 185, 2079
thereupon adv upon it C 1665
therewith adv at that, thereupon Pa 232, C 528, G 121; by that, with that C 138, 1501, Pa 60, G 1509, 1610; with them C 1406, G 980
these see this
thester n darkness C 1775
thewed part adj possessed of good qualities C 733
thewes (1) see thef
thewes (2) n pl characteristic behaviour or virtues C 203, 544*, 755, 1436, Pa 30; (good) qualities, moral or social graces of behaviour G 912, 916
thider adv thither, to that place Pe 723+
thik(ke) adj thick C 1687, G 1356; dense G 1466, teeming C 220, heavy C 952, heavy-framed, not lean G 138, 175, 966; adv thickly, in large numbers Pe 78, C 504, G 612, 795, 801; densely C 222, G 769, forcefully, hard C 953, G 1702, 1770; rapidly C 1416*; comp thikker at more frequent intervals C 1384, more intensely Pa 6
thik-throwen adj densely coiled, muscular G 579*
thing n creature, being Pe 771, G 1526; thing Pe 308, C 1359, Pa 332, G 93; of … no ~, no ~ of no part of Pe 587, Pa 91; pl thinges things C 5+
thinke impers v seem, subj thinke C 744, Pa 43; (hit) me/us/him/thee think(es) it seems to me/us/him/you Pe 267+; yow thinkes it seems good to you G 1502; pa: see thoght(e) (2)

thirled pa pierced C 952, G 1356, 1536
this (pl these) dem pron (C 42+) and adj (Pe 250+) this, these; exophoric (referring to a category familiar from outside the text) Pe 42, 505*, 1119, C 1771, G 473, 1112^1, 1139, 1514 × 2
tho (1) pl dem adj those Pe 73+; exophoric (see this) C 1547; pl pron those (persons, things) Pe 557, C 173, 939; ~ fyve five of those, five times as much Pe 451
tho (2) adv then Pe 873
thogh conj though, although Pe 345+; even if G 1799*
thoght (1) n thought C 516, G 645, 1993, intention Pe 524; mind G 1867; pl thoghtes thoughts G 1751
thoght(e) (2) pa (of thinke) seemed; me/him/hem/yow thoghte (it) seemed to me/him/them/you Pe 153+
thoght(e) (3) pa and pa ppl (of ‘thenke’) thought Pe 137+, pa pl thoghten G 1023; meant, intended C 138, G 331
thole v (a) suffer, undergo, be the passive recipient or object of an action or eventuality Pe 344, C 190, Pa 55, 91; (b) (as a virtue) endure patiently, be long-suffering Pa 6, 521; pa tholed suffered, allowed G 1859; endured G 2419
thonk(e) (1) n thanks Pe 901, G 1380, pl thonkkes 1980; made … a thonk expressed thanks to G 1984
thonk (2) v thank G 1080, 1949, 1975, 2020; pres thonkes C 745, G 773, 1031, 1961, 2046, 2408; pa thonkked G 939, 1866
thore see there
thorne, thornes n pl thorns G 2529; thorny bushes G 1419
thorpes n pl hamlets, settlements C 1178
thouself pron you yourself Pa 413
thrad pa ppl (of ‘thraie’) struck down C 751
thral n one of low degree, wretch C 134
thrange adv tightly Pe 17
thrast n thrust, jab G 1443
thrat(ten) see threte
thre num three Pe 291+
threnge v (Norse-derived variant of ‘thrynge’: see thrynges) press (one’s way), go Pa 354; pres pl threnge thee after follow you C 930
threpe n battle, contest G 2397; contention, insistence G 1859; withoute ~ without ado C 350
threpes pres battles, contends for the upper hand G 504*
threpyng vn quarrelling, contentiousness C 183
thret n compulsion, force Pa 55, 267, G 1499
threte v quarrel, be belligerent Pe 561; 2&3s pres thretes deliver(s) threats (against) C 680, G 2300, ~ … of denounces for C 1728; pa thrat forced, compelled G 1980, pl thratten gave dire warnings C 937, thrat attacked G 1713; pa ppl threted abused, reviled G 1725
thretty num thirty C 317, 751, 754
threwe, threwen see throw
thrid(de) adj and n third Pe 299+
thro (1) n passion, rage C 754, Pa 6, 8
thro (2) adj impassioned, ‘worked up’ Pe 344; bold, energetic G 2300; intense G 1751; fine Pe 868*; firm, constant, earnest G 645; as n vigorous dogs G 1713
thro(ly) adv earnestly G 1867, eagerly C 504, heartily G 939, 1946, with energy G 1022, violently C 220, hard, fast C 180, at once C 590; ~ schewed shown thoroughly, fully shown C 1805
throng (1) n in (the) ~ in the company, among the others C 134, 754, in a crowd C 504
throng(en) (2) see thrynges
throte n throat C 180, 1569, Pa 252, 267, G 955, 1740
throw v ~ forth hurl out Pa 8; subj throwe turn out, happen G 1680; pres throwes moves agitatedly, hurls about Pe 875; leaps up C 590; pa threwe (pl threwen) cast C 635, fell, plunged C 220, Pa 267, moved agitatedly C 879; pa ppl throwen(e) (a) thrown, cast C 1384, laid, set G 1740; morally propelled C 516; (b) packed tight C 504, 1775; (c) coiled, curved G 579*; wound, intertwisted G 194*
throwe n short space of time G 2219
thrublande pres ppl jostling C 504; pa thrubled jostled C 879
thrych n thrust: at a ~ in one swoop G 1713
thrych v squeeze, wring Pe 17; pa and pa ppl thryght pushed, thrust G 1443; packed, crowded together Pe 926, ?clustered C 1687; pierced, impaled Pe 706; set C 134; conveyed Pe 670; thryght me conveyed to me G 1946; cf. thrych n
thrye, thryes adv three times C 429, G 763, 1412, 1936
thryf see thryve
thryftyly adv properly, suitably C 635
thryght see thrych
thrynges 2&3s pres speeds, hurtles C 180; proceed(s) G 2397; ~ me after follows in attendance upon me C 1639; pa throng in came in G 1022*, pa pl throng(en) pressed in in a crowd C 879, 1775; cf. threnge
thrynne n threesome, a tripartite unity C 1727*; adj three, considered as a unity C 606, 645; on ~ sythe on a trio of occasions G 1868, upon ~ wyses in a triple way C 1805
thryvande see thryve
thryvandely adv plentifully, profusely G 1080*, 1380
thryve, thryf v thrive, prosper G 387; flourish, grow Pe 851; carry on life, have functioning vital processes C 249; pres ppl thryvande profuse G 1979, 1980, morally sound, unflawed C 751; pa subj thryved thrived, survived Pa 521
thryven adj flourishing; fine, excellent Pe 868*, 1192, C 298, G 1740; super thryvenest grandest, highest ranking C 1571*, 1639
thulged pa (of ‘thilgen’ and related to thole) ~ with tolerated G 1859
thurgh prep through Pe 10+; by means of C 1324; ~ all other thinges above all things G 645, 1080*
thurghoute prep throughout C 1559
thurghoutly adv completely, in all things Pe 859
thwong n thong, cord G 194; pl thwonges thongs, straps G 579
thyes n pl thighs G 579, 1349
thyn poss adj (used before words beginning with ‘h’ or a vowel) thy Pe 559+
thyself, thyselven adj and pron yourself Pe 341, 473, 779, C 581, G 395, 2141; non-refl pron in oblique case you Pa 316
til(le) (Norse-derived equivalent of to (2)) (a) prep to C 1064, 1174, G 673, until G 734; her/him/yow/hem til(le) to her/him/you/them Pe 676, C 882, 1752, G 1221, 1979; (b) conj until Pe 548+, til that until Pe 979, C 498 G 697, 991
tite adv quickly Pe 728, C 901, Pa 100, 127, 229, 251, G 299, 1596; as/also ~ right away, promptly Pe 645, C 64, 1099, 1213, G 31, 1210; comp tytter sooner Pa 231
tithyng n message C 498; pl tithynges tidings, announcements Pa 78; news, information C 458
to (1) n toe Pa 229; pl tos C 1691
to (2) prep to Pe 107+; until C 1032; as Pa 55; adv too Pe 481+; thereto C 1551, G 579; forward Pe 347; forming inf with passive sense after ‘to be’ (is) to be sued for Pe 563, similarly Pe 914, 951*, 955&, C 76&, Pa 223&, G 356, 1399
to-cleves pres cuts forcibly C 1806
to-drawes 2s pres draw forcefully away, dispel Pe 280
togeder adv together Pe 1121+
togh adj tough C 630
toght (1) adj ‘taut’, firm; made hit ~ made a firm bargain Pe 522
toght (2) adj tough, stout G 1869
to-hewe v cut to pieces, cut down G 1853
toke(n) see take
token n indication, representation G 1486, 1515; sign Pe 742, G 2398, 2509; pl tokenes signs C 1049; instances, examples G 1527
tokened pa represented C 1557
tokenyng vn betokening, token G 2488
to-kerve v cut; split up, split apart C 1700; pa to-korven cut through, slashed C 1250
tolde see telle
tole n cutting implement C 1342; weapon G 413*, 2260; pl toles cutting implements C 1108

Tolouse Toulouse C 1108*; tolouse a fabric from Toulouse G 77*
tom n space of (otherwise unoccupied) time C 1153, leisure Pe 134; delay Pa 135; toke more ~ spent a longer while Pe 585
to-marred pa ppl disfigured C 1114
tomorne adv tomorrow morning G 548, 756, 1097, 1965
to-murte pa broke Pa 150
tone see ta
tong(e) n tongue Pe 100, 225, 898, C 1524; with ~ spoken G 32
top n head Pa 229
topace n topaz Pe 1012, C 1469
toppyng n crest, forelock G 191
to-preve pres pl prove clearly Pa 530
tor adj ~ (for) to telle difficult to tell Pe 1109*, G 165, 719
to-raced pa ppl ripped apart G 1168
to-rent pa and pa ppl burst open C 368; gashed Pe 1136; torn to pieces Pa 96, G 1168*
to-riven see to-rof
tormenttours n pl officers charged with punishing miscreants C 154
torne pa ppl torn Pa 233; torn down C 1234); gashed G 1579
to-rof pa (of ‘to-rive’) split apart C 964; ~ of tore from Pa 379; pa ppl to-riven torn away Pe 1197
torres n pl towering clouds, cloud-masses Pe 875*, C 951
tos see to (1)

totered pa tossed Pa 233
totes pres looks (with some restriction to vision), peeps G 1476
to-torne pa ppl torn C 33, 41
touch n touch, contact Pa 252; the verbal bringing up of something, mention G 1301; ?deed C 48*; pl touches sounds (of an instrument) G 120; ?terms of an agreement G 1677*
touch(e) v touch Pe 714, C 1091; discuss G 1541; pa and pa ppl touched touched C 245, 1099, came into contact with Pe 898; entered C 283, 1657; arrived at, reached C 1393; touched to told to C 1437
toun(e) n town, city Pe 995, C 721&, Pa 361&; villa, estate C 64; with reduced sense homes G 1049*, in ~ in the place C 763, among men G 31*, there G 614; pl tounes cities C 751
tour n tower, stronghold (of heaven) Pe 966, C 216*; pl towres towers C 1189, 1383, G 795
tournayes pres wheels around G 1707*; pa tournayed tourneyed, took part in a tournament G 41
tournes n pl deeds, tricks C 192
to-walten pa pl (cf. waltes) surged forth, erupted C 428
towe v draw, convey Pa 100; pa ppl towen drawn, parted Pe 251
towen see tee and towe
towres see tour
to-yere adv this year; ~ more for a year or so to come Pe 588
tramme n (nautical) tackle Pa 101; pl trammes contrivances, schemes G 3
trantes pres uses tricks and stratagems G 1707; cf. traunt
tras n path, course Pe 1113
traunt n trick, device G 1700; cf. trantes
trauthe n justice, rightfulness, rectitude Pe 495, C 723; loyalty C 236; truth, good faith G 626, 1057, 2470; troth, pledged word C 667, Pa 336, G 394*, 403, 1108, 2287, 2348; truth, fact C 1604, 1736, G 1050; temple of the ~ temple of the true faith C 1490; in ~ in truth, as the truth C 1703; by my ~ by my faith G 1545, 1638, by his ~ on his faith C 63
travayl(e) n exertion, labour Pe 1087, Pa 505; journey G 2241
travayledes 2s pa laboured Pa 498; pa ppl travayled Pe 550, G 1093*
trayste adj assured, certain G 1211; cf. tryst(e)

traythly adv grievously C 907*, 1137
traytor n traitor G 1775; pl traytoures evil-doers Pa 77, C 1041
tre n wood C 1342; tree C 622, G 770; pl tres trees Pe 1077, C 1041; boards C 310, Pa 101
trecherye n treachery, treason, bad faith C 187, G 4, 2383
trede v tread; ~ on set foot in Pa 316
tres see tre
tresor(e) n valuable possession C 866; wealth in the form of precious metals or gems Pe 237, 331
tresorye n storehouse for valuables C 1317
tresoun n treachery, deceit, subterfuge C 187, G 3
tresour n custodian of the treasury C 1437
trespasse subj trespass C 48; pa trespast to trespassed against C 1230
trestes n pl supports for a table-board, trestles C 832, G 884, 1648
tried, triet see trye
trifle n a matter of small importance G 547, 1301; pl trifles (a) small matters G 108; (b) decorative or ornamental designs G 165; bands of material G 960*
trifled pa ppl decorated with fancy work C 1473*
troched pa ppl ?pinnacled C 1383, G 795*
tron see trynande
trone n throne C 211
trot n trotting pace C 976
trow(e) v believe Pe 487+, trust G 2238; 2s pres trowes Pe 295; imp trowe ye believe that G 1396, 2112, ~ thou never do not at all believe C 587; pres ppl trowande believing C 662; pa trowed believed Pe 282, C 1335, hoped C 388; parenthetical (as) I trow(e) as I understand, I should think C 1686, 1803, Pa 299, G 1347, 2205
trueluf n true love G 1527, 1540; pl trulofes quadrifoliate flowers G 612*
truly adv indeed Pa 361, G 2112, truly, truthfully G 401, 406, 1785, 2444, faithfully G 380*, 2348; in proper place C 1490*
trumpes n pl ‘trumpets’ (trumpet-like horns) C 1402, G 116, 1016
trussen v pack G 1129; pa trussed stored away C 1317
trye v try, test; be true to ~ can be certainly true Pe 311; pa ppl triet (legally) tried Pe 702, brought to trial Pe 707, tried ascertained, exposed G 4*; part adj specially selected C 1317, select, choice, fine G 77, 219
trynande pres ppl ~ a high trot going at a fast pace C 976*; pa tron proceeded, went C 132, Pa 101, pl trone a tras directed (their) course Pe 1113
tryst(e) v trust, rely, have confidence Pa 324, G 380; imp pl tryste G 2325; cf. trayste
tryste(ly) adv trustily G 2348; ful true and tryste most truly and trustily Pe 460*
tryster n hunting station G 1712; pl trysteres G 1146*, 1170
trysty adj faithful, steadfast C 763
tulk n man C 687, G 3&; (used of God) C 498; pl tulkes men C 1189, 1262, 1623, G 41
tult see tylte
tuly n and adj (made of) red silk G 568*, 858
turne v turn, return G 1099; turn round C 976; go C 64, G 2075; undergo moral-religious reform, convert Pa 518; pres turnes turns G 457; pa turned G 1200, ~ To wrast went awry G 1662–3, ~ to hele became healthy C 1099; pa ppl turned reformed and/or converted Pa 506; revolving G 22
tusches n pl tusks G 1573, 1579
twayne adj and n two C 674, 782*, 788, 1749, G 962, 1864
twayned pa ppl ‘twained’, parted Pe 251
twelmonyth n period of twelve months, year G 298; at this tyme ~ a year from today G 383, a year ago today G 2243
twyes see twys
twyges n pl sprigs, small branches G 746
twynande pres ppl twining, twisting C 1691
twynne (1) adj two: in ~ asunder Pe 251, C 966, 1047, G 425, 1339
twynne (2) v part C 402; separate itself, go away G 2512
twynne-hue adj bicoloured Pe 1012
twynnen pres pl form a pair G 191*
twys, twyes adv twice Pe 830, G 1522, 1679
tyde n time C 1393, G 585, 2168; time of year G 2086, (liturgical) season, festival G 736, 932, 1033
tydes pres betides; yow ~ is your due G 1396
tyed pa ppl fastened, fixed Pe 464; ~ hemselven bound themselves to each other C 702; tyt joined Pe 1013*
tyght (1) v draw, come Pe 718; ?manage C 1108; pa tyght him betook himself C 889; pa ppl tyght come Pe 503
tyght (2) intend G 2483; appoint, assign C 1153; pa in termes ~ set forth in words Pe 1053; pa ppl tyght set, put G 568, 858
tylte v fall, topple Pa 361; pa tult toppled, pulled down C 1213; tumbled, fell Pa 252; pa ppl tylt pulled, drawn C 832, out ~ thrown out, shoved out Pa 231
tymbres n pl timbrels, small drums C 1414
tyme n time Pe 503+; on a ~ on a certain occasion C 1657; gen tymes G 1069; pl by tymes on occasions G 41
tymed pa ppl timed, arranged so as to be complete at a certain time G 2241
tyne (1) n bit; a little ~ a little while Pa 59
tyne (2) v lose Pe 332, Pa 500, 505; destroy C 907; 2s pres tynes destroy C 775; pa tynt destroyed C 216
tyned pa shut, enclosed C 498
type v make topple; ~ doun knock down Pa 506
tyrauntes n pl ruffians C 943
tyrauntrye n abuse of power in order to harass and oppress C 187
tyrve v ~ of (C 630), pres pl tyrven of (G 1921) strip off
tyrved pa ppl (of ‘terve’) overturned C 1234*
tyt see tyed
tytelet pa ppl acting as a summarizing heading G 1515; cf. tytle
tythyng n tidings, announcement, message C 1557
tytle n valid or authentic claim or right G 626; authentication G 480; cf. tytelet
tytter see tite
tyxt n text Pa 37, G 1515, (written) words C 1634, authoritative writing G 1541
uch(e) adj each Pe 5+; ~ a every Pe 117+
uchone pron each one Pe 450+; uchones each one’s Pe 863, 1103
ughten n dawn, morning C 893
ugly adj gruesome G 441, ghoulish G 441, lowering G 2079, grim G 2190; super uglokest most horrific C 892
umbe prep and adv around, about C 879*, 1474, 1569, 1687, 1744, G 1830, 2034; all ~ all over, everywhere Pe 204; me/him ~ around me/him C 1689, Pa 309, 381
umbe-brayde pa accosted, came out with (speech) C 1622*
umbe-clypped pa enclosed, enfolded G 612
umbe-foldes pres enfolds, encircles G 181
umbe-gon pa ppl surrounded, encircled Pe 210*
umbe-growen pa ppl begrown, encircled with growth C 488
umbe-kestes pres circles in order to search out C 478; pa ppl umbekesten (as hunting term) explored in order to find the prey pursued G 1434
umbe-lappes pres laps around, overlaps G 628
umbe-lye v surround C 836
umbe-pyght pa ppl bestudded Pe 204, surrounded Pe 1052
umbe-schon pa beshone, shone around Pa 455
umbe-stounde(s) adv sometimes Pa 7, 122
umbe-sweyed pa ppl bewashed C 1380*
umbe-teye pa surrounded, encompassed G 770
umbe-thour adv round about, all around C 1384
umbe-torne adv all around G 184
umbe-walt pa cast around, surrounded C 1181
umbe-weved pa enwrapped G 581*
umbre n shade C 524
unavysed pa ppl unadvised, ill-considered Pe 292
unbene adj arduous, difficult G 710*
unblemyst pa ppl unblemished, unstained Pe 783
unblythe adj unhappy G 746; unpleasant C 1017
unbrosten pa ppl unburst C 365
uncely adj dangerous, vicious G 1562*
uncheryst pa ppl neglected, not taken care of C 1125
unclannes n moral or literal dirt or impurity C 30, 1800, 1806
unclene adj defiled, polluted C 1144; indecent, unfitting C 1713*, unsanctioned C 710; adv uncleanly C 550
uncler adj unclear, indistinct Pa 307
uncloses pres unlocks C 1438; discloses, reveals C 26; pa pl unclosed opened G 1140
uncortayse adj discourteous, ungracious Pe 303
uncoupled pa released from the leash, on which hunting-dogs were held in pairs G 1419
uncouthe adj unknown C 414, 1600, G 1808; weird, prodigious C 1722; new, novel G 93
under prep and adv below, underneath C 409+, beneath G 202; ~ God (C 1077, G 2470), ~ Crystes selven (G 51), ~ heven (G 56, 352, 1853) in the world, ~ hevenryche G 2423; cf. anunder
undernomen pa (of ‘undernime’) understood, comprehended Pa 213
understonde v to ~ to wit, that is to say Pe 941; imp pl understondes understand Pa 122
undertake v take up, perform G 1483
underyede pa understood, realized C 796
undo v break up (a carcase) G 1327; pa undid destroyed C 562
unethe adv hardly, scarcely G 134
unfayre adj and adv ugly, not goodly, offensive C 1801; in an ugly manner G 1572
unfolde imp disclose, reveal C 1563; pa unfolded opened up C 962
unfre adj ignoble; by ~ chaunce by some distasteful chance C 1129
ungarnyst pa ppl unfurnished, unprovided with the necessary accessories C 137
unglad adj unhappy, discontent Pa 63
ungoderly adj squalid C 1092; vile C 145*
unhap (1) n misfortune, mischief C 143, G 438, catastrophe C 892
unhap (2) v unbind G 2511*
unhappen adj ill-omened, unblessed C 573
unhaspe v unlock, reveal C 688
unhole adj not healthy, unsound C 1681
unhonest adj indecent, lewd C 579
unhuled see unhyles
unhyde v disclose, reveal Pe 973*
unhyles 2s pres uncover, reveal C 1628; pa ppl unhuled uncovered C 451
unknawen part adj (of terrain) unfrequented C 1679
unkyndely adv disloyally C 208*
unlace v cut up the carcase of a game animal G 1606
unlapped pa ppl not tied up Pe 214
unleaute n breach of truth, bad faith G 2499
unlyke adj dissimilar G 950
unmanerly adv without propriety, improperly G 2339
unmard pa ppl with intact virginity C 867*
unmete adj unsuitable, unfitting Pe 759; out of the ordinary (in size), massive G 208
unnevened pa ppl unspoken C 727
unpynne v unbar, unbolt Pe 728*
unryght n wrongfulness, illegality; with ~ wrongfully, unlawfully C 1142
unslayn pa ppl unslain, not killed G 1858
unsmyten pa ppl unsmitten C 732
unsounde (1) n distress, trouble Pa 58, 527
unsounde (2) adj diseased C 575
unsoundely adv violently, dangerously C 201, G 1438*
unsparely adv unsparingly, plentifully G 978
unspurd pa ppl unasked, without asking G 918
unstered pa ppl untroubled C 706
unstrayned pa ppl free from stress Pe 248
unswolwed pa ppl undevoured, undestroyed C 1253
unthewes n pl bad traits, vices C 190
unthonk n disfavour, ill-will C 183, Pa 55
unthryfte n vice, dissoluteness C 516, 1728
unthryftyly adv in a wretched and/or immoral way C 267
unthryvande part adj graceless, base G 1499
unthryvandely adv ignobly, unworthily C 134
untrauthe n faithlessness, bad faith G 2383, 2509
untrue adj false Pe 897, C 184, 587; disloyal to one’s master C 456, 1161
unwar adj unthinking, imperceptive Pa 115
unwaschen part adj unwashed C 34
unwelcum adj unwelcome as a guest C 49
unworthelyche adj ignoble, base C 305
unwyse adj unwise Pa 330
unwytte adj unsound of wits, foolish Pa 511
upbraides pres pl cast up C 848
upbraydes pres rebukes Pa 430
upholdes pres holds up, sustains G 2442
uplyfte pa ppl uplifted C 987
upon prep upon C 1387&; in G 1272*; adv thereupon, on it Pe 208, C 1276, G 1649; has/had ~ wear C 141, wore G 2021
uppe adv (emphatic variant of ‘up’; used at line ending) risen G 928; astir C 834
uprerde pa raised into life C 561
upryse v rise up G 1437; get out of bed C 896, pa ppl uprysen G 1126
up-so-doun adv upside down Pa 362
upwafte pa rose up C 949
upynyoun n opinion Pa 40
urthely adj earthly, mortal Pe 135, C 35
usage n practice C 710
use v (pres uses, pl usen; pa and pa ppl used) practise(s), practised C 202, 251, 267, 1173, 1359, G 651, 1491, 2106; partake of (Eucharist) C 11*; had relations with G 2426*; his dayes he uses he spends his days C 295
usles n pl ashes C 747*, 1010
utter adv out; out into the open G 1565; put/holden ~ turned out, put out of doors C 42, Pa 41
valay(e) n valley G 2145, 2246
vale n low-lying ground between hills C 673, G 2271, 2482; pl vales Pe 127
vanist pa vanished C 1548
vanyte n vainglory, empty show C 1713, Pa 331
vaunt n claim C 664*
vayle v be successful Pe 912; pa vayled was of value C 1311; were of use C 1151; cf. awayled
vayles n pl veiling; strips of cloth wound round the head G 958
vayn(e) adj vain, useless Pa 331; takes … in ~ use up in vanity and ephemera Pe 687*; set Himself in ~ set nought by Himself Pe 811; ~ glory vaingloriousness C 1358
vayres see veray (2)

vengaunce n vengeance, retribution C 247, 1013, Pa 284, 370, 408, 419, vengeful anger C 744
venge v exact vengeance or punishment C 201, Pa 71; pa venged inflicted punishment C 199, 559, avenged themselves G 1518
venquyst, venquished pa and pa ppl vanquished, overcome C 544, 1071; successfully prevailed in (an adventure) G 2482
venym n poison; corruption C 574, Pa 71
venysoun n (carcases of) game animals G 1375
veray (1) adj true, veritable Pe 1184, Pa 370, veracious Pe 1185
veray (2) adv closely, faithfully Pa 333; verayly (in vayres G 1015) in truth C 1548, G 161, 866, literally, as the truth C 664, in the true way, correctly G 1342, well and truly G 1375, 2245
verce n passage from the Psalter Pe 593*
veres pres lifts, raises Pe 177; vered pa raised Pe 254
vergynes n pl virgins, maidens Pe 1099
vergyn(y)te n virginity Pe 767, C 1071; cf. vyrgyn
vertue n virtue Pa 284, G 2375; pl vertues virtues G 634; Vertues Virtues (one of the nine orders of angels) Pe 1126
vertuous adj possessed of (supernatural) powers, potent as charms C 1280, G 2027
vessel(le) n vessels collectively, plate C 1311, 1429*, 1451, 1791; pl vesselles vessels for table or altar C 1151, 1315, 1713
vesselment n vessels collectively C 1280, 1288
vesture n apparel Pe 220, G 161; pl vestures (ecclesiastical) vestments C 1288
vilany n conduct of a villein C 863; baseness G 634, 2375, grossness C 544, 574; indecorum, impropriety G 345; wickedness Pa 71
vilanous adj lacking courtliness, ill-mannered G 1497
vilte n vileness, lowness C 199; cf. vylen and avyled
violent adj drastically forceful C 1013
visage n face, countenance Pe 178; appearance G 866*
vouche v publicly assert C 1358*; ~ hit saf grant, bestow G 1391; pa vouched pledged Pa 165
vowes n pl vows, pledges Pa 239; cf. avowes
voyde v leave G 345; (of cities) demolish Pa 370*; ~ away banish C 744*; pres voydes out removes G 1342; pa voyded disappeared C 1548; rid themselves of G 1518; demolished, wiped out C 1013; pa ppl voyded of free from, purged of G 634*
vycios adj immoral, wicked C 574
vygour n power, strength Pe 971
vyl adj highly distasteful, repugnant C 744
vylen pres pl debase C 863; cf. vilany etc and avyled
vyne n vineyard Pe 502&
vyolence n violence, harmful assault C 1071
vyoles see fyoles
vyrgyn adj of or relating to a virgin Pe 426; cf. vergyn(y)te
vys n visage, countenance Pe 254, 750
wache n staying awake, sleeplessness C 1003; soldiers on look-out duty C 1205; cf. wakes
wade v cross through water on foot Pe 143, 1151*, G 2231; pa wod went into (water) G 787
waft see weve
wage v ?continue Pe 416*
waged pa ppl waved, flapped C 1484
waken (pa and pa ppl wakened) woke up Pe 1171, Pa 446, 468, 473, G 1194, 1200; awakened, roused C 891, 933, (of sound) G 119; (of weather and wind) raise, roused, rise, arose C 323, 437, 948, Pa 132, 469, G 2000; raised C 1166, 1175, arose, was kindled G 2490; lit G 1650
wakes pres (pa woke, waked, pa ppl waked) is awake Pa 130; stayed up late (in revelry) G 1025, 1094; watched over, guarded C 85; cf. wache
wakker see wayke
wal(le) n perimeter wall of a castle or city Pe 917, 1017, 1026, C 1381, 1390, G 787, 809; pl walles C 1181, 1190, 1776, G 783
wale (1) adj choice, fine, goodly C 1716, 1734, G 1010, 1403, 1712, 1759
wale (2) v choose Pa 511, G 1238; pick out with the eye, discern Pe 1000, 1007, find G 398; imp wale thee choose for yourself C 921; pa ppl waled chosen G 1276
walk v (pres walkes walks, pl walkes; pa welke, refl Him welke Pe 711) walk(s), walked Pe 101, 399, C 503, 1674, G 2178; walkes aywhere spreads everywhere G 1521*
wallande pres ppl surging, gushing, welling up G 1762
walles see wal(le)

walt (1) see waltes
walt (2) see welde (2)

walter v roll, extend C 1027; pres walteres rolls, rolls around Pa 263, 297; pres ppl walterande rolling (in the waves), wallowing Pa 247; pa waltered rolled, rolled around C 415, Pa 142, rolled down G 684
waltes pres (cf. to-walten) bursts C 364, ~ of wells up from C 1037; pa and pa ppl walt cast C 1734, removed, conveyed Pe 1156, ~ out removed G 1336, ~ open sprang open C 501
wamel v ~ at his herte feel sick inside Pa 300*
wan see wynne (3)

wande n smooth branch, switch G 1161, gen wandes of the rod or staff G 215
wane adj lacking, absent, wanting G 493
waned pa ppl waned, lessened C 496
waning n diminution, reduction Pe 558
wanles adj hopeless, despairing Pa 262
wap n stroke, blow; at a ~ (one) at a (single) stroke Pa 499, G 2249
wapped pa whapped, whipped G 1161*, 2004; ~ open threw open C 882
war thee imp beware C 545; take care, be careful C 165, 1133; ~ for beware of, guard yourself against C 1143
warded pa ppl guarded, kept safe Pa 258
ware (1) adj aware C 970; wary, cautious C 589, wary not to do something C 712, G 2388; vigilant C 292; was/were ~ became aware, noticed Pe 1096, C 606, 970, Pa 249, G 764*, 1586*, 1900; (as hunting cry) G 1158; comp adv warloker more prudently G 677
ware (2) v spend, use G 402, 1235*; pa ppl waret delivered G 2344
ware (3) pa pl (variant of ‘were’; used for rhyme) Pe 151, 1027
warisch v protect, shelter C 921; pa ppl warist cured, recuperated G 1094
warlok n foot-shackle Pa 80
warloker see ware (1)

warlowes n pl warlocks, practisers of occult arts C 1560; gen warlowes of a monster Pa 258
warly adv cautiously, furtively G 1186; watchfully G 1900
warm(e) adj warm Pa 478, G 506, 684; adv warmly Pa 470; v pa warmed C 1420*, G 1762
warnes pres warns, urges (by reason of impending danger) G 522; admonishes Pa 469
warnyng vn pre-announcement C 1504*
warp(en) v cast C 444; deliver G 2253; utter Pe 879, C 152; pa warp(ped) cast G 2025, uttered Pa 356, C 213, 284, G 224, 1423
warthe n shore, bank Pa 339, G 715
wary v curse C 513; pa ppl waryed accursed C 1716
wasch(e) v wash C 323, 355, 548, 802; pres wasches Pe 655; imp wasch C 1127; pa wesch Pe 766, G 887; pa ppl waschen washed C 618, 831, 1133, 1138, G 72
wasse pa (variant of ‘was’; used for rhyme) Pe 1108, 1112
wast n waist G 144
waste (1) n uncultivated land G 2098
waste (2) v spend or use up unprofitably or superfluously C 1489; annihilate C 326; pa and pa ppl wasted laid waste C 1178; done away with, destroyed C 431; part adj wasted withered, burnt up Pa 475
wasturne n wasteland, uncultivated land C 1674
water n water Pe 111+, stretch or body of water Pe 107, C 323, G 715, 2203, 2231; pl wateres waters C 437, 496, Pa 134, 138, G 1169; water-courses, rivers C 1380, 1776
wathe see wothe
wawes n pl waves Pe 287, C 382, 404, Pa 142
wax(e) v (pres waxes; pa wax(ed), wex) grow, become Pa 491, G 522, subj C 1123, became Pe 538, Pa 410, grows G 518, grew C 204, 375, 1198, Pa 499, G 319; comes into being G 997, arose C 235; pl imp waxes increase, reproduce C 521; increasingly flowed Pe 648, 649, C 397; pa ppl art waxen have grown Pa 497
waxene adj made of wax G 1650*
wax-lokes n pl wax-like lumps C 1037*
way(e) n way, path Pe 350+; means Pe 580; pl wayes paths Pe 691, C 282, 767, G 2479; by no (kynnes) wayes (by no way G 1045) by no means Pa 346, G 2471; went (on) his/her way went on his/her way G 688, 1557, 2074; go forth thy wayes go about your business Pa 524
wayferande pres ppl wayfaring, travelling C 79
wayke adj weak G 282; comp as n the wakker the weaker C 835, super as n wakkest weakest G 354
waykned pa lost strength C 1422
waymot adj stormy, furious: so ~ in such a rage Pa 492
wayne v bring, send, convey C 1616; pr waynes sends Pe 131; pa wayned sent C 1504, 1701, Pa 467, G 2456*; directed G 984; pa ppl wayned conveyed, carried Pe 249; brought G 264
wayte v see, observe Pa 436, G 306, examine C 1552; watch out, take care C 292; pres waytes looks C 1423, Pa 130, G 1186; glares G 2289; subj wayte after look in the direction of Pa 86; imp pl waytes search C 99; pa ppl wayted looked (around) G 2163, searched Pe 14
wayves pres ~ up opens G 1743*; pa wayved moved to and fro Pa 454, G 306; told, admonished G 984; gave G 1032, furnished with G 1032, 2459*
we, we lo inter oh! ah! G 2185, 2208
webbes n pl cloths Pe 71
wedde v wed, marry Pe 772, C 934, pa wedded C 69; pa ppl weddede wyf wedded wife C 330
weddyng n marriage, wedding Pe 792
wede (1) n raiment, apparel Pe 748, 766, C 793, G 1310; item of clothing G 987, 2358; armour G 831, 2025; pl wedes robes, clothes Pe 1102+; armour C 1208, G 861, 2013
wede (2) pa went raving wod [mad] C 1585
weder n fair weather, spring G 504*; storm C 444*; breeze, wind C 475; atmosphere, air C 847, 1760; pl wederes storms C 948, G 2000
wel (1) n well-being, prosperity, good fortune C 1647; what is good G 1267*
wel (2) adv well Pe 164+, indeed G 1874; much Pe 148, C 1132, 1138, Pa 114, 132, G 736, 1276; very Pe 528, 537, 581, Pa 169; readily Pe 302; easily G 2405; predicative fortunate, happy Pe 239, 1187, G 2127
welawylle adj very wild G 2084*
welawynne adj very joyful G 518*
welawynnely adv joyously, beautifully C 831
welcom (1) adj and inter welcome Pe 399, G 252, 814, 835, 1237*, 2240*; hospitably received C 813; super welcomest most welcome G 938
welcom (2) v welcome G 819*; pres welcomes greets G 1759, pa welcomed G 1477
welde (1) n control, use, disposal G 837*
welde (2) v (2&3s and pl pres weldes; subj welde C 1646) wield, use C 835, G 270, have at one’s command or disposal, have, possess(es) Pa 464, G 835, 1064, 1528, 1542, 1790, 1791, 1802, 2430, 2454; enjoy C 705; govern(s), has/have control or dominion over C 17, 195, 644, 1664, Pa 16, 322, G 837; for to ~ (C 1351), to wolde (Pe 812) at his disposal, in his possession; pa walt possessed, enjoyed G 231; passed, spent (a period of time) G 485

Welder n Master, Ruler Pa 129
wele n (that which brings) prosperity, well-being Pe 14, 133, 394, C 651, Pa 262, G 50, 485, joy G 997, 1371, 1767, 2490; wealth G 7, 1270, 1820, valuable thing G 1394, material value G 2037, 2432; ~ and/other wo good fortune and/or in bad Pe 342, G 2134; pl weles joys, fine things Pe 154
weliest see wely
welke see walk
welkyn n welkin, sky Pe 116, C 371, Pa 207, G 525, 1696
welle n spring, fount Pe 365, 649; pl welles C 439
welle-hed n water source C 364; pl welle-hedes C 428
welt pa (of ‘welte’ [fall, topple]) ~ in tumbled into Pa 115
welwed part adj withered, shrivelled Pa 475
wely adj possessed of well-being, blessed, happy Pe 101; comp wylger mightier C 375; super weliest healthiest, in best condition C 1244
wemles adj spotless, immaculate Pe 737
wemme n stain, blemish, defect Pe 221, 1003
wench n (pl wenches) unmarried girl(s) C 974, 1250; floozies C 1423*, 1716
wende (1) n turning G 1161
wende (2) v go Pe 643, G 559, 1053, 1065, 1098, 1102; ~ of turn from Pa 403; pres wendes goes Pa 339, C 675, wende(s) (on) his way goes his way C 777, G 1028; turns G 2152; pres pl wendes C 534; imp wende C 471, pl wendes C 521; pa went (wende G 900), pl went, wenten went Pe 525, 1130, C 501, G 72&; turned C 415, G 1718; parted Pe 631, 761; pa ppl went arrived G 1712
wene (1) v think, believe Pe 47, 201, C 821, Pa 304, G 270, 1226, 2405; to wene to be thought of Pa 244; pa wende supposed Pe 1148, Pa 111, G 669, 1711
wene (2) v (?variant of ‘wane’: cf. waned) lessen, diminish Pe 1141*
went, wenten see wende
wenyng n thought, assumption Pa 115
wepes pres pl weep Pa 17; pres ppl wepande weeping C 777; be-weeping, weeping over Pa 384; pa weped wept Pa 480
weppen n weapon C 835, G 292, 368, 384, 1586, 2222; pl weppenes weapons G 270
wer see were (1) and (2)

werbelande pres ppl trumpeting, sounding shrilly G 2004
werbles n pl musical phrases, sequences of notes G 119
were (1) v ward off G 2015; defend G 2041; pa wered defended, protected Pa 486; wer him defended himself C 69
were (2) v wear G 2510, 2518; pres 2s weres G 2358, 3s flesch weres is clothed in flesh C 287; pa wer (Pe 205, G 1928), wered (G 1928, 2037) wore
were(n) subj would/should/might be C 22+; pa pl (they) were Pe 6+; used for ‘was’ at line ending C 209*, 259, G 903
werk n work, deed Pe 599; doings, behaviour, action(s) C 305, 589, 658, 1050; workmanship C 1390, G 2367; handwork, creation C 198, Pa 501*; withoute ~ more without more ado C 1725; pl werkes menial labour C 136, 1258; deeds, actions, behaviour C 171, 266&, Pa 390, G 1515; functional parts of an artefact C 1480, pieces of decorative work G 216, workmanship, design G 164*, 1817, 2026, 2432; thy werkes behaviour prescribed by you C 763; cf. work(e)

werkmen n pl labourers Pe 507
wernes pres refuses G 1824; pa ppl werned refused G 1494, 1495
wernyng vn refusal, resistance G 2253
werre n combat, war C 1178, G 16, 271, 726; (animal’s) aggressive resistance G 1628*
werres pres wars, battles G 720
wery adj weary Pa 163
weryng vn process of being continually in use or wear C 1123
wesch see wasche
wete (1) adj wet, rainy Pe 761; (of a wound) bleeding Pe 1135
wete (2) v moisten C 1027
weterly adv plainly, clearly G 1706
weve v pass, go Pe 318; yield, give G 1976; pa weved gave G 2359; waft cast, tossed C 422, ~ open cast open C 453, ~ hit him after closed it behind him C 857; pa ppl weved arrived Pe 976
weven pres pl weave Pe 71; pa ppl woven G 2358
wex see wax(e)

weye v ~ upon the wore half put into the worse side of the balance C 719; pres pl weyen weigh (anchor) Pa 103; imp weye carry (round) C 1508; pa pl weyed brought C 1420, G 1403
whal n whale Pa 247, 297, 339; gen whalles bon whale’s bone, ivory Pe 212
what interrog adj and pron what Pe 186+, whatever Pe 523, G 1082; who Pa 397*; conj that C 152; adv (introducing a question that implies a negative assertion) why on earth? Pe 1072, G 563; inter indeed! lo! C 487, 845, 846, 855, 1241, 1583, G 1163, 2201, 2203, 2204, (expressing feigned surprise) G 309
whatso pron what Pa 243, G 255, whatever Pe 566, C 1099, G 382, 1550; adj what … so whatever C 100, 819, G 384, 1107, 1167, 1406, 1407, 1851
wheder adv whither, to what place C 917
whederwarde conj in which direction G 1053
whederwardeso adv whithersoever C 422
whenso conj whenever G 1682
wherefore interrog why G 1294; conj for which reason G 2278
whereso(ever) conj wherever Pe 7, C 791, Pa 42, G 395, 644, 1227, 1459, 1490; where C 675
whete n wheat Pe 32
whethen adv whence G 461, from wherever G 871
whether (a) adj whichever G 1109*; (b) adv however, nevertheless Pe 826, C 570, G 203; interrog adv (introducing a question) Pe 565, C 717, G 2186; (c) conj although Pe 581; whether Pe 130+, ~ … or Pe 604
whettes pres whets, rubs tusks to sharpen them G 1573; pa whette made a whetting sound G 2203
whetting vn whetting G 2220
whiderwarde-so-ever adv to whatsoever place G 2478
while (1) n period of time C 743, 1281, G 1195, 1235, 2370; the … ~ for the duration of … G 940, 985; a ~ for a time Pa 59, 87, 234, G 134, 1996; bot a ~ (C 833), bot on little ~ (G 30) for only a short time; any ~ for any length of time G 257, 2058; in a ~ shortly C 1620, G 1646; other ~ at other times G 721; the ~ for the foreseeable future G 1791
while (2) adv at one time, in the past Pe 15; conj and prep until Pe 528, C 1686, G 536&; for as long as C 1114+; while C 206+ (while that G 1235); the ~ in which time Pa 443
white adj and adv white Pe 163+; bright, shining Pe 1011
whoso pron whatever person C 1647, 1649–50, Pa 174; with conditional force who, whoever C 1, Pa 5, G 209, 306, 1849, who 355, 1112; whos … so whoever’s C 1648
why inter what! G 1528; interrog adv why C 828+
whyder interrog adv whither, to what place Pa 202
whyrlande pres ppl whirling G 2222; pa whirled C 474
wich interrog pron what C 169; rel pron what C 1060; adj what (kind of) C 1060, 1074, G 918; ~ … soever whichever Pa 280
wight adj doughty, valiant Pe 694; strong G 1762; super wightest boldest G 261, most vigorous 1591; adv wight(ly) energetically, quickly C 617, 908, Pa 103, G 688
wil(le) v (2s pres wil, wylt; wilnes Pe 318) will (used as auxiliary to form volitional future tenses) Pe 350+; want or wish to Pe 318, 794, C 165, 1065, Pa 202, G 1098, 1823; choose(s) to C 930, G 549, 2141; as independent v want(s) G 1822, 2215, wish G 2469, choose G 384; pa: see wolde (1)

wille n will, desire C 76+; wayward emotion, passion Pe 56, C 200; inner feelings C 302, 687; that which is willed Pe 131; spirit, heart, mettle C 232, G 57*, 352; good will G 2387; at (your) ~ at (His/your) will, whichever and whenever wanted Pa 130, G 836, 1371, 1952, at your disposal G 1039, at your pleasure G 1081; at His/his/your ~ in accordance with His/your will Pa 339, G 1214, when he wished G 887; in his ~ at his will C 1646; by your ~ with your permission G 1065; with a good ~ very readily G 1861, very willingly G 1969; with good ~ with good will G 1387, 1500, 2430; cf. wylnesful etc
wit, wot (wate Pe 502) v (pres 2s wost, 3s wot) know(s) Pe 47+; perceive, see C 1052, 1319; wit at yow know from you G 1508; ne wost/wot/wyst in world know/knew not at all Pe 65, 293, G 1053; subj wit may be aware of C 1360; imp pl wit ye wel be sure G 1820; pa wyst(e) knew Pe 376+, 2s wystes Pe 617, pl wyste(n) knew G 461, 1435, 2490; were aware of C 1204, were conscious of G 155; cf. wyt
with prep with Pe 201+; by Pe 806+, on the part of G 49; at the hands of G 384; in preparation for C 56; ~ this thereupon G 316
withalle adv besides, moreover, as well C 636, G 106, 1926
withholde v hold back C 740; pres witholdes holds back G 2268; pa withhelde withheld Pa 408, G 2291, held back G 2168
withinne adv inside Pe 1027, C 883, 1391, G 1192, on the inside C 20+, within it C 1465, Pa 208; in (their, his) heart(s) Pa 215, G 2370, at heart C 305, Pa 523; prep in C 1779+, inside C 1069+, into C 1566, G 804; him ~ within him C 284, 1607; ~ hem within the ring formed by them G 1435
withnay imp refuse, deny Pe 916
withoute(n) prep without Pe 12+; adv on the outside C 20, 313, 1205
wittnesse n evidence C 1050; testimony G 2523
wlates pres experiences turning of the stomach C 1501; impers me ~ my stomach turns C 305
wlatsume adj disgusting, nauseating C 541
wlonk(e) (1) adj splendid, magnificent Pe 122, 1171, C 831, Pa 486, G 581, 2432, beautiful C 899, 933, G 515; fine C 606; exalted Pe 903, lofty; great, noble G 1977; super wlonkeste G 2025; as n the wlonk what is fair C 1052, that ~ that great man G 1988
wlonk (2) adv splendidly C 793, G 2022
wo n woe, misery Pe 56, 342, C 284, 541, 1701, Pa 256, G 2154; difficulty, distress Pe 154, G 1717
wod (1) see wade
wod(e) (2) adj mad, demented, irrational C 1552, G 2289; morally reckless or unwise Pe 743, C 828; rabidly angry C 204; (of water) raging C 364, Pa 142, wodder more frenzied, wilder Pa 162
wodbynde n climbing plant, ivy Pa 446*, 459&
wodcraftes n pl arts and skills of hunting G 1605*
wode (1) n wood, woodland Pe 122, C 370, 387, G 515, 764, 2084, 2152, (= hunting ground) 1106, 1415, 1628; tree C 1028
wode (2), wodder see wod(e)

wodschawes n pl wood-shaws, woodland groves Pe 284
wodschip n rage Pa 403
woghe n evil, wrongfulness Pe 622, G 1550*
woke see wakes
wolde (1) (2s woldes) pa (of will(e)) used to form volitional future would Pe 304+; would like to Pe 390+; wanted to Pe 1155, Pa 496, G 307; willed C 1647, chose to C 444, Pa 30, G 1537, 1992; was willing to C 231, Pa 113; meant, intended (to) C 500, 1552, G 1127, 2262; would be willing to C 752, 1153, G 343, 811, 1063, 1218, 1393, 1835, would want to C 1140, G 1497, 1828; as independent v wanted G 271, 1199, 2478, willed C 360, would wish (that) Pe 451, 849, Pa 83, G 2127, I ~ I would that Pa 494, G 1801
wolde (2) see welde (2)

wolen adj woollen Pe 731
wolle n wool, fleece Pe 844
wombe n belly, stomach C 462, Pa 262, 306, G 144; pl wombes C 1250, 1255
wommon gen woman’s Pe 236
won (1) n expedient: desired course of action G 1238; means, wealth G 1269
won (2) n custom C 720
won(e) (3) n dwelling (place), residence C 140+, house, habitation Pe 1049, G 739; city C 891, 928, 1770, Pa 69, 436; pl wones dwelling places, habitations, quarters Pe 32+; places to live in C 471; used in singular sense metri causa dwelling C 777, 779*, G 685, 1051*, 1386, 2198, 2400
wonde v draw back (from fear), flinch, be deterred, turn aside Pe 153, G 563, subj 488; pa wonded C 855*
wonder (1) n wonder C 584, Pa 244, 256, G 1322, 1481, pl wonderes G 29; wonderful event G 480, dramatic event(s), wondrousness C 1390, G 2459; fearful wonder, prodigy C 1504*, G 16; astonishment, marvelling C 1310, Pa 496, G 238, 467, 496
wonder (2) adj wondrous Pe 221, 1095
wonder (3), wonderly adv wondrously C 1381, very (much), extremely C 5, 153, 880, Pa 384, G 787, 1025; prodigiously C 570, G 2200
wondered pa refl him ~ he had wonder G 1201
wone (1), wones see won(e) (3)

wone (2) v (pres 2&3s wones, pl wones; pa and pa ppl woned) dwell(s), dwelled, reside(s) Pe 47+; reside(d), remain(ed) G 813; were situated C 362; pres ppl wonyande on lyve living C 293; pa ppl wont accustomed (to) Pe 15, 172, C 1489, has ~ have taken place G 17
wonne adj dark Pa 141
wonne(n) see wynne (3)

wonnyng n dwelling place C 921
wont (1) n lack G 131
wont(e) (2) pres pl lack C 13, are lacking C 739, subj G 987; pres wontes G 1062; pa wonted lacked Pe 215, was wanting G 2366
wont (3) see wone (2)

wonyande see wone (2)

word(e) n word C 152, 1555, Pa 356, G 224, 314; command C 348; Pa 208; statement Pa 414, C 213, G 1792; speech Pe 294, C 1669, Pa 345; fame G 1521; pl wordes words Pe 307+; statements Pe 291
worded pa ppl spoken Pa 421
wore pa (variant of ‘was’ and ‘were’; used for rhyme) Pe 142, 154, 232, 574
woried pa bit to death G 1905
work(e) v work, do C 663, G 238; carry out (a command, etc) Pa 136, G 1039, 1546; act G 2096, 2208, 2253; fashion C 1287; pres 2s workes behave C 1063, pl worken toil, work Pe 511; imp work make, fashion C 311, pl workes labour Pe 536; pa and pa ppl: see wroght(e); cf. werk
worker n maker, craftsman C 1501
world(e) n world Pe 537+; gen worldes world’s C 1048, 1802, G 261; the world the way of the world, rules of nature G 504, 530, 2000*; her ~ their heyday C 1298; ~ withoute ende for ever C 712; ne wot/wost/wyst in (this) ~ have/had no idea in the world Pe 65, 293, G 1053; of the ~ (G 50, 238, 938, 997), in (the/this) ~ (Pe 476+) in the world, on earth C 252, on occasion C 1123
worme n worm Pa 467; pl wormes snakes C 533; dragons G 720
worre adj and adv (Norse-derived variant of worse) C 719; as n defeat G 1588, 1591
worschip (1) n honour, esteem, high standing Pe 394+; marks of respect G 1976; weve ~ pay honour G 1032; with ~ in a way that shows honour to it/him/me C 1127, 1616, G 2441; wordes of ~ respectful words C 1592; this worldes ~ high standing in this world C 1802
worschip (2) v worship, acknowledge as God Pa 206; pres worschipes honours, reveres G 1227
worse adj and adv worse C 1320, G 726; of lower status 113; as n the ~ those of lower status C 80, defeat Pa 48 (cf. worre); super worst(e) worst G 1792, 2098, as n C 694
wort n plant G 518; pl wortes Pe 42, Pa 478
worthe v be (indicating change of state), become C 580, 686, 1066, Pa 22, 360, G 1202, happen, come about Pa 436; me schal ~ my fate will be G 1214; when I schal saf ~ once I am safe Pa 334; pres 2s worthes will be C 1738*, Pa 200, 3s me worthes it will be for me G 1035, hit worthes to it becomes, it shall be G 1106, 1387; subj become C 60, 901, 1116, should become C 1056, 1125, befall G 2127, (in wishes and curses) be Pe 362, C 727, 925, G 2127, 2374, let it be G 1302, worth hit whether it turn to G 2134; pl imp worthes to mony increase your numbers C 521; pa worthed came about G 485, worthed of happened to Pa 243; subj ye worthed you would be G 2096; pa ppl worthed been made into G 678, worthen come about Pa 414, is worthen to has risen to Pe 394
worth(e)ly (1), worth(i)lych(e) adj worthy Pe 846; excellent, noble Pe 1073, C 49*, 471, 651, 1298, 1351, Pa 475, G 343; as n that worthly that excellent one Pe 148; comp worthloker finer Pa 464
worthly (2), worthily adv worthily, nobly Pe 1133, G 1386, 1759; fittingly, properly G 71, 144; in a regular or honourable way G 1988
worthy (1) adj worthy Pe 616, C 84; excellent Pe 494, C 231, G 559, 1537, high-ranking C113; suitably dignified G 819; adequate Pe 100; as n excellent person G 1508, good people C 718; super worthyest most excellent G 261
worthy (2) adv in a worthy or fitting way G 1477
wost, wot see wit
wothe (wathe G 2355) n danger C 855, 988, G 222, 488, 1576, (source of) harm Pe 375; pl wothes Pe 151
wounden see wyndes
woven see weven
wowe n house wall (as opposed to city or castle perimeter wall) Pe 1049, C 832&, G 858; pl wowes C 839, G 1180, 1650
wowyng vn amorousness G 2361, 2367
wraght see wroght(e)

wrak pa avenged Himself C 198, 570
wrake n vengeance, retribution C 204&, punishment C 718; destruction C 386, 970; destruction caused by violent hostilities G 16; set has His ~ has delivered His retribution C 1225; heven ~ vengeance of the heavens Pa 185
wrakeful, wrakfulle adj vengeful C 302, punitive C 541
wrang see wrong(e) (1)

wrappes 2s pres thou ~ thee you wrap yourself C 169; pa ppl wrapped immersed Pa 317*; enfolded Pa 494
wrast (1) n twist, unpleasant turn of events G 1663*
wrast (2) pres pl wrast out press out Pa 80; pa wrast wrested, turned, ~ hit so high made it mount so high C 1166; pa pl wrasten out forced or pressed out (sounds); pa ppl wrast formed by habit, disposed G 1482, ~ out thrust out, forced out C 1802
wrasteles pres (of wind) contends violently G 525, pres pl wrastel Pa 141, pa wrestled C 949
wrath(e) n anger, wrath Pe 362, C 204, 326, 746, 1143, 1166, Pa 403
wrath(e) v become angry, conceive wrath C 690, Pa 431; ~ with visit (my) wrath upon Pa 518; pa and pa ppl wrathed afflicted G 726; brought into distress G 2420; grew angry C 230, Pa 74; angered, offended C 719, 828; subj yow wrathed it angered you G 1509
wrech(e) (1) n wretch C 230, 828, Pa 113, 170, 196; pl wreches C 84, 851
wrech (2) adj wretched (by reason of hardship and/or baseness) Pa 258
wreched adj base, abject, unregenerate Pe 56
wrenches n pl tricks C 292
wreyande pres ppl exposing, announcing G 1706
writ n (piece of) writing C 1552, 1567, 1630; Scripture Pe 997, C 657; Holy Writ the Bible Pe 592, Pa 60, 244; cf. wrytes
wro n corner, nook G 2222; passage (of a text) Pe 866*
wroght(e) pa (of ‘worche’) (2s wroghtes, pl wroght(en), pa ppl wroght) created, made Pe 683+; constructed, fashioned C 318, 1381, 1455; performed, done C 171, 348, did C 205; acted, proceeded C 1319, G 677; committed (sin) Pe 622, 631, 825, C 205, 725, Pa 510; laboured Pe 525, 555; caused, brought about G 2344, 2361; wraght throbbed painfully Pe 56; how thay wroght what they did G 1997; wroght to created for; has wroght upon has engaged in Pe 824
wroken pa ppl avenged; rid, delivered Pe 375
wrong(e) (1), wrang n trouble, harm Pe 15; wrongdoing Pe 631, C 76, Pa 376
wrong(e) (2) adj wrong, wrongful C 268, Pa 384, G 1494
wrong (3) adv (of direction) astray, amiss Pe 488*; wrongly, improperly Pe 614; all ~ all amiss C 891
wrot pa ~ up rootled up, ate away Pa 467
wroth see wrythe
wroth(e) adj angry C 5, Pa 48, 410, 491, 497, G 319; displeased G 70; aggressive G 1706, 1905; fierce, savage C 1676; (of wind) strong, turbulent G 525; at variance, at odds Pe 379; divided (within himself) G 1660*; comp wrother more raging Pa 162
wrothly adv angrily C 280, 949, Pa 132, with rage G 2289; comp wrothloker more angrily Pa 132, G 2344
wruxled pa ppl set up, set out C 1381*, G 2191
wrytes pres writes C 1534; refl him ~ writes Pe 1033; pa ppl wryten written Pe 834, 866, 871, C 1725; cf. writ
wrythe v turn, turn aside Pe 350, 488*; pres pl wrythen (they) bend their bodies Pe 511, wrythes twist their way C 533, wrythe me in a warlok twist my feet into shackles Pa 80; pa wroth turned round G 1200, ~ to dispite interpreted it as a slight C 821*
wy inter (expressing indignation) G 2300
wychecraft n magic arts C 1560
wyches n pl practitioners (of either gender) of magic arts C 1577*
wyddered part adj withered Pa 468
wyde adj wide C 370; (of a wound) gaping Pe 1135; adv wide(ly) C 318; on ~ all around C 1423; up ~ wide open G 820
wydoes n pl widows C 185
wye n man Pe 100+; attendant G 2074; (used of God) C 5, 230, 280, 1807, Pa 111, 206, 397, G 2441; (in address) C 545, G 252, 1508, 2091, 2127, 2240, 2469; gen wyes man’s G 314; pl wyes men Pe 71+; servants C 899
wyf n woman C 1244, G 1001, 1495, gen wyves woman’s C 112; wife Pe 772+, pl wyves wives Pe 785, C 298, 350, 503, 1250
wyght n being, creature Pe 338, 494, C 471, G 1792
wykes n pl (of body parts) corners G 1572; cf. schyre-wykes
wyket n door set within main gateway C 857, 882; doorway C 501*
wykke adj wicked C 908, Pa 69; adverse, hostile C 1063
wykked(e) adj wicked, evil C 570, 855, 1050, 1360; as n C 718
wylde adj wild, not tame C 58, 533, 1676, Pa 247, G 1467, 1628; turbulent C 415, 948, G 2000; unrestrained, lawless C 1269; impassioned C 302; wayward, mercurial G 89*; (of sound) loud G 119, 1423; (of terrain) unconnected with civilization, rough, rugged G 741, 2163, 2479; as n (the) ~ wild animal(s) C 311&; G 1150, 1167, 1586, 1900, 2003
wyl-dremes n pl pleasing dreams Pa 473*
wyldrene adj belonging to untamed nature, remote from civilization; ~ depe desolate deeps of the sea Pa 297
wyldrenesse n rough, uninhabited, uncultivated terrain G 701
wyles n pl wiles, artfulness G 1700, 1711, 2415, 2420
wylger see wely
wylnesful adj as n wilfulness, obstinacy C 231*
wylnyng vn will, desire G 1546
wylsfully adj deliberately C 268
wylsum adj wild, obscure, off the beaten track G 689*
wylt (1) see wil(le)

wylt (2) pa ppl (of ‘wille’ [stray]) gone G 1711
wyly adj cunning, artful G 1728; as n wily creature G 1905; adv cunningly, skilfully C 1452
wymmen n pl women C 268*, Pa 511, G 1269, 2415, 2426
wynd n wind Pa 207+, breeze, air C 847; upon ~ in the air C 1484; gen wyndes wind’s G 784; pl wyndes C 421, 457, 948*, Pa 141, 161, G 516
wyndes pres s and pl take(s) a course, turn(s) C 534, G 530*; pa ppl wounden wound about, bewound G 215
wyndow n window C 318, 453, G 1743
wynge n wing C 1484, pl wynges Pe 93
wynne (1) n joy, pleasure G 1765, 2420; with ~ beautifully G 15
wynne (2) adj desirable, delightful Pe 154, G 1032, 2430, 2456; lovely, welcome Pe 647
wynne (3) v gain Pe 579+; fetch C 617; ~ betake yourself G 1537, ~ me get myself (to) G 402; imp wynne him thee fetch him to you C 1616; pres s and pl wynnes win(s), gain(s) C 1120, Pa 106; gets to G 1569, goes G 2044, 2050; subj wynne G 2215 come; pa wan won G 70; gained 1394; wan to got to, reached Pe 107, G 2231, ~ … into got into C 140; pa pl wonnen brought G 1365; made (their) way C 882, 1374, 1577, 1777; won, gained Pa 237; pa ppl wonne(n) won, obtained C 1305, G 1379, 1386; brought Pe 32, G 831, 2091, 2415; begotten C 112; is/was/are wonne(n) has/had/have gone/come Pe 517, C 1004, 1669, G 461, 1365
wynnelych(e) adj lovely, delightful C 1807, G 980
wynter n and adj winter Pe 116, G 504, 726, 1382; the winter half of the year C 525, G 522, 530, 533; pl wynter years G 613
wypped (1) pa ppl wiped, polished G 2022
wypped (2) pa (of ‘whippe’) whipped, swiped G 2249*
wyrde n chance, course of events Pe 249, fate G 2134; thy ~ what has befallen you Pe 273; his ~ his fate G 1752, 2418; as ~ then schaped as fate then ordained Pa 247; pl wyrdes events (past and/or to come) that make up a personal history, fated course of life C 1224, G 1968; caytiffe wyrdes disasters that threatened to occur C 1605
wyschande pres ppl wishing (for), missing Pe 14; pa wysched wished Pa 462
wyse (1) n manner, way Pe 101, Pa 12, 304, G 185, 1836, 2048; guise or form or fashion of things Pe 133, G 2456; on this ~ in that way C 1063, G 1468, in the following manner C 327, Pa 358, 412, on a wonder ~ in a wondrous fashion Pe 1095, on solemne ~ in magnificent fashion, in state C 1171, on fele ~ in many different ways G 1653, similarly (up)on … ~ C 268, 1432, Pa 238, 430, G 901, in a … ~ G 2048, with gen C 271, 696, 1187, G 267, 2192; upon a gret ~ in an elaborate way G 2014, upon thre/thrynne wyse(s) in three ways C 1728, 1805
wyse (2) adj learned C 1555; well mannered C 1592; skilled in craftsmanship Pe 748; ~ of (C 1560), ~ upon (G 1605) knowledgeable about, skilled in; as n that ~ that sage C 1741; wroght as the ~ acted in his own best interests C 1319*
wyse (3) v show Pe 1135*; pa wysed sent C 453
wysse v guide, direct G 549, subj 739; ~ yow therewith tell you about that Pa 60; pres wysses guides, instructs C 1564
wyst(e) see wit
wyt n mind Pa 74; wits C 1422, 1701, G 402, 1087, understanding, wisdom Pe 294, 903, C 348, Pa 129, G 354, 2096; cleverness G 1394, 1533; meaning, sense C 1630; sleight, good plan of action G 677; pl wyttes wits C 515, G 1755, senses G 640, 2193, 2459; cf. wit
wyte v to ~ … is is to be blamed C 76; imp wyte reproach, blame Pa 501
wyter, wyterly adv clearly, plainly C 1552, 1567; certainly, for sure C 171, Pa 330
wytered pa ppl informed, made aware C 1587
wytes pres looks G 2051
wyther v ~ with resist, oppose Pa 48
wyther-half n opposite side Pe 230
wytherly adv in a spirit of opposition, with antagonism Pa 74; with enmity C 198
wytles(se) adj out of (his) senses C 1585; stupid Pa 113
wyttes see wyt
wyves see wyf
yare adv plainly Pe 834; fully G 2410
yark v appoint, apportion C 758; pres yarkes ordains G 2410; pa ppl yarked made ready (for someone), provided C 1708; ordained C 652; yarked up set open G 820
yarm n wail, outcry C 971
yarrande pres ppl snarling, growling G 1595, 1724
yat see gete
yate n gate Pe 728, 1037, G 820, gateway C 796; pl yates Pe 1035+
ydel adj without employment Pe 514, 515, 531, 533
ydropike adj suffering from dropsy or accumulation of watery fluid C 1096
ye (1) pron (direct and indirect object yow) you (plural) Pe 290&; (honorific) you (singular) Pe 257*&
ye (2) inter yea! yes! C 347, G 813, 1091, 1381, 1498, 1729, 1940
yede (rhyme: yot Pe 10, yod G 1146) pa (of ‘go’) went, passed Pe 1049, C 973, G 817, 1122, 1400, 2363, pl yeden G 1684; came, issued Pe 713; moved C 432, was G 2333; refl him yede went Pa 355, G 815*; yede his gate went his way, made this journey Pe 526; yedoun went down G 1595
yederly adv promptly, readily C 463, G 453, 1215, 1485, 2325
yedoun see yede
yef v (variant of gef) give G 1964
yelde v (pres yeldes, pl yelden; pa yelde, pl yolden; pa ppl yolden) hand(ed) over, give G 67, deliver C 665, G 2223, granted G 820; bestows G 498; yielded up, restored C 1708; repaid, paid back G 453; repay, give in return G 1478; yelde(s)/yelden … ayayn repay(s), return(s) G 1478, 1981, 2325; pres subj yelde (may God) repay, reward G 1038, 1963, 1263, 1292, 2056, 2410, 2441; refl yield(ed), surrender(ed) G 1215, 1595; cf. foryelde
yelle pres pl cry out in pain G 1453
yellyng vn screaming C 971
yelpyng vn talk of heroic deeds G 491*; cf. yolped
yemes pres rules C 1493; pa yemed was in charge of C 464, 1242
yemen n pl yeomen, high-ranking commoners (used loosely as a non-disparaging term of address to commoners, implying they are of respectable status) Pe 535
yep adj fresh, lusty, vibrant G 60*, 105, 951, 1510; agile, prompt C 881; as n the yep the quick-witted man C 796, yep vigorous young men G 284
yeply adv promptly C 665, 1708, G 1981, 2244
yere n year Pe 503+; on ~ in the year Pe 1079; gen yeres year’s G 453, 1054, 1075, 1669, 1675, 1968, yeres-yiftes New Year’s gifts G 67; pl yeres C 426, 526, uninflected pl two yere two years Pe 483, C 1192, seven ~ C 1453, G 613, 1382
yerne v desire, wish G 1526; 2s pres yernes C 758; pa ppl yerned wanted Pe 1190, G 492; asked for, requested C 66
yerne adv swiftly G 498; readily G 1478
yernes pres runs, moves swiftly G 498, 529, pl yornen ran C 881
yet(te) adv yet, nevertheless Pe 19+; still C 517+; furthermore, in addition Pe 46+; so far, up to this time Pe 200+; with reduced force and at that Pa 153, 489; with comp even C 50, 96, 97
yete v grant; give, bestow upon Pe 558; grant a petition for G 776; imp yete yield, give C 842; pa ppl yete provided Pe 1061
yeye v cry out G 1215; pa yeyed called out G 67, cried C 846
yiftes n pl gifts
yis inter yes, indeed Pa 117, 347*, C 1113; certainly Pe 635
yisterday adv yesterday G 1485; adj of yesterday C 463; n pl yisterdayes yesterdays, days that have passed G 529
ynde n indigo Pe 76, 1016, C 1411; proper n Ynde India C 1231, 1772
yod pa (variant of yede; used for rhyme) went G 1146, yot Pe 10
yokkes n pl yokes, teams of oxen C 66

Yol n Yuletide G 284, 500
yolden see yelde
yolped pa cried aloud C 846; cf. yelpyng
yomerly adj and adv doleful(ly), piteous(ly) C 971, G 1453
yon, yonde, yonder dem adj that/those over there Pe 693, C 721, 751, 772, Pa 506, G 678, 2144, 2440; adv yonde (G 1724*), yonder (C 1617) over there
yong(e) adj young Pe 412, 474, 535, C 783, 842, 881, G 89, 1510, 1526; as n young one G 951, young person; ~ yere New Year G 492
yore adj belonging to the past: ~ fader father of long ago, forefather (= Adam) Pe 322; adv (ful) ~ for a long time G 2114; for longe ~ for a very long time Pe 586
yore-while adv earlier C 842
yornen see yernes
yot see yod
youres pron yours G 1105, 1037, 1387, 1964; as n what belongs to you G 1815
yourselven, yowself adj and pron yourself C 863, G 350, non-refl pron in oblique case you C 340, G 1522, 1548, 1964, of ~ your own G 1267, 1394
yow see ye
yrn(e) n iron G 215; iron weapon G 2267*; pl yrnes pieces of armour G 729
ythes n pl waves C 430*; Pa 147, 233
yvore n ivory Pe 178

List of Names

In most cases, further information is available from the Notes to the lines cited.

Abdama Admah C 958

Abraham C 601&, Abram 647; gen Abrahames 650

Adam Pe 656, C 237, 258, G 2416

Agravayn a la dure mayn Agravain of the hard hand G 110

Ananie Hananiah C 1301

Anglesay Anglesey G 698

Aquiloun Aquilo (the north wind) Pa 133

Armene Armenia C 447

Arraby Arabia Pe 430

Arthur King Arthur G 26&; gen Arthures of Arthur, Arthur’s G 29, 309, 2102, 2329, 2464, 2522

Arystotel Aristotle Pe 751

Azarie Azariah C 1301

Babyloyn Babylon C 1149, 1223, 1256, 1335, 1361, 1372–3, 1666

Baltazar Belshazzar C 1333&, gen C 1149, 1436; (= Daniel) C 1610

Barsabe Bathsheba G 2419

Bawdewyn Baldwin G 112

Belfagor Baalpeor C 1526

Belssabub Beelzebub C 1526

Belyal Belial C 1526

Bertilak de Hautdesert G 2445

Bethelen n Bethlehem C 1073

Boors Bors G 554

Bretayn, Bretaygne Britain G 14, 20, 25

Brutus (founder of Britain) G 2523, 2524, Felix Brutus G 13

Bydver Bedivere G 554

Caldye Chaldea C 1231, 1339, 1362, 1575, 1747; adj Caldee Chaldean, of Chaldea C 1215, 1316, 1562, 1631; n pl Caldees Chaldeans C 1774

Cam Ham (son of Noah) C 299

Camylot Camelot G 37

Clopyngnel Jeun de Meun C 1057

Cryst(e) (Jesu Cryst Pe 458) Christ Pe 55, 569, 776, C 23, 161, 972, 1067, G 596, 643, 762, 869, 1307; (in blessings) G 839, 1279, 1982, 2067, 2120; (in oaths) by Cryst G 674, 1938; gen Crystes Christ’s Pe 383, 904, 1208, G 51; see also Jesu

Daniel the Old Testament prophet Daniel C 1157&; also called Baltazar C 1610

Dalyda Delilah G 2418

Daryus Darius C 1771, 1794

David the prophet David Pe 698, 920, Pa 119, G 2418

Dede See Dead Sea C 1020

Diana (Roman goddess) Pa 166

Doddinaual de Savage G 552

Duk of Clarence G 552

Effraym (Mount) Ephraim Pa 463

Ennias Aeneas G 5

Ermonnes gen of (Mount) Hermon Pa 463

Errik Erec G 551

Eve C 241

Ewrus Eurus (the east wind) Pa 133

French flod English Channel G 13

Galalye Galilee Pe 817

Gawan Gawain G 109&, Gawayn G 365&, Wawan G 343, 559, 906&; gen Gawanes G 1807

Gile St Giles G 1644

Gilyan Julian the Hospitaller G 774

God(e) Pe 314+, Gog G 390; (in oaths) G 1110, 1245, 1498, 2122, 2123, 2205, 2250; (in blessings) G 1535, 2073, 2239, 2429; gen Godes God’s Pe 63+

Gomorra Gomorrah C 690, 722, 911, 957

Grece Greece Pe 231, G 2023

Gryngolet type of horse, (used as name for) Gawain’s horse G 597, 748, 777, 2047, 2062, 2160, 2480

Guenore Guinevere G 74, 109, 2460, Wenore G 945*

Hestor Hector (one of Arthur’s knights) G 2102

Holy Hed n place called Holyhead G 700

Israel the more northerly of the two Jewish kingdoms, as opposed to Judah in the south Pa 205; the lands of the Jews generally C 1179, 1294, gen C 1314; (= Jacob) Pe 1040

Japh Jaffa Pa 90

Japheth Japhet (son of Noah) C 300

Jerico Jericho (city to the north-east of Jerusalem) C 1216

Jerusalem Pe 792&, attributive 841; C 1159, 1180, 1235, 1432, 1441

Jesu (Jesu Cryst Pe 458) Jesus Pe 453, Jesus Pe 711, 717, 721, 820, G 774; see also Cryst(e)

John John the Evangelist Pe 383, 788, 836, 867, 984–5&, G 1788; gen Saynt Johnes day G 1021

John John the Baptist Pe 818

Jonas Jonah Pa 57&

Jordan the land of Jordan Pe 817

Judee (a) Judah (Jewish kingdom in the south of Palestine, as opposed to Israel in the north) Pe 922, 937, C 1170, 1180, 1432; (b) lands belonging to the Jews generally Pa 57, 61

Lancelot G 553

Langaberde (founder of Lombardy) G 12

Logres Loegria (a kingdom in Britain) G 691, 1055

Loth Lot C 772, 784, 798, 809, 817, 841, 853, 900, 913, 925, 936, 939, 977, 993, 1003; gen Lothes C 836, 887, 981

Lucan G 553

Lumbardie Lombardy G 12

Lyonel Lionel G 553

Mador de la Porte G 555

Mahoun Mohammed Pa 167

Mambre Mamre C 674, 778

Mararach (Mount) Ararat C 447

Mary (the Virgin) Mary Pe 383, 425, G 737, 754, 1769; (in oaths and blessings) G 1263, 1268, 1942, 2140

Mathew Matthew the Evangelist Pe 497, C 25, 51, Pa 10

Medes Medes, the people of Media (a kingdom to the north-east of Babylon) C 1740, 1771, 1793

Mergot Margot (a pagan deity) Pa 167

Merlin G 2448

Mighael Mishael C 1301

Morgue la Faye [fairy] Morgan le Fay G 2446, Morgue the Goddes G 2452

Moyses gen of Moses Pa 238

Nabugo de nozar Nebuchadnezzar C 1176, 1218&, Nabugo C 1226, 1233

Nabuzardan Nebuzardan C 1236, 1245, 1261, 1281, 1291, 1613

Neptune (god of the sea) Pa 166

Ninive (the city of) Nineveh Pa 66, 76, 95, 346, 352, 360

Noe Noah C 297&; gen Noe Noah’s C 425

Palastyn Palestine, the Holy Land C 1177

Paradise the earthly Paradise, the Garden of Eden Pe 137, C 238, 704, 1007; heaven C 195, G 2473; ~ erde/greve the land/grove of (the earthly) Paradise Pe 248, 321

Perce Persia C 1772; Perses Persians C 1739

Peter (oath) by St Peter! G 813

Porros Porus C 1772

Poule Saint Paul Pe 457

Pymalyon Pygmalion Pe 750

Ragnel Pa 188

Reynarde Reynard (nickname for fox) G 1728, 1898, 1920; gen Reynarde Reynard’s G 1916

Rome Pa 52, G 8

Romulus G 8

Salomon Solomon Pe 689, C 1286, 1453, G 625, 2417; gen Salomones Solomon’s C 1171

Samarye Samaria Pa 116

Samson G 2417

Sare Sarah (wife of Abraham) C 623, 649, 654, 660, 661, 666, 667

Satanas Satan, the devil C 1449

Segor Zoar C 926, 973, 986, 992

Sem Shem (son of Noah) C 299

Sodomas Sodom C 672&

Syboym Zeboim C 958

Syon Sion (a hill in Jerusalem) Pe 789, 868

Tarce Tarshish Pa 87, 100, 126, 424

Thanes (Hebrew name for the mountain of) Ararat C 448

Ticius G 11

Tolouse Toulouse C 1108; tolouse a fabric from Toulouse G 77

Torkye Turkey C 1232

Troye Troy G 1, 2525

Tuskan the Italian province of Tuscany (formerly Etruria) G 11

Tyntagelle Tintagel (in Cornwall) G 2465

Uryn Urien G 113

Uter Uther (King Arthur’s father) G 2465

Vernagu (a god) Pa 165

Wales G 697

Wawan see Gawan

Wenore see Guenore

Wyrale Wirral G 701

Ynde India C 1231, 1772; ynde n indigo Pe 76, 1016, C 1411

Ysaye Isaiah Pe 797, 819

Ywan Yvain G 113, 551

Zedechyas Zedekiah C 1169

Zeferus Zephyrus (god of the west wind) Pa 470, G 517

THE BEGINNING

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PENGUIN CLASSICS

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Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England
www.penguin.com

First published in Great Britain by Penguin Classics 2014

Editorial material copyright © Ad Putter and Myra Stokes, 2014

Cover: Illustration to Cleanness, c.1400, from the Pearl manuscript (Cotton Nero A X) in the British Library (© The British Library Board. Cotton Nero A X Art 3 f56)

All rights reserved

The moral right of the editors has been asserted

Typeset by Dinah Drazin

ISBN: 978-0-141-39526-5

1 The manuscript is viewable online at http://gawain.ucalgary.ca.

2 See nn. to C 445–8, 984, 1015, 1018, 1029–32, 1035, 1047, 1472.

3 See the introduction to the French-text edition by Christiane Deluz (2000). The first dated MS is from northern France (1371). The work was probably written (in French) by an Englishman in Liège.

4 See nn. to C 924, 1015.

5 Wright 1960: 15.

6 See Scott 1996: I, 66–7.

7 Edwards 1997: 218–19.

8 Only in the text of Sir Gawain are there some minor linguistic peculiarities that could point to an intermediate stage of scribal copying somewhat further north in Cheshire (Putter and Stokes 2007: 489–90).

9 See Brewer 1966, Nicholls 1985.

10 See Elliott 1984 and 1997.

11 See Bowers 2001, Mann 2009.

12 Burrow 1993 (‘St Erkenwald line 1’).

13 See Barrett 2009.

14 See the marginal heading to Gower’s Chronica Tripertita I.63.

15 See Savage 1931, Robertson 1968: 96.

16 See G 701–2 and n.

17 See Bennett 1983: 116.

18 Bennett 1983: 13.

19 Bennett 1983: 225–6.

20 See McIntosh et al. 1986: III, 38–9.

21 One of the few Middle English lyrics to have survived with music, ‘Stabat iuxta Christi Crucem’, was copied at St Werburgh’s. Also from the late thirteenth century is a remarkable group of secular alliterative lyrics copied by a monk at Stanlow Abbey, Cheshire (Pickering 1992).

22 Cf. Turville-Petre 1977: 123–4.

23 See Robbins 1950, Youngs 2008.

24 On the Stanley poems, see most recently Barrett 2009, especially 172–86.

25 St Erkenwald has indeed sometimes been ascribed to the Gawain poet, but the evidence for common authorship is inconclusive.

26 See Burrow 1993 (‘St Erkenwald line 1’).

27 See Turville-Petre 1994: 163–6.

28 Nos. 112 and 116 in Religious Lyrics of the Fourteenth Century, ed. C. Brown (Oxford, 1924).

29 See McIntosh 1978: 138, n. 8.

30 See Putter 2010.

31 For parallels between Sir Gawain and the romances of Hue de Rotelande, see p. 241 and notes to G 1107, 1133, 1190.

32 See n. to Pe 202.

33 See n. to Pe 1184.

34 Cf. Gordon, Pearl xiv–xvi.

35 It is similarly in the context of an inserted dream-vision that, in the Confessio Amantis, the dreamer is addressed as ‘John Gower’ (VIII.2908) and allusion made to his authorship of books of ‘vertu moral’ (VIII.2925–7). And it is in a dream sequence that Charles d’Orléans names himself (‘Charles, le duc d’Orlians’: Songe en complainte 181, 375, 549) and gives the year of composition, 1437 (413).

36 Elizabeth Thomas (1677–1731), The Dream 80.

37 Ye/yow was the plural of thou/thee, and was used when addressing more than one person, or, as here (like the French vous), as a polite form when addressing one person.

38 In St Erkenwald (another Cheshire poem) one likewise finds what, why, etc, spelled in the northern manner with qu-, but alliterating, unlike cw- derived words, on w (see 64, 133, 185–6) and never with cw- words.

39 Since -e would be elided before and, the final -n of brayen is needed to produce the inter-stress long dip required in the first half of the alliterative line (see pp. xxi and xxiv–xxv).

40 See Dobson and Harrison 1979: 42–44, and their discussion of Songs 10, 21 and 22, all three surviving with music (allowing verification of the syllable count). The first of these songs (c.1290) shows a comprehensive retention of final -e; in the last two (c.1420), historically justified -e is opportunistically used where metre requires it.

41 Sometimes the -e required by metre is an etymological -e, the word having ended in -e in Old English or French, or having acquired -e in Early Middle English (as is especially common in the case of feminine nouns, e.g. blissë (Pe 397) and quenë (C 1351)).

42 Unless otherwise indicated, all our examples in this section are taken from Cleanness.

43 See Duggan 1990.

44 In the Old English Beowulf, there is no such variation: the prefix un- always takes alliterative stress.

45 Summarized in Duggan 1997: 222–6.

46 See Cable 1991.

47 See further Putter et al. 2007: 105–17; that book provides detailed coverage of all the metrical issues here raised.

48 To avoid confusion, the oblique cases of thou (always spelled þe in the MS) have been regularized to thee.

49 We have, for instance, supplied a final -e for weak adjective fautleste at G 2363a (‘On the fautleste freke’); the other instances of final -e supplied to provide the a-verse with its long dip between the stresses mostly concern the inflectional -e the scribe has almost invariably omitted from the suffix -lych (see pp. xxiv–xxv): e.g. ‘To this frelyche fest’ at C 162a, ‘To the comlyche quene’ at G 469a.

50 See Duggan 1977, Vaughan 1979.

51 Clear evidence of composition in quatrains is provided by the decorated initials (marking new narrative sections), which occur always after multiples of four: Cleanness lines 125, 193, 249, 345, 485, 557, 601, 689, 781, 893, 1157, 1357; and Patience lines 61, 245, 305, 409. (Of course, there are also larger initials for the first word of each of the poems.)

1 According to Fein 1997, this stanza form became fashionable after 1375.

2 Many words in Pearl are otherwise found at this date almost exclusively in alliterative verse, e.g. wlonk [splendid: 122, etc], wynne [delightful: 154, etc], burn [man: 397, etc], heterly [furiously: 402], meles (497, etc) and warp (879) in the sense of ‘speak(s)’, carp [words: 883], lurked as a verb of motion (978), schaftes for shafts of light (982).

3 Elision of a word-final vowel before a word-opening vowel or unstressed h- is also normal, as in all ME verse; hence ‘The apostel’ would be pronounced ‘Th’apost’l’.

4 On the occasional restoration of final -e required by the metre of Pearl, see Duggan 1996.

5 On the history of this topos, see Curtius 1953: 195–200.

6 Cf. Romaunt of the Rose 1556–7, where the pebbles shine so brightly as to resemble silver.

7 MED stonden v^1 10d.

8 In Middle English the word, though not confined to actual infants, was normally applied to a young child.

9 Only in the last four lines of the poem does his us no longer attempt to group his human self with his beatified daughter.

NB: Footglosses are selective (see pp. xxxii–xxxiii); see the Glossary for words not included

1 princes pay: a prince’s pleasure

4 proved: met with; but the father is speaking as a jeweller (cf. 241–300), and the technical sense of prove [assay] is also relevant her: her/its (n.)

11–12 fordolked of luf-daungere Of: badly wounded by frustrated separation in love for

14 wayted: looked (around), searched

15 while: at one time, in the past

17–18 ‘That does nothing but wring my heart tightly, and only makes my breast swell and become inflamed in misery’; dos governs thrych [press upon, squeeze] periphrastically (‘does wring’ = wrings) and bolne and bele causatively (‘causes to swell and seethe’)

19 thoght me never: it seemed to me there was never

21 fele: many (probably referring to ‘songs’)

26 There: where

27 blayke: white

29 fede: grey, unflourishing

30 There: where

31 graynes: grains, seeds (with play on the other ME sense ‘precious stones’)

32 were (subj) elles: would otherwise be

34–5 might fayle not That: could not fail in such a way that spyces: spice-bearing plants

35–6 up ne sponne Of: should not shoot forth from; sponne is past subjunctive of ‘spinnen’ [spring, spurt]

39 high sesoun: major Church festival (n.)

41 ‘On the mound down which the pearl rolled’ (there: where)

42 ‘Most bright and beautiful plants cast a shade’; these is exophoric (cf. 505 and n.)

45 on to sene: to look upon

47 that worthly: that excellent (one); adjective for noun is one of the usages of alliterative verse that occur also in Pearl

49 hande: hands

51 devely: dull, desolate denned: lodged, ensconced itself

52 ‘Although resoun [sense of what is right] suggested reconciliation to the situation’

56 wraghte: ‘worked’, throbbed painfully

57 flaght: turf

58 hernes: brains, head

59 slepyng slaght: sudden fit of sleep

62 balke: mound

64 there: where

66 ‘But I knew myself to be where a range of steep hills divided’, i.e. in a valley, as the river encountered at 107 suggests

77 on slydes: slides thereon (i.e. on the trees)

78 trylle: shake, move to and fro tynde: small branch, twig

79 of glodes: from clear patches of ground between the trees (i.e. from sunlit spaces)

89 in fere: together

91 sytole: citole (a stringed instrument played by plucking) gyternere: player of the gittern (an earlier and smaller form of the guitar)

92 Her: their mirthe: music retrete: reproduce

97 So all was dubbed: thus was everywhere beautified

98 That frith there: that woodland where

99 derthe: dearness, magnificence

102 so big that did me deres: so big that it caused me difficulties

107 schore: bordering slope

108 hit: its

112 ‘With a whispering sound, moving straight on’

113 stonden stones stepe: (a) bright stones are set, (b) bright gems shine (see pp. 11–12)

114 ‘Which glowed and flashed like a ray of light passing through glass’

115 strothe-men: men of this (dank and dreary) world (strothe: marshy scrubland)

119 That: so that of: with

121 down: upland, hill

123 Bylde: strengthened

125 Doun after: down along

126 bredful: brimful

127 floty: river-watered

129–32 ‘As Fortune (generally) fares [behaves] where she fraynes [makes trial (of her powers over someone)]: whether she sende [subj may send] solace [happiness] or else sore [grief], the wye [man] to whom she waynes [sends, directs] whatever it is she wills (of joy or pain) hittes [gets] to have always more and more’; i.e. it is usually not in half measures that things tend to go well or ill for a man

134 Then: than

136 gladnes: delights

138 over gayn: on the opposite side of

139–40 ‘I hoped [thought, surmised] the water might be an ornamental device, created by meres [lakes] among mirthes [pleasure-spots]’

141 slente: slope

142 mote: chateau, castle merked wore: was sited; wore, a form of ‘were’, is subjunctive after hoped

144 me longed: longing came upon me (literally, ‘it longed me’; long- is an impersonal verb)

146 ‘I desired to see (the territory) on the other side of the water’; lyst is an impersonal verb

147 there: where

148 ferre londe: land on the farther side

149 ‘I paused to look around me’

153 me thoght: it seemed to me; thoght is past tense of ‘thinke’ [seem], not ‘thenke’ [think]

154 there: where wynne: delightful

157 con … adaunt: subdued, overmastered

161 faunt: child (see pp. 12–13)

163 bleaunt: mantle (see footgloss to 197–204)

165 that man con schere that one has cut (i.e. which has been cut into glistening gold thread)

172 ‘As, a little before that time, used so to do’

174 brunt: assault, blow

179 ‘That stabbed my heart into a disoriented and stunned state’

181 More then me lyst: more than it pleased me, more than I wished

184 hende: obedient

185 hoped: thought, suspected gostly: supernatural

187 ‘Lest she, whom I descried there, should escape from me’

190 seme: becomingly slyght: sleek in texture

193 ‘Pearls of royal value set (in her costume)’

195 ‘When that lily-fresh creature’

197–204 The girl is dressed in the ceremonial costume of a fourteenth-century lady of rank: she wears a mantle or bleaunt (163) over a surcote ouverte (197–8), i.e. beau mys [fine overgarment] cut away at the sides (198), where the garment worn underneath, the kyrtel (203), would be visible; this under-kyrtel, which is here of self sute [of a matching colour], would also be seen at neck, lower arms and hemline; the jewels which often embellished fashionable costumes (especially the surcote) are here pearls

198 bounden: set

201 lappes large: long sleeves

205–6 pyght coroune … Of margarys: crown set with pearls

209 werle ?circlet, headdress

210 ‘It leke [enclosed, framed] her lere [face], having encircled her completely’ (n.)

211 sad for: solemn enough for

212 blaght: bleached, made white

215–16 wonted non Of precious perles in porfyl pyght: lacked nothing (of the colour) of the precious pearls that were were set in the ornamental border (of her garment)

217–18 Pearls bestud the poyned [wristband, cuff] of the under-kyrtel (visible below the fuller sleeves of the surcote) and every hemme [edge] of the overgarment or surcote – i.e. the edges above the hande [hands], at the overture [opening at the neck] and at its cut-away sides (see footgloss to 197–204)

220 burnist white: decorated with white stones

222 so sure: very firmly

223 dryly demme: grow completely dim

224 ‘Before the mind could comprehend its extent’

226 saverly sawe: comprehending word

228 there: where

230 ‘On the opposite side of the water came down the slope (bordering the stream)’; the schore [steep slope] is distinct from the water’s edge (brymme, 232)

231 hethen into Grece: from here to Greece (cf. G 2023)

233 me nerre then: nearer (in kinship) to me than

235 profered me speche: invited me to converse

236 in wommon lore: according to female etiquette

237 Caght of: took off

239–40 ‘Well was it for me that I had ever been born (in that it was given to me) to answer that sweet (creature) set in pearls’

243 ‘Bewailed by myself (i.e. alone) at night’; with linking alliteration on n in myn one and nighte

244 longing: grief, anxiety layned: concealed

245 thou me aglyghte: you slipped away from me

247 lyght: ‘alighted’, placed, set

250 done me: placed me, put me daunger: frustrated separation from a loved one

257–60 The girl’s point is that it is an abuse of language (257) to characterize as all away [quite gone] (258) a jewel which the jeweller can see to have been safely deposited in the elegant jewel-casket constituted by this garden (259–60)

260 gay: fine, splendid

261 play [to pass the time pleasantly in enjoyment and recreation] had none of its modern associations with children and games; the girl never speaks as the child her father remembers

262 There … here: here where com: came

263–4 Here were: here would be (were is subjunctive, as also in 264)

265 if thou schal: if you are going to

266 for: because of thee was lef: was dear to you

267 Me think thee: it seems to me that you (are)

268 resoun bref: small cause, slight matter

269 that thou lestes: what you lost

270 as kynde hit gef: as nature gave it (to do), according to nature’s law

273–5 ‘And you have called your fate a thief (for taking a pearl, from you), while it has actually created for you something out of nothing; you are (therefore) blaming a remedy for being your injury’

276 no kynde jueler: an unnatural jeweller

277 gest: visitant

282 done out of dawes: removed from life, dead

283 Now have I: now that I have ma fest: make festival, rejoice

285–6 And love my Lord … That and praise my Lord … who; love = ‘praise’, not ‘love’, which in this MS is spelled ‘luf’, ‘lof’ or ‘lovy’

287–8 Now were I at yow … I were: If I were now beside you … I would be

291 ‘Three things have you said in one speech’

294 ‘Your tongue rushed ahead of your understanding’

297 An other: a second (thing); other often preserved its earlier sense of ‘second’

299 fre: noble, fine

300 ‘That (i.e. pass the water) can no jeweller, however joyful’

301 to prayse: to be praised

302 ‘Who readily grants (only) what he has seen with (his own) eye’; loues, cf. 308, is an aphetic form of ‘allows’

303 to blame: to be blamed

304, 305 That: who

306 did your flesch to die: caused your fleshly form to perish

307–8 ‘You (men) rate His words as meaningless, you who loues [grant the validity of] nothing unless you see it’

309–12 that is … To leve … Bot that his one skylle: it is … to believe … except that which his reason alone; the girl’s point is, not that the dreamer should not have trusted the evidence of his own eyes, but that it was ‘discourteous’ (303) to God to believe in His promise of life after death (305) only when it received such visible confirmation

313–14 ‘Judge now for yourself if you did speak as a (mere) man should (when he) addresses words to God’

315 schal: are going to; auxiliary ‘will’ and ‘shall’ had different modalities: the former implied volition, the latter futurity or compulsion

316 Me think thee burde: it seems to me that it would behove you

317 And yet: and even so

321 hit refers back to corse [body] in 320

325 Demes thou me: if you condemn me

327 Now have I founde that: now that I have found that which

328 Schal: must (as also at 329 and 332)

331 ‘What end is served by treasure except to make a man weep’; ‘gar’ is a northern causative verb

334 man me fleme: I am put to flight (literally ‘one puts me to flight’)

336 Bot: except for

339–40 ‘Because of the dyn [noise] (he makes) in grief over lures lesse [losses of a lesser nature], many a man often deprives himself of (what is of) greater (importance)’

341 Thee oghte better: it would better behove you, i.e. you ought rather

342 love: praise (cf. 285)

343 not a cresse is the ME equivalent of ‘not a straw’

344 Who nedes schal thole: you who must needs endure (what is visited upon you)

345 ‘For, though you dance about (wildly) like any (hunted or wounded) doe’

347 When thou no ferre may: once you can go no further; verb of motion omitted after modal

348 Thou most abide that: you will have to undergo whatever

349 Deme Dryhtyn: (if you) judge the Lord ever: always adyte: indict

350 Of [out of, from] the way: from His path

352 be (subj) never blythe: were never to be happy

353 Stynt of thy strot: (if you) stop your wrangling

354 blythe: good will

355, 357 may: is able to, has the power to

355 bite: arouse

356 That: so that

357 lythe: assuage

358 The general sense is clearly ‘and mitigate your pains’, but the line is problematic (n.)

359 ‘For, whether you are distraught or behave wildly, (or) grieve and hide (your feelings) … ’; the verbs are concessive subjunctives

362 ‘Let there be no (occasion of) anger to my Lord’, i.e. ‘Let my Lord not take offence’

363 spornande [stumbling] in spelle: tripping up (i.e. making errors) in speech

364 with mysse remorde: tormented by bereavement

365 ‘(And my grief gushed out into words with the same uncontrollable force and profusion) as surging water issues from a spring’

366 ‘I refer myself in all respects to His clemency’

368 endorde: precious one

371–2 ‘You ended the hostility between me and sorrow, (you) who were before that time the basis of all my joy’

374 bigger: stronger (of the two)

375 ‘From the time that you were delivered from every peril’

377 ‘Now that I see it, my pain eases’

379 ‘May God forbid we should now be at odds’

382 and maneres mysse: and (I) lack (gracious) manners

383–4 ‘But the mercy (extended to human inadequacies) of Christ, and of Mary and Saint John, are the grounds for all the confidence I have’

385 In blisse … blent integrated into a life of bliss

386 all mornyf mate completely overcome by grieving

388 ofte (adj) harmes hate: frequent and hot harms

389 now: now that

395–6 ‘(Since it is) the main highway down which my joy proceeds (to its object), it (i.e. the honour and happiness of your condition) is at the foundation of all my happiness’; (gate [road] and yate [gate] are distinct in this MS; the ‘high road’ was the main public road, protected by the laws of the land)

397 blisse … mot thee bityde: may bliss befall you

399 ‘And (you are now) welcome to walk about and linger here’

403 for to chyde: ‘for’ preceding ‘to’ + infinitive is a metrical filler (see p. xxv)

405 place: place of residence, mansion

407–8 My Lord the Lamb … That: my Lord the Lamb … who

410 ‘You would like to know the nature of it’

413 godhede: goodness, magnanimity

417–18 And sesed in … His lef is: and His beloved is invested with full legal possession of … (sesed is a term from property law; His lef refers immediately to the girl herself, but also more generally to any soul ‘beloved of God’, who will similarly be invested (as His ‘spouse’) with full possession of His whole heritage [all that is by hereditary right His])

423–4 Art thou … That … schal: are you … to whom … must

425 that grace of grewe: from whom grace grew, i.e. from whom Christ – who restored man to grace – was born (the dreamer wonders how his daughter can be queen of heaven (415), when that title was commonly bestowed on Mary)

426 ‘Who, from the flower of virginity, bore a child’ (the virgin-mother topic is expressed in botanical imagery: the child is as the fruit that ‘grew’ (425) from out the blossom or flower of Mary’s virginity)

427–8 ‘Who could remove the crown from her, unless she (the remover) surpassed her (Mary) in some excellent quality?’

429–30 The phoenix was a type of synglerty [uniqueness] because there was always only one in existence (it was fabled to cremate itself at death and rise anew from its own ashes); dousour [sweetness, loveworthiness] likewise alludes to the phoenix, the fragrance of whose cremation (in a nest constructed of sweet-smelling wood and spices) was famous (see Phoenix 192–216)

431 ‘Which (i.e. the phoenix) flew without blemish from its Creator’

432 the quene of courtaysye is a rendering of the title regina gratiae given to the Virgin Mary in theological contexts

434 folde up her face: with her face upturned

435 Makeles [mate-less] is here used in the strict sense (Mary was a virgin mother) and in the larger one (matchless, peerless)

437 con restay: paused

439 pray: spoils, gains

440 ‘But (there are) no supplanters in this place’; the girl is responding to her father’s assumption that possession of a crown must imply its ‘removal’ from someone else (427)

443 ‘Yet she will drive out no one from their hereditary rights’; the Virgin is an ‘empress’ (441) too gracious and courteous (444) to deprive her subordinate rulers of the crowns that mark their ‘inheritance’ (cf. 417), as blessed souls, of the divine kingdom

446 ‘Has a property (i.e. attribute) inherent in it’

449–52 ‘And yet shall never depose anyone else, but each one (is) glad of what others have, and would (wish that) their crowns were worth five times as much, if their amendment (i.e. any increase in the sovereignty betokened by the crowns) were possible’

453 lady was not merely a polite term for ‘woman’, but the female equivalent of an ‘(over-)lord’; my lady thus acknowledges subordination to Mary’s rank as ‘mistress’ of heaven

457 ‘In (the mutual charity of) courtesy, as Saint Paul says … ’

460 his body: its body, i.e. the body

462 longande lym to: body-part belonging to/forming part of myste (dialect form): might

463 Then loke what: then see if

464 thy lymmes bytwyste: between the various parts of your body

465 gryste: (teeth-)gnashing, resentment

466 bye: ring

467–8 ‘Even so do we (in heaven) respond only with love and pleasure to the king or queen (which each soul is), out of (the mutual charity of) courtesy’

470 be (subj after ‘leve’ [believe]) yow among: are (to be found) among you

471 my speche that yow ne greve: let my words not offend you; that was often used to introduce a wish

474 ‘In representing yourself – who were so young – as a queen’

477 his lyves long: throughout his life

478 ‘In order to buy for himself (heavenly) bliss through (the price of) physical suffering’

480 ‘Than (to be) crowned king by (God’s) graciousness’

481 ‘Such graciousness is too fre [generous] in its operation’

483 This provides the first indication that the girl died in infancy (in our thede [nation, land]: i.e. on earth)

485 ‘Nor never (knew) neither Pater Noster nor Creed’; couthes is auxiliary ‘could’ in 484, but governs Pater ne Crede as independent verb ‘knew’ in 485 (n.)

488 wrythe so wrong away: turn off course in so wrong a direction

489–90 ‘To hold the astate [rank] of countess in heaven, damysel [young lady], would be splendid, by my faith’

491 lady: i.e. noblewoman (see footgloss to 453)

492 Hit is to dere a date: it is too dear a limit (i.e. it oversteps the limits of any plausible evaluation of the girl’s ‘worth’); the contextual meanings of the refrain word date vary in this section but are all related to the basic senses of ‘terminus’ or ‘point or extent of time’ (OED date n^2 4 and 5)

493 no date of: no limit to (reinforcing all at 495: the dreamer has implied (488, 492) that God appears sometimes to do what is not ‘good’ or ‘just’)

495 trauthe [justness] refers in ME to moral rather than factual truth (for which sooth was generally used in ME); cf. right [rightfulness, justice] at 496

497 your (pl, not honorific): i.e. of you mortals

498 sothfol: authentic, truthful of: about, concerning

499–500 ‘In an exemplum (i.e. parable), He did most justly estimate (rewards due from Him), and makes of it (i.e. the situation in the parable) an analogy for the bright (realm of) heaven’

501 My regne … on hyght: my realm on high

502 I wate: indeed; wate is a variant of ‘wot’ [know] (cf. 201)

503–4 ‘The due point of the time of the year was (now) come: the season was now the all-important one (in which) to work the vineyard’

505 ‘That season of the year (is one) labourers know well’ (i.e. they know it is a busy one, when work is to be had); these is used in a generalizing sense

512 man hit clos: make it secure (i.e. securely enclosed, to prevent damage by animals or trespassers)

513 under: undern, 9.00 a.m. to marked tos: betakes himself to the market-place

514 ‘And he finds men not yet employed (still waiting to be hired) standing at that place’

516 ‘Do you not know of any end to this day?’, i.e. ‘Have you no sense of urgency in finding work for the day?’

517 ‘Before the daytime hither have we come’

518 ‘Such was the answer all of them together found’

522 made hit toght: made a firm bargain

523–4 ‘Whatever reasonable wage is run up by nightfall I will pay to you, with all honesty’

528 ‘Until the day had well nigh passed its closing point’ (while: until)

529–30 ‘At the period of day of evensong, one hour before the sun would go down’

533 this dayes long (gen of measurement: cf. 477): all day long

534 ‘They said their pay was nowhere ready’; i.e. they are not doing any work because no one has agreed to pay them for any

536 that that ye moun: that which you may, i.e. what you can

539 ‘He summoned them to receive their pay’

541 con know: acknowledged, i.e. responded to

542 Called: he called; omission of pronoun subject

544 reprene: reproach

547 the last that standes lowe: i.e. the last to enter the vineyard (who has thus worked the fewest hours), at the bottom of the row

548 Til … that: until the first: the first to enter the vineyard

549 the first: the first-comers

551–2 ‘These (i.e. the latest-comers) for only one hour did exert themselves; it seems to us to be due to us to receive more (than they do)’; think and oghe are both impersonal verbs

553 us think so: so it seems to us

555 Then: than

556 ‘And you cause them to match us’, i.e. you create an equivalence, in pay, between them and us

558 no waning: ‘no reduction (in the pay due to you)’ yete: give

559 that is thyn owne: that which is your own (i.e. the agreed wage of one penny)

560 And: if agrete: in all, all told

563 ‘Further than the contract (i.e. anything beyond the covenanted terms) cannot be sued for’; on the construction of is not to plete, see footgloss to G 356

565 ‘Moreover, is not gifting a lawful thing for me to do?’; no wage has been agreed with the later-comers, and so the money paid to them is here characterized as a free ‘gift’

566 myne: my own (property) me likes: pleases me

567 ‘Or is it rather that your eye is raised towards wickedness’ (n.)

568 For: because non byswykes: (I) deceive/cheat no one (cf. 544)

569 skyfte: ordain

570 that strikes: the one who runs (to the finish) first

572 mykes: companions, intimates (n.)

573 her part aye pikes: always get their share

574 com: came little wore: were of low status; the other meaning of little [small, young] is also relevant, since the girl identifies herself with those who did not labour long in the ‘vineyard’ (= world)

575 ‘And although their toil slides away to little effect’

576 the more: the greater (contrasted with little in 574–5)

578 lyves blom: excellence of life, pre-eminence (see MED blom c)

579 Then: than

580 ‘To ask for judgement by the way of justice’, i.e. if they asked to be judged according to strict justice

581 ‘Although I began (service) almost only now’, i.e. although my ‘labour’ had only just begun

582 com: came

585 other: others toke more tom [time]: i.e. were there longer

587 yet: as yet, up to now nome: took, received

588 ‘And perhaps will not (receive anything) for a few more years’

590 ‘Your words seem to me not in accord with justice’

591 right: righteousness, justice evermore rert: established in perpetuity

592 bot a fable: only a fiction

594 determynable: conclusive

595 as his desert: according to his deserts

596 pertermynable: (justly) adjudicating

597–8 ‘If you were to come to payment before him who stood steadfast throughout the whole day’

599–600 ‘Then the lesser in work (would be) the more qualified to receive (his pay), and by however much the less, (by so much) the more’

601–2 ‘ “In God’s kingdom more or less are not an issue,” said that worthy one’

603 Cf. 546

604 his rewarde: the regard in which he is held, i.e. his standing or importance

605 chyche: niggard

606 ‘Whichever He may deal out, the soft or the hard’, i.e. whether it is favour or punishment He gives

607 as water of diche: as (plentifully) as water (pours) from a ditch (acting as a drain or gutter)

608 ‘Or like streams from the deep whose current never changed direction’

609–12 ‘Large are the freedoms and privileges of the man who ever bowed to Him who delivers from (the penalties of) sin (i.e. exclusion from heaven); to such people no degree or kind of bliss will be barred, for the grace of God is ample enough (to make up for their lack of deserving)’

613 motes, me for to mate: argue in order to confound me

615 that com to late: who came too late in the day

616 lowere: wage, payment

617–19 abate (pa of ‘abide’) … That: (who) persevered (in righteousness) … (to such a degree) that

618 Ever so holy: always most holy

619 by sum kyn gate: by some kind of way, in one way or another

620 sumtyme: at one time or another

622 woghe: evil

623 moste (pa pl of ‘mot’ [must]) hem then stere: then had to take charge of them

625 Though inogh could bear its modern sense of ‘enough’, here it probably has its other ME sense of ‘a great deal, plenty’ innocent: i.e. an innocent child

626 by line: directly, at once

627 dyssente: descend

628 ‘It is at this point (i.e. at baptism) that they are brought into the vineyard (of Christendom)’; those who died within the age of innocence are identified with the shortest-servers of the parable

630 ‘Does decline towards the night of death’; the image is that of the sun declining towards its setting point

631–2 ‘The gracious Lord then pays those of His labourers who never committed any wrong before (ere then [than]) they departed’ (the relative clause of 631 is in apposition with His hyne in 632); contrast 622

634 alow [recognize or admit as valid] was a word with legal associations

635 Yis (more emphatic than Yea, the normal form of the affirmative): yes, indeed; certainly at the firste fyne: at once and fully

639 Our forme fader: our first father (i.e. Adam) hit [it] refers to blisse parfyt (638)

640 that … upon: upon which (cf. 425 and 656)

643 helle hete: hell’s heat; helle is here an old feminine genitive

645 ‘But for that there came as tite [at once, promptly] a remedy’; bote [remedy, amends] was a term regularly applied to the redemption, the ‘remedy’ for original sin, effected by the crucifixion of Christ

647 wynne: lovely

648–9 inogh probably bears at 648 its sense of ‘enough, sufficiently (i.e. to meet the heavy penalties of the plyt [plight, crisis] (647) of original sin)’ and at 649 its other sense of ‘plentifully, abundantly’

650 of: from

652 deth secounde: second death (a translation of the phrase mors secunda used in the Book of Revelation, where it refers to the obliteration of the damned at Judgement Day: see e.g. Rev. 20:14–15), i.e. spiritual death in Hell, following the ‘first’ or physical death of the body

654–5 That in 654 and 655 both refer back to water (653) glayve: spear (n.)

656 That … with: with which

658–9 ‘(Standing) between us and bliss except that which He removed (i.e. the penalty of original sin) and which is rectified in a blessed hour (i.e. when original sin is washed away in baptism)’

662 That: who new: anew if him repente (impers subj): if it repent him, i.e. if he repents

663 syt: grief

664 the payne thereto is bent the penance which is assigned to it (i.e. to his sin); omission of relative pronoun

665 resoun: justice of … rave: deviate from

670 be thurgh mercy to grace thryght [thrust]: be conveyed to grace through the impetus provided by (God’s) mercy

672 ‘Is safe (= gains salvation) through guiltlessness and justice’; i.e. the innocent, never having incurred any penalties, is saved through justice, not mercy (670)

674 Two men: i.e. two kinds of men by skylle [reason]: logically

676 harmles [guiltless] is an English equivalent of in-nocent (which itself strictly means ‘un-harming’) Him tille: to Him

680 Himself: i.e. the asker of the question dille: at a loss

681 ‘He who did no harm ille [wrongly] with his hands’, i.e. the man whose hands are clean

683 ‘Will there fix his feet for ever’

684 right: justice

685 also sertayn: just as certainly

686 proper pyle: excellent castle (= heaven)

687–8 takes … glaveres: northern dialect present plurals (see p. xviii) her [their] shows switch from generalized or indefinite singular (685) to plural (cf. 609–11)

689 Of: with respect to saw: understood

690 ‘How he acquired a wise guide’ (the guide is Wisdom) (n.)

691 By … con him strayn: kept him to, kept him within

693 As who says: as if to say

697 yet: in addition (i.e. to the text cited in the previous verse)

699 dome: judgement

700 ‘For no one living can be proved just in your sight’

702 There: where

703 ‘If you adduce justice, you may find yourself taken (i.e. caught out)’

704 ‘According to this text (see 699–700) that I have noticed’

705–7 He … Gyve: may He … grant

709–10 ‘Whoever can read rightly, let him look upon the Book (= the Scriptures) and be informed’

711 in arethede: among the nations of old

715 let be hem bede: bade them desist

716 ‘And with their words restrained a great many (of them)’

718 Do way: have done, stop tyght: draw, come

719 To such: i.e. to persons exemplified by children

721 mylde: mild ones (= the children)

723 Bot: unless

724 com: would he come

725 Harmles: innocent, guiltless (see footgloss to 676) true: without guile undefylde uncorrupted

726 sulpande polluting; the verb is always used of metaphorical dirt, i.e. of the soiling effects of sin

727 ‘When there knock such (souls) at (the entrance to) the building’

729 There is the blisse: (into) where the bliss is

730 soght thurgh: sought (to purchase) by means of

732 To bye him: in order to buy for himself was: which was; omission of relative pronoun: cf. 664 (the reference is to the parable of ‘the pearl of great price’: Matthew 13:45–6)

734 The jueler gave for: for which the jeweller gave; omission of relative pronoun

739 were: i.e. while they lived on earth

740 hit stode: its position (this breast-pearl – now identified with and a symbol of the biblical ‘pearl of great price (= heavenly bliss)’ – is described at 221–8)

744 thy perle mascelles: i.e. the pearl (= salvation) of the parable

745 in: i.e. dressed in, decked with

746 the perle of pris: i.e. the pearl on her breast, now conflated with ‘the pearl of great price’ (cf. 740)

747 thee: for you

748 That … he: he who

749–52 The point is that the girl’s beauty exceeds what could be produced or conceptualized in the mortal world by nature (749), art (750) or philosophy (751–2)

752 ‘Spoke about the nature of such properties’ (a philosophical term for the attributes of a substance – such as the colour and havyng [demeanour] (754) the father proceeds to marvel at)

755–6 what kyn offys Beres the perle so mascelles: what sort of state (is it that) bears (as its badge) the pearl so spotless (n.)

760 semed: would have seemed/appeared

767 corounde: crowned me

770 reiates: attributes of royalty, splendid appurtenances

771 thing: creature, being

775–6 The father has in mind female saints, martyrs, recluses, etc, whose devotion (demonstrated by their voluntary stryf [affliction]) might have earned them a better claim to the marriage

779 All only thyself: all by yourself

784 then sayd I not: I did not add (when I referred to myself as spotless)

786 ‘(A) company of a hundred and forty-four thousand’

794 The girl here responds directly to the question asked at 771

798 Pitously: in a moved and/or moving way

799 man con quelle: ‘one did kill’, i.e. was killed

803 query: complaint, protest

806 with boyes bolde: by presumptuous churls (boy was usually derogatory)

810 on to beholde: to look on

811–12 ‘Because of (man’s) sin, He set no value on His own life, (He) who never had any (sin) Himself to wolde [to wield, in His possession]’; the reference (as at 807–8, 814 and 816) is to the doctrine of atonement: in suffering the crucifixion, Christ vicariously paid the penalty of original sin

813–14 He let Him flye and folde, And brede: He allowed Himself to be lacerated and bowed down and stretched out; the reference is to the scourging, the bearing of the cross, and the crucifixion itself

818 Thereas: where Saynt John: i.e. John the Baptist

819 acorded to Ysaye: were in accord with those of Isaiah (i.e. in characterizing Christ as a lamb)

820 to-him-warde: towards him (cf. 981)

823 drye: grave

824 ‘In which the whole world has been active’

826 Whether: however, nevertheless

827–8 His generacyoun … That: the origins of Him … who

830–31 ‘Was twice taken [seen] as a lamb, according to the reliable testimony of each prophet (Isaiah and John the Baptist)’

833 The thrid tyme: i.e. the third time that Christ figures as a lamb in Scripture

835 there: where, around which

838 There: where, upon which in seme: at the place where a book or scroll opens

841 peche: patch (of fur)

843 That … on: (patch) upon which

844 For: because of ronk: abundant

847 store: great number (of spotless souls) feche: should fetch

849 we wolde were fyf: we would wish to be five

850 so God me blesse: so may God bless me

851–2 I.e. the honour attached to the status of ‘wife’ is (paradoxically) increased, not reduced, in proportion with the numbers of those raised to it, who act to multiply objects of love rather than of rivalry

853 non: no one

853–4 us … That: to us who

855–6 ‘For those who wear the crest (= crown) of pearls could never give their minds to mote [moot, contention]’

858 ye (pl pron): i.e. you mortals withouten rest: without repose, unquietly

860 ‘Our confidence is based firmly on one death’ (i.e. on one death alone – that of the body (858), not to be followed by ‘the second death’ (652) of the soul)

864 ones honour yet never the lesse: the honour of any one of us not thereby the less

865 les: false, untrue farande: fine

866 in wro: in a passage

867 Him stande: standing

873 hue: loud cry

874 ‘Like the laden [voices] of many waters hurried on in a rapid course’ (n.)

878 were (subj after althagh): was

880 ‘Which was beautifully impressive to listen to’

884 modes: musical phrases, tunes

887 sad: solemn, grave (cf. 211)

888 never the lesse: i.e. without pause or drop in volume because of that (namely, the solemn presence they were in)

890 For: despite

892 ‘Except the retinue that follows the Lamb’; singular noun with collective sense followed by plural verb

893 boght fro the erthe aloynte: redeemed from the earth and distanced from it

895 hit are: they are

896 As: i.e. because (they are)

898 distresse: coercion

900 never the lesse: and that will never be any less the case

901–2 Never the lesse let be my thonk … thagh I appose: Let not my thanks (for your instruction) be lessened by the fact that I appose [put a question]

903 I schuld not: it would not be right for me to tempte: test for the purpose of verification (n.)

904 To … that art ichose: you who have been chosen for …

907 bides: bidest; northern inflection (see p. xviii)

908 ‘Where the joy of life may never be lost’

911 bustwys: coarse, rude blose: ?uncouth person

912 ‘Let my request (for information) succeed none the less because of that fact’

914 be to done: may (properly) be done (see footgloss to G 356)

915 As introduces a conjuration

917 ye is plural (as at 918, 923), referring to the whole meyny (925) of which the girl is a member, as do the ye/yow forms in the following stanza; when the girl is addressed as an individual, the singular thou form is used (919, 925, 935, etc)

918, 920, there: where

921 hone: be situated

925 thou cones of mele: you speak of

926 thryght: in a throng

928 Yow (oblique case of pl ‘ye’) behoved (impers v) have: it behoved you all to have

929–30 ‘It would be ill done (that) so fair a group of joly [beautiful] gems (= ladies) should lodge out in the open’

931 there: where gele: linger

933–4 I trow alone ye leng and loute To loke on: I believe you all only linger and pause here to look on, i.e. I think that you all just visit the garden for recreation, not reside in it gote: stream

939–40 con fonde To suffer in sore: sought out (as the place) to suffer pain in

941 ‘The old Jerusalem, that means to say’

942 the olde gylt: i.e. the guilt of original sin was done to slake: was caused to die out, i.e. was put an end to

944 in teme con take: took up in his discourse

947 flake: flaw

948 ‘So is His mote [castle-city] without mote [spot]’ (a play on homophones)

949 ‘To speak plainly of two cities’

951–2 That nis [is not] to yow no more to mene [to be interpreted] Bot: that (name) signifies to you (mortals) nothing other than …

952 sight: vision

953 that one: i.e. the earthly city of Jerusalem (as distinct from that other (955), its heavenly counterpart) at ene: at one stroke

954 With payne to suffer: in order to suffer painfully there

955 is noght bot pese to glene: there is nothing but peace to be reaped (i.e. the spiritual peace sown in pain in the earthly Jerusalem is reaped in the heavenly Jerusalem)

957 that we to: to which we

959 There: where

961 may: maiden

963 bygly: splendid

965 That^2: i.e. sight of her bour [chamber] within the city (which the father may see from the outside, but cannot enter: 969–70)

967 of: from aquylde: obtained (permission)

972 Bot: unless; followed by subjunctive ‘were’

975 anende: opposite

979 Til … that: until

981 ‘Sunk/set down on the opposite side of the water from me’ (see 988 and footgloss)

982 then: than

983 is the fasoun preved: the form and appearance of it is shown

988 ‘As (it was when) it had lyght [descended] down from heaven’ (the city is said to come down from the sky at Rev. 3:12, 21:2)

990 broun: shining

991 anunder pyght: set at the base (991ff follow Rev. 21:19–20 in describing each tier of a twelve-fold foundation as constructed of a separate precious stone)

992 bantels: step-like tiers on basyng boun: positioned at the base

993 of rich tenoun: splendidly joined

994 serlepes: distinct, different

997–8 ‘I knew the names of these stones from the report of John, and (they were) as he named them in his text’; name is distributive singular after: in accordance with, following

1004 table: band, tier pale: show pale

1007 ‘He discerned the ruby as the sixth’; hit is a recapitulatory pronoun and he an anticipatory one

1011 white: bright, shining

1012 the nente endent: the ninth (jewel) set (in the foundation)

1013 the tenth is tyt: is joined (to it) as the tenth

1015 the gentylest in uch a plyt: the most valuable in every kind of plight; the reference is to the supposed protective powers – or ‘virtues’ – of gems (cf. 14–16)

1016 with ynde blent: blended with indigo

1018 as glasse that glysnande schon: which (i.e. the wall) shone glistening like glass

1019 hit: i.e. the city as a whole

1021 yet: also, in addition

1022 stayre: steep

1024 fayre: precisely, exactly

1025 gold as glasse all bare: gold as clear as glass

1026 glayre: the translucent part of an uncooked egg, used as a glaze in painting and cooking

1029 sware: dimension

1031 lenthe to kayre: length to be traversed

1032 ‘For the apostle John saw it measured’ (meten [to measure] is infinitive, as is regular with verbs of perception: cf. 514); the reference is to the angel whom John sees measuring the city with a golden reed in Rev. 21:15–17

1034 pane: technical term for the side of a building

1035 poursent: perimeter

1036 pyked of: ornamented with

1037 of: constructed out of

1039–41 ‘A name in writing was set on each one, (the names being those) of (the twelve tribes founded by) the children of Israel (= Jacob), the order following that of their dates of birth’

1042 I.e. the elder was always set thereon before the younger; 1040–42 make the same point three times (that the names are in order of seniority)

1046 lambe [lamp] lyght: bright luminary

1050 ‘Because of the refined clearness, nothing lette [prevented, impeded] (the passage of) any light’, i.e. there was no material of such opacity as to prevent the eye from seeing through it

1055 of: from out right: directly out

1056 Was bryghter then: which was brighter than; omitted relative pronoun (cf. 664, 732)

1061–2 ‘In that place there was never any church provided nor any chapel or temple ever set up there’

1064 to refet: for refection, as nourishment

1065 was: were; yates [gates] here behaves as collective singular: ‘set of gates’

1066 lone: lane, street

1067–8 non … That: no one … who

1069 ‘The moon may draw to itself no power (i.e. light) from that place’; the moon is too gross a body (1070) to absorb light from the present source, as she does from the sun, and there is anyway no need for a nocturnal luminary in a place in which there is no night (1071)

1070 To^1, to^2: too (as at 1075 and 1076)

1072 What schuld: why should, i.e. what would be the point of … ? compas clym: ascend on its circular course

1073 to even (v) with: emulate; a second infinitive dependent on an auxiliary verb was sometimes preceded by ‘to’: hence here schuld (1072) … clym … to even

1075–6 I.e. not only the moon, but all the other planets (even the sun) that illumine the mortal world, would actually appear dark here

1077 schym: bright

1078 The ‘twelve fruits’ are explained in lines 1079–80: the trees bear fruit twelve times a year, renewing themselves monthly (‘in every moon’) con bere ful sone: do bear very quickly (i.e. in a month, not a year)

1079 frym (adj as n): juicy, plump (fruit)

1082, 1090 fleschly, bodyly: in body, in the flesh (the dreamer himself experiences the vision in spirit, not in body: 61–3)

1083 As when I: i.e. as I experienced when I …

1085 dased: paralysed

1086 fresch: bright, vivid

1087 I.e. so that my senses were numbed and I had no physical sensation

1090 ‘If a man in the flesh had undergone that experience’

1092 were: would be

1093 Right as: just as when maynful: powerful (i.e. in its effects on earth, discernible in the literal tides and, as an agent of mutability, in the tides of life)

1094 Ere then [than]: before drive (subj) all doun: disappears quite below the horizon

1097 enprise: esteem, grandeur

1100 That: as

1103 In: on, upon boun: in position

1106 gates: paths, streets

1108, 1112 singular verb with plural subject (cf. 1065)

1109 Tor to telle: (it would have been) hard to tell (which was) …

1110 proudly: in state, magnificently

1111 The Lamb is said to have seven horns (and seven eyes) at Rev. 5:6 red gold: of the colour of pure or reddish gold (see n. to G 663)

1113 trone a tras: took their way

1114 no pres in plyt: (there was) no disorderly crowding in the business

1115 seme: seemly

1118 ‘It would be too great to speak of (i.e. impossible to express)’

1121 togeder voched: called together, assembled together

1123 new abroched [broached]: begun anew

1124 to love: to praise (see 285) gay: beautiful, splendid

1125–6 steven [voiced sound] … of joy: cry/song of joy

1127 ‘In the midst of His meyny [followers] to praise the Lamb’

1130 With: together with went is past tense of ‘wende’ [pass, go]

1132 ‘That I ever heard speech spent of’, i.e. that I ever heard tell of

1135 con wyse: did show, was visible

1136, 1139 to- and for- are intensifying prefixes

1137 Of: out of

1140 thereto … delit: desire for that

1141 ‘The Lamb did not desire to diminish any of the (general) joy’

1143 was never sene: (that fact) was not at all apparent

1146 How: (and saw) how …

1148 by me: near me

1149–50 was that ho made … that: was that which she made, (she) who …

1151–2 ‘That sight, because of love-longing, gart [caused] me, in my great joy, to resolve to wade [cross through water on foot]’ (with play on wade … in … delit [bask in joy])

1153 ‘Delight was pouring into me through both eye and ear’; me [for me] is dative

1155 wolde: wanted to

1156 walt: removed, conveyed

1158 ‘By fetching me a blow and putting a hold on me’

1159 stere: restrain, hold back

1161 ‘But I was jolted out of that intention’

1162 schuld: was about to

1164 at my princes pay: in accord with my prince’s (= God’s) pleasure (cf. line 1; pay bears the sense ‘pleasure, satisfaction’ throughout this final section)

1168 therein: in that course of action

1170 brath: impetus

1172 huyle: grassy mound

1173 Thereas: where

1174 raxled: stirred, came to

1176 all be: let all be

1179 quik and queme: vivid and pleasing

1183 ‘How precious to me was that which you said’

1184 veray avysyoun: veritable vision (n.)

1187–8 So wel is me … That: then it is well with me … in that/because of the fact that doel-doungoun: i.e. the mortal world (in its character as a ‘vale of tears’)

1189 had I: if I had

1190 then was me given: than had been granted to me

1193 As helde: very probably present: presence

1196 ‘Than could by right cleave to them’, i.e. than could rightfully belong to them

1197–8 was governs both to-riven and cast

1199 hit are: they are

1201 sette saght: propitiate

1208 ‘In Christ’s blessing and my own’ was a parental benediction

1209 That: (Christ) who

1211 He gyve (subj) us: may He give (= grant) us …

1 As Turville-Petre points out (1977: 108), the stories of the Flood and of Sodom and Gomorrah are linked several times in the Bible itself (e.g. Luke 17:26–9); but the further link with the punishment of Belshazzar for his desecration of the temple vessels is neither common nor obvious.

2 See Spearing 1987.

3 See MED clene adv 2 and adj 2(c) and 5, clenli adj (a) and (c) and adv 2.

4 See Morse 1971.

5 See Spearing 1970: 54.

6 See Burrow 2001: 24–32.

NB: Footglosses are selective (see pp. xxxii-xxxiii–); see the Glossary for words not included

1–4 ‘If anyone knew how to praise Cleanness appropriately and list all the justifications that she demands by right, he could find pleasing illustrations with which to further his discourse, and in the contrary theme great trouble and adversity’

6 folwes Him after: is one of His followers, serves Him (as his lord)

7 As: such as

9 teen: go temen [attach themselves] to Himselven: i.e. profess Him as their lord

10 richen: dress, prepare

11 usen hit bothe: partake of it (= the Eucharist) as well

12 clos: enclosed

14 As be: so as to be honest: righteous

16 Him to greme cachen: drive Him to anger

18 honest: seemly, decorous hawerly: fittingly

19 ‘Surrounded by angels in all that is clean’

21 ‘If He were not fastidious and sensitive, and loved no evil’

22 to: too

24 ‘Where He set up eight blessed states and promised to them their rewards’

25 Me mynes (impers v) on: I remember

29 As so says: as if to say seche: reach, attain

30 ‘Who is wearing any uncleanness anywhere about him’

32 ‘Cannot bear the blow (it would constitute) should it come near His person’

33 hateres: clothes, garments

34 harlotes hode: low fellow’s hood

37 set solempnely: seated in state

38 Above dukes on dese: presiding over magnates at the dais (high table)

39 Then: If then harlot: low fellow

40 cokres: leg-coverings clutte: patched trasches: tattered garments

41 his totes oute: ?toes of his shoes worn out

42 Other: or holden utter: put outside

48 ‘Even if he commit no other offence’ (n.)

50 ‘The High King in heaven is even harsher towards him’

51 his Masse: i.e. the Mass at which the reading is the Parable of the Wedding Feast from the Gospel of Matthew (n.)

52 ‘Who made the great banquet for the marriage of his dear heir’

54 quoyntyse: elegant apparel, finery

55 bayted: pastured, fattened by grazing

56 with slaghte: for slaughter

57 polyle: poultry

58 scheldes: slabs crones: cranes

59 rotheled: turned on a spit, roasted right to the sete: ready for the banquet

60 Comes is plural imperative, as are the verbs at 77–8 and 81 (see p. xviii) cof: quickly

61 ‘When those who were to go there were informed of his summons’

62 by the skylle he scape by myghte: by (giving) whatever reason he could escape by

66 yat: got, obtained

67 byes: farmsteads have I mester: I need

69 wer him: defended himself

71 drow hem adrey: drew back daunger: standoffishness

72 That: with the result that

73 ledische lord: lord of that people

74 dryly: gravely

75 for: to forsaken: refused

76 ‘Their wrongdoing is more to be blamed than any course chosen by a Gentile’

78–9 forsettes … The wayferande frekes: block the path of the wayfaring men

81 leng at my feste: stay as guests for my feast

82 as barouns they were: as if they were magnates

85 ‘Then those who guarded the district went out and came back’

86 bacheleres: knights

88 of fre and of bonde: both freemen and bondmen

89 keppte: received

90 Stightled with: assigned lodgings by

92 As he was dere of degre: according to his status; the guests are seated in order of social rank (cf. G 1006)

94 your lege heste: the command which we are bound, as your liegemen, to obey

96 renischche renkes: strange men, strangers

100 What kyn folk so: whatever sort of people

102 on-yed: one-eyed

103 balterande: stumbling

104 holly: wholly by halkes: to every nook

106 denounced me noght: did not at all proclaim their allegiance to me

108 on: one

111 plytes: conditions

112 ‘They were not all the sons of one woman, begotten by one father’, i.e. they were a motley crew

114 ‘The highest in status and arrayed most splendidly always sitting higher up the table’ (cf. 92)

116 on lenthe biloogh: beneath them, down the length of the side tables

117–18 ‘And in every case in accordance with how men variously appeared by their clothing, so were they at their meal, at the marshal’s direction, accorded more or less honour’

119 ‘Of splendidly dressed men in the social gathering there were few to be seen’

122 laykes: entertainments in londe: in his domain

124 mach: mess-mate (guests were served in pairs: cf. G 113, 128)

128 chere: gracious demeanour chaufen: warm, encourage

130 best: highest-ranking

131 semblaunt: friendly bearing sylede ferre: proceeded further on

134 thryght: set unthryvandely: unworthily

135 honestly: honourably, suitably

136 ‘And with no robe fit for a feast day but one soiled with workday labours’

138 gremed therewith: was angered by that

140 foule: dirty

141 no halyday hit menskes: does no honour to a festival

143 ‘How could you be so bold as to neghe [approach] this house to your misfortune … ’

144 In on [one] so ratted a robe: in such a ragged robe

145 ungoderly: vile

146–7 ‘You honoured me and my house in a most beggarly fashion in being so ready to approach my presence (dressed) in it’

151 ‘He was so confused in his wits, in his fear lest he should receive harm’

152 on: one

153 laled: called out

154–6 Takes, Byndes and festnes [fasten] are plural imperatives

159 gretyng: weeping gryspytyng: gnashing

160 tenfully: painfully quoynte: smartly dressed

163 lathed: invited

164 fulwed: baptized

165 wilt: want to (be at the feast)

166 honest: respectable, seemly

167 aproch thou: if you approach parage: birth, rank

168 then: than souly: dirty

169 thou wrappes thee inne: in which you wrap yourself

170 schewe hem: appear

171 Hit are: they are

172–3 lyned: lined (n.) the lykyng … That: the desire that

174 fetyse of a fayr forme: neatly fashioned

178 then: thus one: alone, simply

179 As for: as likewise for

180 in: into

181 colwarde: unscrupulousness, wickedness

182 monsworne: perjury to: too

183 threpyng: contentiousness unthonk: (God’s) disfavour

184 riboudrye: debauchery

185–6 The reference is to the abuse or flouting of law in order to deprive widows of their dowers [property rightfully theirs] or to procure annulments of marriages or to support or succour client wrongdoers

188 false famacions: defamation faynede lawes: spurious legal claims

189 is to prayse: is to be praised

193 of: from

194 resouns of right: true expositions

195 proper: fine

196 plyes to scathe: deviates towards evil

197 breved: recorded

198 wrak: wreaked vengeance

200 hatel of His wille: because of the angry hostility of His emotions

201 unsoundely: violently

203 fre thewes: noble qualities

204 wex wod to the wrake: grew wod [mad, rabid] for vengeance

205 the false fende: i.e. Lucifer

207 attled: ordained

208 carle: peasant kyd: showed, was seen to give

210 forsoke: repudiated

211 tramountayne: north (< Latin transmontanus [beyond the Alps])

212 lyft: sky, heavens

213 lyghte: fell

214 dere dome: fate-deciding judgement

215 ‘Without intemperance of heart, His self-restraint undiminished’, i.e. God is not transported by rage out of His divine imperturbability, as He is by ‘filth of the flesh’ (see 202–4): cf. 230, 247

216 tynt: wiped out tythe-dole: tenth part

217 fyrce for: bold because of

220 thro: violently threwen: plunged

222 Sweved: swept swap: blow

224 Fylter fendene (gen pl) folk: the company of devils form a confused mass

226 smylt: ?sifted smal: fine

229 This hit was: this was breme brest: fierce act of injury big: powerful

230 ne the wrech saghtled: nor did the wretch (= Lucifer) make his peace with Him

231 wylnesful: wilfulness knowe: acknowledge (as lord)

233 ‘Therefore, though the blow was fierce, the piteousness was little’, i.e. Lucifer’s punishment should arouse little grief

234 kepes no better: is not interested in anything better

235 ‘But the other [second] act of vengeance that arose, that alighted on wyes [men, i.e. human beings]’; hit is a recapitulatory pronoun

238 There: where

240 forgarte: forfeited

242 parted: descended

243 For a defence: because of a prohibition of: by

244 ‘And a payne [penalty] attached thereto and clearly enforced’

245 defence: prohibition

247 mesure: temperateness methe: restraint (cf. 215, 230)

248 eft: afterwards with: by make: peer, equal (the reference is to the Virgin Mary)

249 ‘But in the third (act of vengeance) was crushed everything designed to carry on life’

250 maugre much: great ill-will

253 Hit were: they were

254 most: biggest meriest: best-looking

255 stifest: strongest

256 lent: set, placed of ledes all other: of all (generations of) men; for the construction, cf. G 944

257 forme foster: first offspring bredde: bred, begot

258 athel auncesteres sunes that: noble sons of the ancestor who

260 bout [without] blame: blameless

261 ‘And most like to that man (were those) who lived the nearest (= soonest) after him’

263 loke to kynde: to attend to nature

264 all hit course clanly fulfylle: follow to the end the path it lays down (clanly = (a) without imperfection, (b) completely)

268 als: also other: i.e. other women

269 So ferly fouled her flesch: their flesh had become so remarkably corrupt

270 deghter of the douth: daughters of that (human) tribe

271 felawschyp: sexual partnership on folkene (gen pl) wyse: in the manner of humans

272 japes ille: evil lewdness

274 alosed: praised

276 biggest: strongest, sturdiest

279 For that: for

280 begines: starts to react

284 ‘In the manner of a man inwardly anguished, (He) said to Himself’

285 Me forthynkes (imp v): I regret

286 delyver and do away that: get rid of and remove those who

289 All schal doun: everything shall go down (i.e. be destroyed)

292 ‘I shall take care to be vigilant to keep their tricks (= misdemeanours) under control’

296 ‘And always walking with God (corresponding to ‘Noah walked [ambulavit] with God’: Genesis 6:9): so much the greater was his grace’

297 Him [dat: to him] was the name: his name was

299 other: second

301 nye: distress, anger con speke: spoke

304 ‘Has fallen before my face (i.e. has come into my mind), and I intend to carry it out’

305 me wlates (imp v): it sickens me, I feel sick

307 I schal strenkle [scatter abroad] my distresse: i.e. I will visit my anguish (punitively) on widely disparate areas

310 cofer [chest, ark] renders Latin arca, the primary meaning of which was ‘chest’: cf. kyst (346), chyst (464), whichche (362) closed of tres: enclosed by means of wooden boards

312 cleme: daub, plaster

313 ‘And daub on the outside all the nailed joints’

314 thou make (imp): make

319 ‘Measuring properly one cubit (about 18in/45cm) square’

320 ditande: closing done: put

321 halkes: small recesses

322 bolkes: stalls, shelters penes: pens

324 quelle: kill quik: living quavande: pulsing

326 that: all that

328 resoun: righteousness rengned: lived

331 makes: spouses mery: fine meyny of aghte: household of eight

332 of manes soules: from among human souls swelte: kill

334 makes: companions

335 horwed: (ritually) unclean

337 ‘And always join to the males the appropriate she-beasts’

339 frette thy cofer: load your ark (see 310 and footgloss)

342 drye: heavy daunger: subordination that: he who

344 con … him dele: delivered to him dryly: gravely

348 as thou me wyt lantes: as far as you have given me wit (to do it)

350 withouten threpe: without ado

352 stifly: securely stekes yow: shut yourselves up

354–5 ‘Such a roaring storm as will cause it to rain heavily, which … ’

359 ‘Now Noah never desists from the troublesome task he takes up’

360 steven: command (cf. 352)

362 whichche: hutch, coffer, chest (= ark; see footgloss to 310)

363 con ryfe: did split, were breached

364 Waltes: bursts

366 lavande logh: streaming body of water

368 uch a rayn-ryfte: all the rain-channels, i.e. all the reservoirs in which the rain is imagined as being stored and held back in the heavens

369 Fon: stopped

372 drye: suffer

373 for to make: to be made meschef: disaster

374 That noght dowed [availed] bot: that there was nothing for it but

375 ‘Ever mightier grew the water, which destroyed dwellings’

376 that: those who

378 barn: child

379 bonk [slopes] is an uninflected plural (cf. Pa 343–4 and n.) there: where

381 note: effort

382 raynande ryg: raining storm raykande: moving, advancing

383 bothom: ‘bottom’, valley

384 ‘And each dale most deep, which grew dark (with water: cf. 472) to its brink’

385 moste: biggest

387 flette: were afloat

389 styghe: climbed

390 Ruly: piteously

391 runnen: ran

392 bausenes: badgers

394 Recoverer: relief, succour

395 That amounted the mase: that (simply) increased the confusion

397 By that: when

399 fathmed togeder: embraced one another

400 drye: suffer, undergo

401 Luf … luf: loved one … loved one

402 at ones: (a) instantly, (b) all together twynne: part

403 By: by the time that

404 That the flod nade all freten: which the flood had not devoured

407 mourkne: rot

408 All that spyrakle in sprang: all in whom the breath of life lived sprawlyng: dying convulsions, death-throes

409 Save: except here: troop

411 Him aghtsum: as one of a company of eight

412 There: where

413 with: by gotes: currents

414 the cloudes ful nere: (lifted) close to the clouds

415 waltered: rolled

417 myke: crutch for supporting the mast bawelyne: bowline (rope attaching the sail to the bow of the ship)

418 capstan: drum-shaped device for winding up the anchor clyppe: fasten

419 Hurrok: bilge hand-helme hasped on rother: steering lever attached to the rudder (cf. Pa 149 and footgloss)

420 sweande sayl: sail sweeping (the ship) forwards

421 flyt: contention, strife (cf. 950)

422 waft: tossed, cast rebounde: sprang forwards

423 rered on ende: rose up vertically

424 ‘If our Lord had not been the pilot, it would have gone hard with them’ (Nif = ne if; hem had lumpen: it would have befallen them)

425 ‘As to how old Noah was, to give the exact point in his life’

426 I.e. in his six-hundredth year precisely (odde: extra)

429 ‘And the resultant flood (continued) for three times fifty days following’

430 ythes: waves

433–4 ‘So that comfortless was it for the remnaunt [remaining survivors] whom the storm drives about, (the vessel) that all species so joined were assembled in’

436 man: servant His methe that abides: who waits for His merciful calmness

439 stanges: pools

440 Bede blynne of the rayn: ordered the rain to cease

441 loukande [locking] togeder: closing up, shrinking

443 luged: lugged itself, moved heavily

444 weder: storm

445 saghtled: settled a soft day: a day of mild weather

446 rasse: clear space, plateau rest (pa): rested

448 hatte: is named

450 bothemes: valley bottoms

451 unhuled: uncovered

452 bynne borde: within ship

454 message: messenger

455 rebel: disobedient to one’s master

456 untrue: treacherous, disloyal to his master

460 there: where costes: areas of ground

461 smach: odour smoltes: slips, passes swiftly

463 yisterday steven: yesterday’s orders

464 that the chyst yemed: who governed the ark

466 fodes: creatures elles: so long as

467 bod to his come: waited for his arrival

468 ‘Cursed him most bitingly, along with all beasts (that follow only animal instincts?)’

471 us wones to seche: to find what may serve as dwelling places for us

474 ‘Though that bird (= the raven) be faithless, be you ever honourable’

475 scharpe: swift

476 ‘Continuously all along [throughout] the day, not venturing to alight’

478 umbe-kestes the cost: circles the area

479 hittes: arrives

480 naytly her stowes: provides her with apt quarters

483 skyrmes under skue: whirls out(?) through the sky

486 stamyn: prow

489 sende (pa): sent

490 saghtelyng: reconciliation, peace sely: innocent

491 jumpred: confusion dryed: persisted, reigned

495 loghen: laughed, rejoiced

497 loved (from ‘love’ [praise], not ‘lovy’ [love]): praised

504 ‘Eagerly jostling forward in a crowd, densely packed together’

505 honest: decent, i.e. belonging to the category of animals classed as ‘clean’ in the Old Testament an odde: one not paired; there were seven of all ‘clean’ beasts aboard (see 334)

507 sere: separate, distinct

508 kepes: cares for

511 That all spedes and spylles: who prospers and destroys all things with that ilke: at that juncture, thereupon

512 clos: confidential, intimate

513 wary: curse

516 unthryfte: vice

517 barnage: youth

518 malyce: wickedness

519–20 ‘Therefore I shall never inflict punishment with such precipitate immediacy as to destroy everything because of man’s deeds, for as long as this earth lasts’

521–2 waxes [increase], wendes, worthes to mony [become numerous], Multyplyes are plural imperatives menske yow bityde: may honour befall you

523 ‘Seasons shall never cease for you: seedtime nor harvest … ’

525 sadde: hard, stern

529 skaylyng and skylnade: dispersal and separation

530 that fytheres myght serve: to whom wing-feathers could be of service

531 nayte: use

532 bites on erbes: grazes on grasses

533 wormes: snakes

534 folmarde: polecat

536 lake-ryftes: pits formed by ryftes [clefts, hollows]

537 Hernes: eagles

538 hole-foted: web-footed

539 there: where

540 of the folde fonges the empire: receive the emperorship of the world

543–4 ‘Those beings whom He had especially favoured He punished most severely in the course of removing the ignoble grossness that conquered His own noble qualities’; God’s serenity and magnanimity fail Him in the face of ‘filth of the flesh’ (see 201–4)

545 worschip: glory, honour

548 Til: to such a degree that

549–52 ‘For there is no man under the sun so seemly in his dealings, if he be defiled in a sin that sits uncleanly upon him – one speck of a spot may cause him to fail to attain to the sight of the Sovereign who sits so high’

553–4 that schewe me schal … behoves be: in order that one should appear (= arrive) … it is necessary to be

555 sounde: sound, ‘healthy’ seme: scar, defect

557–9 SITHEN the Soverayn … so sore forthoghte … felly He venged: Once the Sovereign … had so sorely regretted … most grimly then did He inflict punishment

561 Him rued: it grieved him, he regretted

562 hard hit Him thoghte: it seemed grievous to Him

563 swemande: paining, afflicting

565 I.e. with the calm moderation that characterizes His dealings with mankind (see 215, 247), however sinful, in all cases except those involving ‘filth of the flesh’ (see 201–4)

567–8 ‘In such a way as to kill all living creatures because of any evil that might be done, while the terme [span] of the duration of the earth lasts’

569 skylle: plan, determination

570 Whether: Nevertheless

571 that ilk faut: that same vice, i.e. ‘filth of the flesh’, sexual perversion

572 that arwede mony: which gave terror to many

576 That he … ne see (subj): with the result that he does not see

579 ‘So much as indecent obscenity, degradation of one’s own self’

580 ‘Whoever is not ashamed to descend to any kind of depravity, may he be schent [destroyed, brought to nought]’

581 savour: understand

582 babel: as a babbling fool

583 stare: power of sight stepe: bright

584 brod: plain for all to see, egregious

588 that dittes [closes, shuts] His iyen: i.e. that His eyes are closed to it

590 hit: i.e. the deed have (subj): has

592 ‘Searching the reins (= loins) and heart of each man’; a literal translation of a biblical expression most familiar from Psalm 7:9/ Vulgate 7:10: scrutans corda et renes

593 there: where

595 ‘Sends him a solemn sight, the seeing of His own face’ (with reference both to the coming experience of Abraham and to the Beatitude that promises the sight of God to the clean in heart: see 27–8)

596 honyses: brings down

597 ‘But with respect to the judgement passed on mankind for shameful deeds (= “filth of the flesh”) … ’

598 scarres: scatters, drives off

599 He may not drye to draw allyt: He cannot endure to hold back

605 was schunt to: had retreated to

608 ‘Is easy to believe from the final outcome (i.e. by what ensued, which revealed their divine nature)’

612 in onhede [unity]: in the singular (i.e. as if they were one person: Abraham uses the singular Lorde and singular thou and thy)

615 thy pore (adj for n): your poor servant

618 ‘And I shall bestir myself quickly so that your feet may be washed’

619 on this rote [root]: at the foot of this tree reche after: seek out (provisions)

620 banne your herte: fortify your spirits

621 thou segges: thou sayst

623 orpedly: sturdily

625 ma: northern contracted form of ‘make’

627 sumwhat fat: something fatted (for slaughter)

630 bede tyrve of the hyde: ordered the hide to be stripped off

632 dight hit: prepared it (the calf)

635 therve: unleavened

639 sewer: attendant at table

640 sad: serious, composed swete: friendly, well-disposed

642 fayn of: pleased with

643 with armes up folden: with his arms held up (Abraham is holding up dishes to his guests from a kneeling position)

644 mete: food that myghtes all weldes: who wield all powers (cf. 17)

646 of mensk speken: make courteous conversation

647 I schal eft here away: I shall make my way here again; verb of motion omitted after modal

648 ‘Once more before the light of your life dies away on earth’

653 busmare: scorn

655 ‘You can believe it to be doubtful that you could produce off-spring!’ (n.)

657 hit were of sad elde: they were of great age

659 bileved: remained

663 Hopes ho: Does she think … ?

665 I schal yeply ayain: I shall promptly (come) back again

667 swer (pa): swore

668 for lote that thay laused: because of any words they had uttered

670 alow: quietly

671 as thay rayke schulde: as if they were about to move on

672 all at ones: all (three) of them together

675 ‘Where (i.e. in Mamre) dwelt this same man (= Abraham), who (now) accompanies our Lord … ’

676 gate: way

678 conveye: escort

680 this fylthe: i.e. ‘filth of the flesh’, sexual perversion

683 ‘ … so as not reveal to his corse [to his person, to him] my most intimate counsel [confidential affairs]’

684 childeryn (gen pl): of children

685 ‘That people shall descend from so as to inundate (i.e. overspread) the world’

686 blod: nation, race

687 Me bos (contracted form of ‘behoves’): I must

688 attlyng: intentions

689 gret soun: scandalous reports

690 gares me to wrathe (v): causes me to become wrathful

692 dyn: noise, rumour

693 lyst: art, trick likes me ille: ill pleases me

694 That: in that

695 mas (contracted form of ‘makes’) his mach [mate]: chooses for his consort

696 ‘And they fylter [tangle, i.e. copulate] wrongfully together, as with a woman’

697 compast hem: devised for them kynde: natural

698 amed: rated, valued oddely: exceptionally

699 drury: romantic love dole: gift

700 paramores: romantic or sexual love

701 ‘And created for it a procedure more pleasing than all others’

702 true (adj for n): faithful lovers

704 pure Paradise: Paradise itself

705 Elles: provided that

706 steven: appointment, rendezvous unstered with sighte: untroubled by other eyes

707 Luf-lowe: flame of love lasched: flashed, blazed

708 sleke: quench

709 skyfted: altered skylle: will, purpose

711 smod: dirtiness thenke: intend

712 That: so that by hem: through them, i.e. through their example ware: on their guard

714 For hope of: at the thought of hate: hostility

716 on payne: one (= the same) punishment

717 Whether ever hit like my Lorde: could it really please my Lord; Whether is used in ME to introduce a question; like is subjunctive of the impersonal verb ‘like’ [to please]

718 on: one

719 ‘And weigh in the worse side of the balance those who never angered you?’; the image is that of the scales of justice (cf. 1734, based on Daniel 5:27) – ‘the worse side’ is the side that contains the wicked

721 Now: if now (subjunctive were indicates a hypothesis)

723 lakked: scorned

724 resounable: just, righteous redy: eager

725 in: through, because of

726 ‘And be included in their sentence, to have their doom?’

727 note: practice unnevened hit worthe: let such a thing not even be spoken of

730 And: if

731 one: alone

732 smolt: slip away

735 for: because tas to non ille: do not be offended (cf. G 1811)

736 that mul am and askes: (I) who am but dust and ashes (i.e. a mere mortal)

739 And: if

740 on: one

741 fre: noble, worthy

743 fryst [give respite] I a while: I will grant a period of respite

744 thagh me vyl thinke (subj): though it should seem most distasteful to me, i.e. however repugnant that may be to me

746 symple: mild

747 usles: ashes

749 He hit gayn thenkes: He finds it acceptable (that I should speak)

750 thy fraunchis may serve: your magnanimity may serve (to make up for my defects)

751 be thrad: would be struck down

752 ‘What shall I believe of my Lord: would He spare them?’

754 steke: lock up, suppress

755 spare … of: desist from in space of my thewes: in accordance with my (godlike) attributes (cf. 203)

757 untwynes: unravel, destroy

758 yif: if

760 ‘But remit for the whole region the penalty of their incontinent deeds’

763 ‘If ten faithful in thy works (i.e. in godly living) are tan [taken, found] there’

764 mese thy mod: temper your wrath

768 conveyen [escort, attend] Him con with cast of his iye: followed Him with his eyes (cf. 678; Abraham ‘attends’ God now, no longer on foot, but with his eyes)

771 ‘Merciful master, if it pleased you to remember your man [servant]’

772 brother: kinsman (Lot was Abraham’s nephew)

776 As: to such a degree that malt: flow (from the melting of your heart) thy meke: your meek ones

778 mere: border

779 longing: anxiety

780 sende: sent (men)

781 sonde: message

783 mery: fine, handsome

784 loge dor: house door

785 that place: that mansion pyght to the yates: adjoining the (city-)gates

786 That: i.e. the place [mansion: 785] so: as

787 stoute: princely played: recreated themselves, were at leisure

788 in asent: in step

790 to rawe silk like: i.e. blond and wavy (raw silk is a creamy colour and has more texture than spun silk)

791 brere-flour: wild rose the bare: the naked flesh

792 countenaunce: appearance

794 fetures: parts of face and/or body

795 non aucly: nothing amiss

796 the yep (adj for n): the astute man underyede: understood

801 knaves kote: servant’s hut

802 fatte: vat, tub

805 nay that thay nolde: said they would not neghe: approach

806 stilly: simply as thay stad were: where they were placed

807 logge thereoute: take their lodgings in the open

808 Hit (anticipatory pron): i.e. the heven upon lofte

813 welcom as the wyf couthe: as hospitably received as the wife was able (to make them)

817 lokes him aboute: attends to matters

818 mete: food

819 ‘But take care that it be properly done, whatever you cook’

821 wroth to dispite: turned it (= the guests’ aversion to seasoned food) into matter for offence (i.e. took offence)

822 unsavere puns on two senses, ‘without sapience/silly’ and ‘without the savour given by salt’ hyne [labourers, hirelings] is here a term of disparagement

823 hit no skylle [logic, reason] were (subj): it would make no sense

824 be boute: go without (salt) nice: foolish

827 skelt hem in scorne that: treated with scorn those who skylle: plan, scheme

830 of glam debonere: in speech graciously pleasant

831 Welawynnely wlonk: beautifully splendid waschen: washed their hands

832 ‘And the trestles and the board had both been removed to the wall’

833 Fro: after

834 uppe: astir

836 the ledes to take: to seize the men (i.e. the angels)

838 ‘As when the watch has been alarmed, a loud cry rose’; the ascry would be raised to alert men to the presence of a foe, or to summon them to the pursuit and capture of one attempting to escape, e.g. from a city under siege (cf. umbe-lye at 836), as at 1205–6

839 of that clos … the wowes: the walls of the house

844 assyse: rule, practice

845 sputen: dispute, make claims

846 yestande: frothing (like fermenting yeast)

847 weder: air

848 ‘From the vomit which those fiercely shouted words cast up’

849 glyfte: froze with horror gloped: was stunned in his wits

852 He doted never … so depe: he had never been so deeply confounded

855–6 he wonded for no wothe … That he ne passed the port: he was not deterred by any danger … from stepping outside the gateway

857 wyket: small door set in the main gates waft hit him after: closed it behind him

858 clyket: locking latch

859 mesurable: temperate

861 fre: high-born, worthy to strange: too extreme

863 ‘For shame! You are showing vilany [baseness, the want of courtliness characterizing the base-born villain], you debase yourselves’

864 And: if gentylmen: well-born men of gentil status

865 kynde: nature craft: practice

867 maydenes unmard for: virgins intact with regard to

870 tho semely: those comely ones

871 tayt: well formed, well grown quoynte: pretty

874 awly: awfully, horribly

876 kylle of: (will) strike off

877 justise: judge, arbiter

878 boy: commoner, i.e. ‘nobody’

879 threwen umbe his eres: moved agitatedly close around him

880 distresed him: pressed in on him

885–6 ‘They blew a blow in among them that put a curse on the people, so that they blundered about as blind as ever the horse Bayard was’ (n.)

887 lest: failed lysoun: ?trace

888 nyteled: ?groped about

889 uch tulk … that: each man who tyght him: betook himself tayt: pleasure, sport

890 rotheled to the rest that: stumbled his way to whatever sleeping place

891 thay … that: those … who all wrong: all amiss, rudely

892 Of on [one] the uglokest: by quite the most horrendous; on on + -est see footgloss to G 137

893 RUDDON: redness

896 ‘And in a state of alarm they bade him in God’s name to get up’

898 cof to cach that: quickly to get hold of what

901–5 Kayre (imp s): go; Foundes [go], lokes, bes [be], streches and restes are imperative plural and so include Lot’s household in the adjurations to him; singular thou at 901–2 is similarly replaced by forms of the plural pronoun ye in 903–6 here (902): household, retinue

905 stemme no step: pause not for one step

907–8 toun is the object of all three verbs, tyne [wipe out], disstrye and devoyde [obliterate]

909 losen: will destroy

914 ‘If it befell me that I might flee upon foot’

915 kynded: kindled

916 ‘Which burns all things in the force of His breath’

917 To crepe is parallel with hyde (915) and dependent on How schuld I [how should I be able to] (915) wheder: whither, in what direction

920 ‘But He has raised your welfare high up away from those who are (doomed to be) destroyed’

921 warisch: protect

922 He … that: He who

925 loved: praised (see footgloss to 497)

926 that … hit: which

927 hit one: on its own

930 ‘With whomever you wish from among those who are your dependants’

932 rise (subj after ere): rises

934 mery: goodly

935 thay: i.e the two prospective sons-in-law tayt: sport, fun

941 had: led

943 taken in: caught up in tech: blemish, vice tyrauntes: ruffians

944 bowe now by bote: obey now for your own safety

945 kayren hem con: started to betake themselves flowen: fled

950 ‘Coming from the four sides of the earth in loud contention’

951 bitwene: in their midst

952 That … hem: which

953 rueled: pelted ridlande: streaming

954 flaunkes: sparks soufre: sulphur, brimstone

955 smolderande: stifling, suffocating

956 hit sides: its regions

957 that: so that

959 birolled with: bepelted by; the construction is absolute: birolled, rosted and brenned are all past participles

962 unfolded: opened up

964 That: so that

966 ‘As pages of a book that springs apart fall loose’

967 ‘By the time the brimstone gale had ceased’

968 sides: districts sunkken: had sunk

972 that Cryst myght have routhe: such that Christ might have pity (to hear it)

973 The segge … that: the man who

975 ‘They were physically much afraid, (those) who fled without pause’

977 lefly: dear

978 ‘Always looked straight ahead’ (cf. 903)

979 baleful: disposed to evil bode: command

981 lusty Lothes wyf: Lot’s warm-blooded wife

982–3 bode ho no lenger That ho nas stad: she remained there no longer without taking the form of …

984 Also … as: as … as

985 Thay … that: They who

986 sayned: blessed

987 lyght loves: happy hands loved: praised (see footgloss to 497)

990 that little toun: i.e. Segor

991 malscrande: bewildering, confounding

994 make: mate, wife

996 that: in which fol: sinner, wrongdoer

998 thagh her forboden were: though it was forbidden to her (to do so)

999 For one: i.e. for one of the faults

1000 ‘And all the beasts of the field like to lick at her’

1003 in a wache: in sleeplessness

1004 ‘He has gone up to where he had left our Lord’

1006 of erthe the swettest: the most delightful in the world

1007 As aparaunt to: being comparable with

1008 like of … fylled: filled as though with

1009 ‘A great rothun [?redness] of smoke rose from the blackness (i.e. the pitch-like liquid)’

1010 usles: cinders

1011 fornes: cauldron flot: liquid matter

1012 bette: kindled

1013 voyded: obliterated

1015 There: There where

1016 drovy: murky, muddied ded in hit [its] kynde: innately ‘dead’ (cf. 1020)

1018 stanc: pool

1021 hit [its] dedes of deth: the death-bringing acts associated with it

1024 costes of kynde: properties of nature

1027 there: where

1028 gresse ne wode: plant nor tree

1029 schent: executed

1031 in losyng evermore: for ever lost (from the world)

1032 to dayes of ende: until the days of the end of the world

1033 of: by hit costes: its shores

1034 corsyes: corrosives

1035 alkaran: mineral pitch angre: caustic

1036 saundyver: natron

1037 wax-lokes: wax-like lumps

1038 aspaltoun: asphalt (which was used for medicinal purposes) spyseres: apothecaries

1039 such: of this nature by that see halves: in the areas around that sea

1040 fretes: eats into, corrodes festeres: rots

1041 terne: tarn, pool of water of traytoures kynde: with the nature that traitors have

1042 borgounes: burgeon

1044 apple-garnade: pomegranate

1045–6 Also … so … As: as … as … as

1046 ‘As any mind could imagine with respect to any choice foods at all’

1047 brused: fragmented

1048 bot: except wyndowande askes: ashes scattering in the wind

1050 wittnesse: evidence

1051 That our Fader forferde: ‘in which our Father carried out destruction’

1052 the wlonk (adj for n): what is goodly

1053 He … that: He who riche: great, splendid

1056 con: know bot: other than worthe (subj): should become

1057 Clopyngnel refers to Jean de Meun, the continuator of the famous love-allegory (begun by Guillaume de Lorris), Le Roman de la rose (c.1275), who names himself at 10565 as ‘Jehan Clopinel’ clene: elegantly executed

1058–9 There: where spede … Of a lady to be loved: succeed in being loved by a lady

1062 that thou fre holdes: whom you hold to be noble

1064 ‘That layk [behaviour] which lyknes her tille [is like to her] will inevitably (schal = must) like [please] her’

1065 dele drury: ‘deal romance’, have love-dealings

1068 That: who, i.e. Christ

1069–74 For loke [see] introduces two parallel subordinate clauses in 1069–70 and 1073–4: fro first that [from the first, when] at 1069 correlates with And eft [and afterwards] at 1073, and By how comly (1070) with In wich [what] puryte (1074); the two sections introduce, respectively, the subjects of the immaculate conception (1069–72) and the virgin birth (1073–7), which was held to have been without pain or mess

1070 By how comly a cast [device, stratagem]: i.e. the provision of a virgin womb

1074 departed: parted, became two separate bodies

1076 schroude: draped, decorated schepon: shed for cattle or sheep

1077 under God: under the heavens, in the world schulde: would normally (cf. Pa 462)

1078–9 seknesse and rot refer to the moral disease and spiritual death (consequent on the Fall) for which Christ provided a remedy

1081 organes could refer to portable string or wind instruments, as here, as well as to pipe organs

1083 all hende: all graceful things, all gracefulness honestly: honourably, decently

1084 when ho deliver were (subj): when she was due to be delivered

1085 barn: child

1086 Him hered at ones: worshipped Him at once

1088 of such a clos: from such an enclosure

1089 com (pa, as also at 1088): came (into the world)

1090 That: in that longed to: belonged to, pertained to

1091 nolde (= ne wolde): would not

1092 or ordure was inne: or in which there was filth

1093 lodly: loathsome ones, i.e. the medically ‘unclean’

1094 lomerande: ?stumbling; the verb is probably related to lome [lame]

1095 fires: fevers

1098 of that thay ask after: of whatever (infirmity) they make their request about

1099 also tite: as quickly (as possible), at once

1100 clener then: cleaner than; clene here combines the sense ‘free of disease’ (suggested by hele: 1099) with the aesthetic sense ‘more perfectly’ (suggested by craft [skill, art])

1101 uch ordure hit schonied: (that) all uncleanness shunned it

1102–3 ‘And the “groping” of (Him who was) both God and man (was) so excellent that on account of … ’; gropyng and hondelyng (1101) could refer to specifically manual examination or to any manoeuvre with the hands; the two senses are appropriate to the transition in 1101–2 from Christ’s medically cleansing touch to His more general dexterity, which always accomplished ‘a clean job’

1106 freloker in fete: more nobly in action

1107 Displayed: ‘splayed’, unfolded itself hit part schulde: came to part it

1108 Then: than tyght: manage

1109 ‘To such a degree is He curious [meticulous, skilful] and spotless, whose court you ask (to enter)’

1110 bot if: unless

1111 sore: wretched, evil souly: dirty

1112 may we say: we might ask

1113 Yis [yes, indeed], more emphatic than the normal affirmative yea, was often used in response to a question implying a negative answer (cf. Pa 346–7)

1114 to- (intensifying prefix) marred: disfigured

1115–16 schryfte [shrift, confession] was the sacrament by which actual (as opposed to original) sin was remitted – by absolution and performance of the assigned penaunce [satisfaction, penalty]; the sacrament mediated the mercy (cf. 1113) or grace available through Christ (cf. Pe 653–65) schame served: deserved shame

1117 praysed is pris there: is commended as the best where schewed: exhibited (for display or purchase)

1119 ‘What can be called the cause of this other than (that it is) because of her pure hue’

1120 That wynnes worschip: which wins (for the pearl) esteem

1122 other: or if ho fyne were: if she was a pure pearl; the feminine gender of the noun perle is retained in the pronoun (cf. 1124), to semi-personifying effect (cf. Pe 1–10)

1123 ‘And however old in the world it may wax [grow] in use’

1124 while ho in pece lastes: for the length of time that she lasts

1126 That: so that there: where

1127 No bot wasch: (you have) only (to) wash/just wash

1128 then ere: than before

1129–30 The switch from plural (folk) to singular (he) in such indefinite references is not uncommon That: with the result that seche (subj) to: let him seek out, let him make his way to

1131 by penaunce taken: through the penance (assigned by the confessor) he has received (1131–2 repeat the point made at 1115–16)

1132 then: than

1137–8 tene [anger; be angry] and hate could be nouns or verbs here

1140 holly: wholly

1141 Then eft lastes hit likkes: when, after that, vices lick it

1142 As hit were: as if it had been with thewes: by thieves

1144 For that that ones: by the fact that what once

1146 that Dryhtyn ones served: which has at any time been in the service of the Lord

1147 fast: firmly, strictly

1148 So: to such a degree skylful: righteous

1149–50 And that was bared … How hard unhap: And that was revealed … in how severe a misfortune Baltazar tyme: Belshazzar’s time; personal nouns, especially long or foreign ones, could be uninflected in the genitive (cf. 1436, 1314)

1151 For: because

1152 sumtyme before: at one time in the past

1153 tyght me a tom: set by a space of time for me hit is an anticipatory pronoun, expanded in the How clause that follows

1154–5 charged more was his chaunce that … Then: heavier was the lot of him who … than was that of his fader: i.e. Nebuchadnezzar (by whom the Jewish temple was originally despoiled)

1158 proved expresse: manifest in black and white profecies: i.e. contents of the Book named after this prophet

1159 riche: great, splendid

1160 with distresse: by force, violently

1161 folk: nation her: their

1162 hold of Him: be His liegemen; hold of was an expression used to indicate rights of property granted by, and entailing allegiance to, an overlord

1163 help (pa): helped

1164 mervayl to here: (the story of which is) a marvel to hear

1167–8 ‘That He assisted those who were faithful to the false creed (i.e. the Gentiles) to destroy those who were false to the true faith (i.e. the Jews)’

1169 Hit was sene in that sythe that: That became apparent in that time when

1170 that: who Juyne (old gen pl: OE ‘Jewena’): of the Jews, Jewish

1171 solie: throne solemne: stately, magnificent (Solomon, the greatest of the earlier kings of Judah, had been responsible for the building and furnishing of the temple and the royal palaces of Jerusalem)

1172 late: slow, backward

1174 let lyght by: set little value on, had no respect for law: religious law, creed, faith

1175 him (dat): for him, against him

1176 Nabugo de nozar: Nebuchadnezzar

1177 proude: bold, formidable

1179 hent [seized] of the beste: took captive some of those of birth and status

1182 duk: commander dit hem withinne: closed up those on the inside

1183 so bigge baytayled: most sturdily battlemented

1184 stalle hem thereoute: hold back those on the outside

1186 ‘Energetic skirmishing arose, much harm was received’

1187 ‘A belfry [moveable tiered platform used in siege warfare] in the fashion of (i.e. resembling) a bastion (= turret) at every drawbridge’

1188 seven sythe: seven times (uninflected plural after quantifier)

1189 True tulkes: trusty men teveled: did battle

1190 big brutage of borde: sturdy parapet made of wood

1191 of: off

1192 two yere: see footgloss to 1188

1193 upon long: after a long time

1194 Fast fayled hem the fode: food was quickly running out for them; hem is a recapitulatory pronoun

1195 sarre: more sorely

1197 riche: great, magnificent

1198 Fro that: from the time that, i.e. once

1199 And thay stoken so strayt: and they (were) confined so narrowly

1200 forselet: stronghold

1201–2 a counsel him takes With: takes counsel with; him is reflexive: ‘for himself’

1202 blench: trick, stratagem

1203 ere any steven rised: before any cry arose, i.e. without any of the besiegers raising the alarm (cf. 1778)

1204 oste: host, troops, i.e. the besieging army

1205 ne (not anomalous in this sort of subclause: cf. 225) should be ignored in translation

1208 Riche: great ones, noblemen her: their

1209 lepes: leap; -s for present plural (see p. xviii)

1211 By that was all: by then, all were

1212 flot: troop, army

1214 his pere [peer]: i.e. his opposite number or opponent among the Judaean nobility

1215 with: by

1216 gentyle: noblemen forjusted: out-jousted

1217 And presented were: And they were handed over; omission of pronoun subject richest: most powerful, i.e. in overall command

1219 ‘And he (Nebuchadnezzar) the faynest [gladdest] man alive to have his enemies in his power’

1220 hem to: to them

1221 and 1222 his: i.e. the Jewish king Zedekiah’s

1223 Babylon was the chief city of Nebuchadnezzar’s kingdom of Chaldea riche: great, splendid

1224 done: put drye there his wyrdes: there to endure his fate

1225 so: thus

1226–7 ‘Nas hit [it was not] because of Nebuchadnezzar or because of his noblemen that that other man (i.e. Zedekiah) … ’ pryde: pomp, grandeur

1229 that him before keped: who (i.e. the Father) before then had protected him

1230 He (Zedekiah) is the implied subject of trespast

1231 To colde were: too ineffectual would have been and: (even if it had been) combined with

1232 Yet take Torkye hem with: and even add Turkey to both of them her: their, i.e. the Jews’

1237–8 ‘He was commander-in-chief of Nebuchadnezzar’s army and a powerful man in his own right, the captain of Nebuchadnezzar’s cavalry, conducting Nebuchadnezzar’s campaigns’

1239 ‘He broke through the gate-barriers at once and then (broke into) the city’

1241 What (interjection): lo! maystery: feat, achievement

1242 ‘The best (i.e. the chief soldiers) had left with the man who had governed the city’ (see 1201–2)

1244 on wyf had ben: one woman would have been

1245 noght forthy: not for that reason, i.e. none the less for that

1247 of swettest: some very lovely; of indicates members of a class (cf. 1343)

1248 her: their

1250 ‘Married women and young girls, their bellies they slashed’

1251 That: so that

1253 of: by

1255 ‘With fetters, fastened under the horses’ bellies, upon their feet’

1257 syt: misery that sumtyme: they who at one time

1258–60 Now are … That sumtyme: now are they … those who once

1260 syres and burdes: as lords and ladies

1264 all … that: all those who

1265–7 The -en inflexion in Pulden, Dighten, dungen, kyllen indicates plural subject (i.e. ‘they’)

1265 of: off her: their

1267 hem kyllen: they (the Chaldeans) kill them (the maidens)

1273 That bere (pa) the lamp upon loft: which bore aloft the lamplight evermore: constantly

1274 the sancta sanctorum: the holy of holies (the innermost sanctuary of the temple where the Ark of the Covenant was kept) there selcouth was ofte: where many miracles happened

1275–6 candelstik: candelabrum, stand for lamps the crowne refers to the band of gold surmounting the altar (= the raised stand or table on which incense and sacrifices were offered, the Old Testament prototype of the Christian communion table)

1277 gredirne: grating, lattice

1278 so: very, most

1280 vyoles: small glass drinking vessels vertuous is here used in its older sense of ‘possessed of power or efficacy’ – the reference being to the magic properties regularly attributed to precious stones in medieval lapidaries (= jewel handbooks)

1282 precious suggests both the spiritual and material worth of the place, since the word could mean both (a) valuable and beautiful, and (b) sacred, holy (MED precious(e 2)

1283 gazafylace: gazophylacium (the box in which offerings to the temple were received) to swythe gret noumbre: (amounting) to a very great sum

1285–6 All he spoyled … That: he seized as booty … all that mony a sad yere: many a year of serious concentration

1287–8 quoyntyse … clene to worke: artistry in fashioning perfectly clene is in both lines used in its aesthetic sense: ‘with nice exactness’ (1287), ‘perfectly wrought’ (1288)

1289 love: praise, honour (a separate verb from ‘lovy’ [love])

1290 The house: i.e. the temple

1294 ‘Goes around plundering the remoter parts of Israel’ (hyrnes: corners)

1295 chargede: loaded (with booty) the cheftayn: i.e. Nebuchadnezzar

1296 catel: chattels, goods

1297 Presented: handed over to, committed to (cf. 1217)

1298 while her world lasted: in their time

1299 Mony a semely syre son: many a goodly son of a lord; possessive -s was often dropped before son rich: great, magnificent

1300 proudest: grandest prophetes: prophets’

1301 As: such as

1302 devine noble: a pre-eminent ‘diviner’, i.e. (a) one skilled in the interpretation of dreams, portents, etc; (b) prophet, expounder of God’s will and decrees

1303 moder childe: mother’s son; most familial nouns could remain uninflected in the genitive, as they had been in OE mody [brave] qualifies childe then: than

1305 conquest: won by battle

1307 law: creed, doctrinal law (cf. 1174)

1308 the pris: the best

1311–12 avayed … Never yet nas (= ne was): had never before heard of; the double negative is regular in ME

1313 sesed (legal term): took possession of

1314 over all: above all else, without compare Israel Dryhtyn: the Lord of Israel

1315 god: goods, valuables gay: fine, splendid

1317 tried: special

1318 as he right hade: as he was right to do

1319 And there he wroght as the wyse: and in that he acted like a prudent man

1320 let of hem lyght: rated them lightly, i.e. treated them with disrespect (cf. 1174) him myght have lumpen worse: to him there might have befallen a worse fate (cf. 424)

1321 riche: great man his lyve (dat of ‘lif’): during his lifetime (cf. 173)

1324 ‘And his name was inscribed as that of the earthly god’

1325 And all thurgh: and all this came about through (the) fro: from the time that, i.e. after

1326 gave hit him: expressed this fact to him samples: illustrative instances

1327 That he: so that he (= Nebuchadnezzar) by the laste: at last, in the end

1328 maysterful: autocratic, tyrannous

1331 nedes moste: needs must, necessarily had to

1334 He (recapitulatory pron): i.e. Belshazzar stabled the regne: securely established the royal power

1335 biggest: strongest, most sturdily built (of cities): cf. 1183

1337 began: started (his reign) him: to him

1341 false fantummes of fendes: devils in false and deluding forms

1342 tre: wood

1343 of can be ignored in translation (see footgloss to 1247)

1346 And: if reden him right: give him what he asks for (cf. G 373)

1347 to: in such a way as to

1351 for to welde: ‘to wield’, at his disposal; on for + to + infinitive, see p. xxv

1352 never the later: nevertheless, despite that ladies: noblewomen (see footgloss to Pe 453)

1353 curious: elaborate

1354 notyng: making use, partaking metes: dishes (mete means ‘food’; flesch was the term for ‘meat’) nice: foolish, i.e. foppish, frivolous

1358 ‘To give public witness to his vainglory’

1359 nice: (morally) stupid, gross all noghty thing use: to engage in every kind of depravity (noghty is much stronger than ModE ‘naughty’)

1360 Bot if: unless

1362 con sprynge: spread

1366 kythyne (gen pl) kyng: king of peoples

1368 kythe him for lege: acknowledge him as their liege-lord, i.e. pay him formal homage

1370 ladies: noblewomen

1371–2 rose: extol riche: great, noble soghte … to: made their way to bold: fine, great

1373 so: very

1376 to much nye were: would be too much trouble

1377 so: very, extremely big: sturdy, strong

1379 plek altherfayrest: fairest place of all

1381 wonder: wonderfully wruxled: ?set up

1382 clene: skilfully, flawlessly

1383 Troched: ?pinnacled bitwene (adverbial): in between, here and there twenty spere lenthe: at intervals of twenty spear-lengths; uninflected plural after quantifier

1384 ‘And at more frequent intervals bedecked all around with outspread palle [drapery, celebratory cloth-hangings]’ (n.)

1385 ‘The estate which was enfolded within the poursent [circumscribing boundary]’

1386 large: broad

1389 of pryde: splendid, magnificent passande: surpassing

1390 ‘Both in workmanship, in wondrousness, and in its encircling wall’

1391 houses: i.e. living quarters and offices halle: the main public apartment of a court, mansion, etc to hit mede: ?in proportion to it (i.e. proportionate with the size and splendour of the palace)

1392 ‘Built so wide in its ground-level extent that horses could gallop (in its courtyard)’

1394 Dere: great (men)

1395 upon bench: i.e. at table

1396 ‘Brightly shone the gems in his splendid throne’

1397 hiled: covered

1398–9 side-bordes: tables running down lengthwise from the transverse head table or dese, at which sat the host and guests of honour bounet: made ready, set the dere selven: the great (man) himself, i.e. Belshazzar

1404 thereby: i.e. hanging from the trumpets (cf. G 117)

1405 skeles: platters

1406 therewith: (came) with them, i.e. with the bredes [roast meat dishes]

1407 Lyfte logges thereover: with (lids in the shape of) buildings raised up over them

1409–11 describe the metalwork of the vessels beneath the paper lids

1412, 1413 blonkene [of horses] and nakryne [of kettledrums] reflect the old genitive plural inflexion (OE -ena)

1414 tulket amonges: sounded as well

1415 sware: answer

1416 bougounes busch: the striking of drumsticks so thikke: very rapidly

1417 ‘In this manner serving took place many a time all around the hall’; sythe and course (1418) are both uninflected plurals after quantifiers

1418 before the self lorde: in the presence of the lord himself

1419 There: where love: loved ones, i.e. the concubines

1422 foles: loses his wits

1423 on wyde: widely, all around wenches: ‘floozies’

1424 aboute by the wowes: all around him along the walls (where the barons are seated at the side tables: see 1397–8)

1426 he caght [adopted] by himselven: i.e. the counsayle [idea] was of his own, not another’s, suggestion; contrast 1619

1427 ‘The lord calls loudly to his marschal [the official who managed the hall]’

1428 lause: open

1429 vessel: vessels, plate

1430–32 that [which] in 1429 introduces these lines as well as 1429b

1431 Conquerd: gained by fighting, won of: out of, from

1433 fylles: fill; northern inflection for plural imperative (see p. xviii)

1434 of hem lape: drink out of them hem^2: i.e. the ladies

1435 That: i.e. the fact they are held dear (1434b)

1436 Baltazar: Belshazzar’s (see footgloss to 1149–50 and cf. 1314)

1437 touched to the tresour: related to the treasure-keeper

1440a is governed by was (1439): ‘And many a cupboard [‘board’ or table for drinking vessels, i.e. sideboard] was covered … ’

1441 jueles: precious objects, treasures

1443–4 hade into place: brought thither gay: splendid (on the auter [altar-table] and its coroune [surmounting band of gold], see footgloss to 1275–6)

1445–9 That had ben blessed before with … Now is set for to: That which (i.e. the altar) before had been consecrated by … is now set in place in order to

1446 bestene (gen pl: cf. 1412–13): of beasts busily: zealously

1447 solemne: ceremonial, ritual savour: smell, odour

1448 Before: in the presence of in lovyng Himselven: in the praising of Him

1450 Before: in the presence of

1451 vesselle: vessels

1452 curious: intricate, elaborate

1453–5 Salomon set him seven yere … For to: Solomon set himself for over seven years to …

1454 syence: skill, art him sende: sent/gave to him

1455, 1458 clene: skilfully fashioned

1458–63 The lidded cups are designed to resemble castles (cf. the castle at G 794–802, where much of the same vocabulary is used): they have surmounting banteles [projecting tiers] supporting a battlement (under batelment), in imitation of a castle wall that is Enbaned (i.e. provided with a projecting parapet at its crenellated summit), the metal being carved to project out and up (fyled out) in visual images or figures of wonderfully ingenious forms (ferlyly schappes). The coprounes [surmounting tops] of the covacles [lids] which on the cuppe reres [rise up over the cup] have likewise been formed out [fashioned to project out] into miniatures of the fylyoles longe [extended slender towers and turrets] rising from the living-quarters above and behind the outer wall of a castle, with Pinacles … apert [neatly fashioned spires] pyght there [set thereover] that profert bitwene [jutted into view here and there]

1464 And all bolled above: and all around (could be seen surfaces which were) over-embossed; another decorative motif seen on other vessels – birds in foliage (cf. 1410) – is now described

1465 withinne: i.e. in the foliage

1466 As: represented as if proudly: in their splendour

1470 Alabaundarynes: red gems

1472 pynkardines: ?carnelians

1473 So: in this manner trayled: decorated with sprays trifled: filled with ornamental motifs

1474 By: over, across the brurdes all umbe: all around the surfaces

1476 flyes: butterflies

1478 candelstik: candelabrum by acost: alongside

1479 ‘Set (so) finely upon the pillars (see 1271) as to cause general admiration’

1480 hit: its bases: i.e. the stepped tiers that form a base (cf. Pe 1000)

1484 As: represented as if

1485 Inmong: in among launces: branches

1487–8 morteres of: bowls containing merked withoute With: decorated on the outside with (images of)

1489 serges: wax candles

1490 truly: in its own proper place

1491 sancta sanctorum: holy of holies (see footgloss to 1274) there: where

1492 ‘Spoke in mystical manner to the prophets especially intimate with Him’

1494 Displesed: took offence in that plyt strange: in that improper scene

1495 with javeles: by louts were (subj): should be

1496 ‘Which were once established as sacred in His presence’

1500 as the devel: ‘as Hell’ there: where

1501 wlates therewith: is nauseated by that

1502 That: so that porvayes a mynde: decides on a course of action

1503 haste of His ire: precipitate wrath

1504 warnyng: pre-notification, advance warning that … thoghte: which seemed to them prodigious; thoghte is past tense of the impersonal verb ‘think’ [seem], not the personal verb ‘thenk’ [think]; hem is dative

1507 Bede us thereoffe: offer us (drink) out of them

1508 Wassayl, < OE wes hal [be in good health], was a salutation used when presenting drink; it here announces a festive attempt to swallow drink at one draught (1517–20) and is equivalent to ‘Let’s drain our glasses!’

1510 Kyppe: snatch, seize

1511 birlen these other: other servants pour out drink

1512 ‘And each man [servant] pairs himself with his own master alone’, i.e. each servant serves only his own master; the drink is dispensed, not by the host’s serving men for the company at large, but by the guests’ servants, who unceremoniously race to get liquor and a good cup for their masters (1509–10)

1514 riche rok: noble citadel hit refers to the vessels collectively (cf. the collective singular vessel (= vessels) at 1429 and 1451)

1515 Clatering is parallel with rynging (1513), both nouns being dependent on There was (1513)

1516 ‘Which (i.e the cup-lids) sang out as sweetly as a melody from a psaltery [stringed instrument]’

1517–20 Belshazzar begins the game (announced by the cry of Wassayl at 1508) of draining the glass in one go; the other guests join in the mirthe [sport] and follow suit at 1519–20

1517 that he myghte: all that he could

1518 dressed: made ready, i.e. equipped with drink

1519 bicause of that mirthe: on account of that festive game

1520 ‘Whatever each one possessed (in the way of drink that had been) helde [poured out] for him, he took a continuous pull at from the cup’

1521 So long: very long, for a long time likked: drank

1522 and her grace calles: and implore their (= the gods’) favour

1523 That: which stille: without sound and/or motion

1524 hem astel: escaped from them

1525 ‘The gaules [?drunken revellers] nevertheless call on all the fine golden gods’

1527 puns on the literal and metaphorical senses of highly and heven: ‘Exalted them (a) as high as the skies, (b) as greatly as if eternal bliss (which only the true God can bestow) was in their gift’

1531 pryncipal: royal

1532 In contrary of: in the part opposite to, over against that: where

1533 poyntel: stylus

1534 grymly: in a manner terrifying to see

1535 faylande the wryste: lacking even a wrist-joint

1536 Pared on the parget: made incisions on the plaster

1540 strayned: fell with force on, compressed

1541 ‘His knees proceed to come together (i.e. knock) and his hams clench’

1542 plattyng his paumes: beating his hands together displayes his lerns is obscure (n.)

1543 romyes as a rad ryth: roars like a frightened bullock

1545 runische: strange, undecipherable

1546 scrof: ?sharp

1547 coltour: coulter (the iron cutter in front of a ploughshare) tho forwes: i.e. those furrows we see; tho [those, these] is exophoric (cf. G 1112)

1548 of: out of, from

1550 ‘As soon as the king in his distress was able to speak’

1551 to (adverbial): to him, to that place

1552 ‘To examine the writing (and) what it meant, and clearly to tell him’

1554 skelten: appeared skylle: sense (of the words)

1555 couth: who could; omission of relative pronoun on: one

1556 ledische lore: national script

1557 tale: statement tokened tho draghtes: those characters represented

1559 ‘And bade that segges [men] be searched for throughout the city’; verbs of command were followed by the active, rather than the passive, infinitive

1560 warlowes other: other sorcerers

1561 demerlayk: the occult arts devine: interpret

1567 That: so that

1568 gay: fine, splendidly purpre [purple] was the colour of imperial and royal dress

1569 clos: fastened

1570 of pure clergye: of clergy [learning] properly so-called (i.e. theology)

1571 the thrid he schal hatte: he will be called (i.e. rank as) the third

1572 richest: most splendid, greatest to ride with myselven: (fit) to ride in state at my own side

1573 tee (subj) he: let him go

1574 cry: proclamation

1576 As: such as sathrapas: satraps, wise men

1577 walkyries: practitioners of magic arts

1578 rede: interpret

1579 Sorsers of exorsismus: sorcerers who call up and cast out spirits clerkes is used in both an ecclesiastical sense (‘clerics’) and a scholarly one (‘learned men’); these men are the ‘scholars’ who form the priesthood of a pagan religion

1580 letter: lettering lewed combines its strict sense (‘lay, lacking the clerical ability to read and interpret’) with its looser one (‘ignorant, stupid’)

1581 ‘As they would have been had they looked inside the leather of my left boot’

1583 What: lo! oh!

1584 hyed: hastened (his men) on, i.e. gave urgent commands

1586 ‘She who was the official queen (cf. 1351) heard his angry abuse from as far away as her chamber’ (chamber: a private apartment in a court, as opposed to the public hall, where Belshazzar is)

1588 chaungande: alarming

1589 lause: dispel

1590 grece: ‘degrees’, stairs

1592 of worschip: respectful wyse as applied to speche means ‘socially wise’, i.e. ‘courteous’

1594 Ever laste thy lif: may your life last for ever

1595 for redles hereinne: out of helplessness in this matter (for + adjective = because of being)

1596 lewed: (too) ignorant, uneducated

1597 And has: i.e. when you have in thy holde: in your control, at your disposal; the reference is to Daniel as one of the Jewish captives (1297–1302)

1600 open uch a hid thing of: make known all things hitherto unknown with respect to

1602 anger: distress

1603 in stoundes: at various times

1604 He: i.e. Daniel his: i.e. Nebuchadnezzar’s dere: all-important

1607 sped: efficacy

1610 ‘Your great father commanded his name to be “Baltazar” ’; Daniel and his three companions (1301) were given Chaldean names when they were chosen to serve the king, Daniel being called ‘Baltazar’ (Daniel 4:9)

1611 That: who derne [secret] connynges: occult arts

1614 pris of the worlde: the best in the world

1615 Sende … to sech him: send word … to have him sought out

1616 ‘And have him brought to you in a respectful manner to give you a solution’

1617–18 contain wordplay on merk [dark, obscure] and merked [visibly recorded] and on the etymological sense of declar [make clear]: Daniel will explain the obscure message as clearly as the letters are to be seen on the clay-plaster surface of the wall

1623–4 thou true were Prophete: you were a veracious prophet (i.e. one who delivered truths) that prayed my fader: which my father made prey of (i.e. despoiled)

1626 ‘(And that) your soul (is) filled with the wisdom (which is able) to reveal true things’

1627 Godes gost … that: the spirit of God who

1628 uch hid that heven-kyng myntes: every hidden thing (= mystery and obscurity) in what God ordains/purposes

1630 Wordplay on Wit [understand, know] and wyt [sense, meaning]

1632 I quyte: I will pay; present tense with future sense

1633 redes: interpret by right: rightly, correctly hit to resoun brynges: make sense of it

1634–5 the tyxt [text] of the tede lettres (i.e. what words the grouped letters form) stands in contrast with mater and mod [mind, intention, purpose], which refer to the content and meaning of those words

1636 And (redundant in ModE) here introduces a main clause after a subclause (if: 1633)

1637 Apyke thee: (I shall) array you

1640 be baroun upon bench: i.e. be a lord of the highest rank and fit to sit at the dais in hall

1642 Riche: great, splendid rede thee our Lorde: may our Lord guide you

1644 cherisched: favoured and advanced

1646 ‘With all the world at his will, to dispose of as it pleases him’ (welde (subj): let him ‘wield’)

1647–8 ‘Whomsoever he willed to prosper, prosperity befell that person, and whoever’s death he might desire he struck down at once’; as before adverb functions as intensifier

1649, 1650 him liked: it pleased him

1651–2 ‘In this way was the note [noteworthiness, greatness] of Nebuchadnezzar noted [made famous], and his power-base firmly established, by the mighty Lord’

1653 hope: inkling, intimation

1654 ‘And that all kinds of power emanated precisely from that Prince’

1655 that: i.e. that hope (1653)

1656 of myght as himselven: of power equal to his

1658 lordeschyp: sovereign territory, dominions

1659 insyght to: regard for

1661 ‘Then he does not stop (short) of blasphemy (that was such as) to disparage the Lord’

1662 mete to Godes: equal to God’s

1663 me likes: it pleases me

1664 His angeles that weldes: He who rules over His angels

1669–70 Was not this ilke word wonnen [brought] of his mouthe Ere then [than]: This same speech was not yet out of his mouth before …

1670 Soverayn sawe: words of the Sovereign

1673 most: must

1675 As best bite on the bent of: graze in the field like an animal on

1678 the solie of his solemnete: the throne of his regal state

1679 countre: region, district

1680 there: where

1681–2 hoped non other Bot a best that he be: assumed nothing other than that he were an animal

1683 fogge: grass mete: food

1684 when erbes were fallen: when grasses had died back

1685 ‘Thus he accounts himself a cow, he who had been a great king’

1686 While: until seven sythes were overseyed someres: summers had elapsed seven times

1687 By that: by that time thye: ?tuft

1688 of: out of, from

1689 Fax fyltered and felt: hair (that was) tangled and matted together flosed: ?formed a coat

1690 schyre-wykes: ‘groin corners’, loins

1692 ‘Where many a burdock stuck it together like paste’

1693 ibrad: spread out over; though not frequent in this dialect, prefixed i- (< OE ge-) often marked past participles and occasionally (as here) past tenses

1695 and under (adverbial): and underneath them were campe: bristly, stiff

1697 as the kyte (uninflected gen) pauue: like the kite’s claw

1699 who: i.e. who it was that

1700 kever when Him liked: restore whenever it pleased Him; the verb is impersonal, as at 1663, which this line echoes

1701 him his wyt that: his wits to him who

1702 That: so that com: came

1703 loved: praised (see footgloss to 497)

1704 in hande: in His hands, in His power

1705 agayn: back

1706 bowed him to: went to meet him (translating requisierunt me [sought unto me] at Daniel 4:33)

1707 in his own hue: in the visible form proper to it; contrast 1689–90

1708 state: i.e. regal authority, pomp

1710 set hem at little: rated them at little worth, i.e. scorned to heed them

1711 agayns: i.e. in refusal of the honour due to

1713 vanyte unclene: indecent vainglory

1717 in thede [people, nation]: in public

1718 That: those things which, i.e. vessels with: by

1719 Lovande: praising (cf. 1703) lese: false

1726 By uch figure: according to (the formation of the words by) each of the written symbols as our Fader likes: as it pleases our Father, i.e. as God has willed them to be

1728 thretes thee of thyn unthryfte: threatens you with (the consequences of) your wickedness

1729 thenke: intend

1730 menes as much as: means as much as to say (that)

1731 I.e. has assigned a precise figure to the duration of your kingdom

1732 ‘And completed it (i.e. the number) truly to the farther limit (of the assigned span)’

1734 walt in weghtes to henge: cast into the scales to hang (there)

1735 ‘And the good deeds of it are found to be very few’, i.e. there is virtually nothing positive to put in the moral scales

1736 involves minor wordplay: PHARES literally folwes TECHAL as the next word, but the condemnation it announces also follows for [because of] – i.e. follows on from, is a consequence of – the fautes announced by TECHAL, which are both moral defects and (see MED sv faute 1(a)) the deficiencies in the weight of the good deeds (1735)

1738 Departed: divided, split up

1740 of menske: from position of dignity, from honourable status

1741 wyse: wise man

1742 as forward hit asked: as (Belshazzar’s) pledge required (see 1636–40 and 1568–73)

1745 the duk selven: i.e. Belshazzar

1746 him: to him (Daniel)

1748 ‘As the man established as the third most in the confidence of the king’

1749 Highest of all other: highest of all, higher than all others (for the idiom, cf. 701)

1750 ‘Proceeding after Belshazzar, inside or outside the town’ (bow [go] is here a separate verb from bowe [bow] at 1746); the reference is to ceremonial precedence (cf. 1639 and 1572–3), where Daniel’s ranking as the third man of the nation would be most publicly apparent

1751 also faste: as fast as possible, at once

1755 that ilke derk after: after that same period of darkness

1756 dalt was that ilke dome: that same sentence had been executed

1760 drives: rises, spreads

1761 Thorgh the lyst of the lyft: along the (lower) edge of the sky (i.e. the horizon)

1763 Seten: they sat songen: they sang

1764 ‘Then each social gathering disperses very far into the night’

1765 with blisse was kayred: was conducted amid rejoicing

1766 ‘Let him get (there) as much rest as it pleases him – he rose never again after that’

1769 at the self tyme: at that very time

1770 Of hem: of them, i.e. of their presence

1771 these is exophoric (see footgloss to G 1112)

1772 proud: great, grand

1773 ledes [men] of armes: i.e. armed soldiers

1776 Ascaped over the skyre wateres: slipped over the clear waters (surrounding the city: cf. 1380)

1778 ere any steven rised: before any cry rose, i.e. without any alarm being raised (cf. 1203)

1779 Withinne an houre of the night: within one hour into the night

1781 palayce pryncipal: royal palace

1783 brestes so highe: burst most loudly

1784 that scomfyted [threw into confusion] mony: which caused widespread panic

1788 That: so that, in such a manner that

1789 in his cortyn: within his bed-curtaining

1790 and foule dispysed: and (his body) grossly treated with contempt

1792 ‘Now is a dog that lies (dead) in a ditch as dere [important, valued] (as he is)’

1795 seses: he takes possession of (sese is a semi-technical legal term: cf. 1313 and Pe 417)

1796 that bowed [went] him after: who followed him, i.e. whose overlord he now was

1797 lost: lost possession of, i.e. conquered

1799 that holy were maked: which had been consecrated

1800 corsed: ‘cursed’, consigned to perdition (temporally and spiritually: cf. 1802–3) cached thereinne: seized in the midst of it

1801 Done doun of his dyngnete: brought down from his noble status

1802 of: from

1803 ‘And in addition debarred from the delights above (i.e. in heaven), I believe’

1804 late bitydes: late will it befall (him); an understatement: Belshazzar will never enjoy the beatific vision promised to the pure in heart (see 27–8)

1805 thrynne wyses [a threefold manner] refers to the three major exempla of the poem: the Flood, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah and the punishment of Belshazzar

1806 to-cleves in corage dere: makes a deep cut in the precious heart

1809 quoyntyse: elegance of clothing and ornamentation

1810 Alluding to the sixth Beatitude, which is returned to at the conclusion of each narrative exemplum (176–8, 192; 552, 576, 595; 1055; 1804) as well as in this conclusion to the poem as a whole

1811 ‘May He send us the grace to go fine in our array’; a prayer was a common form of closure that occurs also in Pearl and Sir Gawain

1812 That: so that there: where

1 Jerome, Prologue to Commentary.

2 See e.g. Luke 23:5, Acts 10:37, and see also Roger Bacon’s discussion of the term in Opus Maius I, 346.

3 See Luke 11:29–32, Matthew 12:38–41.

NB: Footglosses are selective (see pp. xxxii-xxxiii); see the Glossary for words not included

1 ‘Patience is a condition (of such a kind that), though … ’

2 with hethyng other elles: by mistreatment or by something else

4 ho: she, i.e. Suffraunce (3), a noun of feminine gender in the French language from which it was derived

5 For whoso: for if anyone; whoso often has conditional force (cf. C 1)

6 And who: and whoever

7 to abide the bur: to take the blow

8 Then: than thagh me think ille: although it seems to me disagreeable

10–12 ‘How Matthew told what his master taught his meyny [retinue]: eight blessed states he promised them and to each one a mede [reward] of its own distinct kind for hit desert [for its merit] in a separate way’ (cf. C 23–5)

14 hores: theirs

16 her: their

17 her harme: i.e. their sins wepes: northern dialect present plural (see p. xviii)

26 the gracious Godes sunes: the sons of gracious God

28 as I ere sayde: i.e. as in the case of the first Beatitude (see 14)

30 ‘If we were willing to court these ladies by imitating their qualities’

34 ‘He that had one (of these virtues) would be blessed – all of them would be even better’

37–8 ‘For in the text where these two are included in the subject matter (cf. Pe 944), they are set in one and the same forme [formula], (as) the forme [first] and the last’; i.e. they appear as the framing first and last and their reward is phrased similarly (see 14 and 28)

39 ‘And, in the quest [pursuit] conducted by their quoyntyse [wisdom], they acquire one and the same reward’

40 hit are of on kynde: they are of one and the same nature

42 like other greme (subj of impers verbs): whether it please or whether it gall, i.e. like it or not

43 thagh man pine thinke: though it seems to one a torment

44 maugre his mun: ‘despite his mouth’, i.e. in defiance of his own wishes (cf. 54) nede: necessarily

46 ‘Since I am placed in the company of them both together, I must necessarily suffer’

47–8 is me lyghtloker hit like … Then: it is less difficult for me to like it (i.e. not be displeased) … than

51 on lyve [alive]: i.e. ever, at any time

52 Other … other: either … or

53–6 ‘What would grumbling achieve for me other than to invite more trouble? It would be much (i.e. surprising) if he did not force me (to go) maugre my chekes [despite myself, against my will], and then I would have to endure coercion, with unthonk [ill-will] as my mede [reward], I the [that, who] might have bowed to his bidding with bongre [good will] as my hyre [wages]’

58 ‘(Trying) to put himself in safety, he brings trouble upon himself’

59 Wil ye: if you will

61 in termes of Judee: within the boundaries of the lands of the Jews

62 Gentyle (gen pl) prophete: prophet to the Gentiles (= non-believers); Nineveh, to which Jonah is sent, was the ancient capital of the Assyrian Empire, which did not worship the god of the Jews, to whom the town is only later converted (see 404–5)

69 hit are: they are

70 abide: (a) wait, (b) endure, suffer

71 Bot venge me on her vilany: but will revenge myself on their wickedness

72 me in both half lines is dative (‘for me’)

76 And: if

77 typpede schrewes: violent villains

78 ‘If I go with those tidings, they will take me straight away’

83–4 ‘Unless my beneficent God would wish such harm to me, in punishment for some sin, as to want me killed’

85 At all periles: whatever the risks, i.e. come what may

86 I wil me: I will betake myself; omission of verb of motion after modal (cf. 202) that he ne wayte after: in the direction of which he won’t be looking

91 nolde (= ne wolde) … no thing non: multiple negatives are normal in ME; they here carry the alliteration, and give emphasis to Jonah’s response of ‘No!’

92 fale of: ?unconcerned with

96 with rybaudes: by ruffians

98 fare: passage, journey

99 ‘He agrees terms with the mariners and pays their fee’

101–8 ‘Then he stepped on those planks, and they get their tackle ready, hoist the sail-yard, fasten the cables, swiftly weigh anchor at the windlass, quickly attached to the bowsprit the bowline carried in reserve for that purpose, take hold of the ropes, the main sail falls; they set the ship to port side and “win the luff” (i.e. change course in order to catch the wind): the pleasant breeze at their back finds the bosom of the sail – it swings this lovely ship swiftly away from the harbour’

108 me: a so-called ‘ethic dative’, used to express interest in the scene or action (cf. G 1905), which can be omitted in translation

110 daunger: power

113 For: because

114 ‘He has now placed himself in a situation of even greater peril’; more is adjectival

116 ‘Though he (Jonah) had left Samaria, that God could see no further (than that)’

117 Yis: Indeed; yis is more emphatic than the normal affirmative yea that burde [behoved] him be sure: of that he ought to have been sure

118 ‘The carp [words] which that king said had often made clear to him that fact’

119 on dese: on the throne; the dese refers literally to the raised platform on which the throne was set

122 thagh he be stape [stepped, advanced] in foly: even the one who is far gone in folly

123 Hope ye: do you think He … that: He who

124 He … that: He who

125 he … that: he (Jonah) who

128 ‘So that he shot ignominiously too short of his target’

130 wakes: is awake waytes: looks

131 ‘He called on that same phenomenon (i.e. the winds) He had fashioned with His own hands’

132 for: because

133 Ewrus and Aquiloun were classical names for, respectively, the east wind and the north wind

143b–44 ‘so that panic-stricken fishes dared remain nowhere at the sea-bottom because of the roughness (of the sea)’ (rogh: adjective for noun)

148 ‘The blast bore down on it from behind, so that all their gear shattered’

149 the helme and the sterne: i.e. the tiller at the back of the boat and the rudder attached to it (a pole projecting down outside the stern of the ship and terminating in a blade or paddle)

151–2 then suppe behoved The coge of the colde water: then the ship had to drink of the cold water

153 Yet [and at that] has here reduced force, indicating response to some narrative development (see MED yet 4(a)) cast all thereoute: jettisoned it all (i.e. everything they have cut free)

155 ‘Those who would fain escape scooped out the harmful water’

156 be manes lode never so luther: however bad a man’s state is; for a similar loose sense of ‘(his) load’, cf. G 1284

157 ‘There was busy activity to cast packs overboard’

160 if lethe wolde schape: if relief would (thereby) come about

163 tho wery forwroght (adj for n): those weary worn-out ones

164 that gayned him beste: that was most suited to him (i.e. to his creed)

166 devout: sacred

168 ‘And each man according as he worshipped and had bestowed his love’, i.e. according to whichever god he worshipped; loved is here assumed to be the past tense of ‘love’ = ‘praise’, used in the sense of ‘worship’ (see MED loven v^2 1(d)), but it could be the past tense of ‘lovy’ = ‘love’

170 laweles: not observing the moral code of any religion; for law = ‘creed’, cf. e.g. C 1167, 1174

172 sake: guilt

173–4 ‘I recommend that we assign lots to each of the men, and whomever the losing lot falls to, cast him out’

176 Bot: but that

178 to hente that falles: to receive whatever lots fall to them

179 under hachches: below deck

181 him fayled: he found missing that he fynde myghte: that he should have been able to find

182 jowked: roosted, lay snoozing

185 ‘Huddled up by the bilge because of (i.e. to escape) the vengeful violence of the heavens’

188 ‘May Ragnel in his chains rouse him from his dreams!’; ‘there’ + subjunctive expresses a wish (cf. G 839)

189 ‘Then he seizes him ungently by the cloak, at the place where it was clasped’ (n.)

193–4 ‘Quickly have they organized their lots and dealt them out several times, and every time in the end the (losing) lot fell on Jonah’

196 Singular pronoun thou here conveys disrespect (plural ‘ye’ was used in polite address)

197–8 ‘What are you doing at sea, sinful cur, with your vices so foul as to destroy us all?’

199 no governour ne god on to calle: no lord or god to call on

200 when thou slayn worthes: when you are about to be killed

201 Of: from

202 Whyder in worlde that thou wilt: to what place in the world are you wanting (to go)

203 thy dome is thee dight: i.e. this is the judgement passed on you

204 Do gif: give; ‘do’ preceding an imperative gives added admonitory force (cf. G 1533)

208 at a word one (adverbial): only with a word

209 for me: because of me

210 For: because

212 Ere gete ye no hap: before that, you will get no good fortune hope: think, believe

213–14 ‘He made predictions (of this kind) to them by statements (about himself), so that they understood that he had fled from the face of the noble Lord’ (n.)

216 ruyt hem (refl): rushed

218 Syn her sayl was hem aslypped: since their sail was lost to them

220 that nolde not bityde: that (i.e. the help they sought) would not come about

222 noght: nothing in her hand: in their power, at their disposal (cf. G 1257), but 221 gives the expression some added literal force

223 nas no comfort to kever: there was no relief to be had counsel: recourse

224 ‘Except to sentence Jonah to his juis [doom] promptly’

227 ‘By immersing their hands in innocent blood’; the sailors pray that, though they are killing a servant of the Lord (228), they are not thereby incurring the guilt of having the blood of an innocent man on their hands; gyve, blenden, were in 226–8 are subjunctives

229 by top and by to [toe]: by head and foot

231 ‘No sooner was he thrown out than the tempest ceased’; the construction with that and ne follows French usage (comparative + ‘que’ + ‘ne’ + verb): cf. C 982–3

232 ho: she (the sea)

233 ‘Though the tackle of those who tossed on the waves was torn’

235 the depe to serve: to be at the mercy of the sea

236 a swetter: a more welcome (current)

238 on Moyses wyse: i.e. in the Mosaic or Judaic manner (further characterized in the following line)

240 ‘And they acknowledged that He alone, and truly no other, was God’

243–4 ‘For what became of that man, after he sank into the water, would have to be regarded as a wonder (i.e. as the stuff of romance: cf. G 28–9), if it were not for (the authority of) Holy Writ’

249 that wye that the water soghte: that man who was heading for the water

250 swiftly swenged him to swepe: swung swiftly to sweep him up

252 Withouten touch of any tothe: without contact with any of the (whale’s) teeth

257 nade: had not

259–60 ‘What man could leve [believe] that, by any law of kynde [nature], any life (= living being) could have remained alighted in him (= the whale) for so long’

262 Thagh were wanles of wele: though he had no hope of well-being; omission of pronoun subject (cf. 266)

266–7 ‘How he had been lached [seized] by a beast out of the boat into the foam, and had plunged into hit [its] throat withouten thret more [without any further force being exercised, i.e. with eerie ease, without any aggressive effort on the whale’s part]’

270 rop: gut a rode that him thoghte: which seemed to him to be (in proportion to his own size) a road

272 blunt in a blob: fetched up short in a blob [?piece of intestine]

276 ‘In that spot was fashioned the lodging place of him who refuses to suffer any hardship’

280 In wich gut soever he gos: into whichever gut he goes

282 of … pyty thou have (imp): have pity on; in addressing God, singular thou is the norm

283 fykel: deceitful, treacherous false of my herte: faithless at heart

287 man: servant (as in the phrase ‘master and man’)

290 There: where

291 also: as one (adv): only, alone

292 bulk: hold there: where

295 mesure [temperateness, restraint] was rich in philosophical associations: mesura was virtue as the ideal mean between extremes

296 ‘Now he that could not (do so) in happiness knows Him in care’

300 Thagh hit little were him with: though it was small in comparison with himself

302 ‘The mighty sea on its back and the beating (of waves) against its sides’

306 the hole … of hellene wombe: the pit of the belly of Hell

308 of the depe see into the dymme herte: into the dark heart of the deep sea

311 ‘And thy driving currents of countless water-streams’

312 on: one

315 surely: confidently

317 to my wo-stoundes: sufficiently to cause me pangs of woe

319 The pure poplande hourle: the very bubbling sea-surge playes: bubbles seethingly; for this sense of ‘play’ when applied to liquids, see MED pleien v^1 9(a)

320 ‘I am a creature fallen to the lowest limit of every mountain’

321 ‘All the (underwater) banks form bars that strongly hold me (captive)’

322 That I may lache no londe: i.e. so that I can’t come ashore anywhere

323 releve me, renk: raise me from my prostration, mere man as I am while thy right slepes: i.e. while your justice turns a blind eye (to what I deserve)

324 that muckel is to tryste: which is greatly to be trusted

329 ‘I have long concerned myself with your abstruser truths’

332 ‘Reject (the salvation available to them through) mercy for something that amounts to nothing’

333 avow that [that which, what] veray bes holden: make a vow which will be faithfully kept

335 Wordplay on hele [health, well-being] and hole [whole, free from defect], which are related words: ‘to heal’ = ‘to make whole’ and hole was used in medical contexts to mean ‘healthy, healed’

336 ‘And I will keep to whatever you command me – take here my trauthe [pledged word]’

338 he him sput (subj): that he should spit him (= Jonah) spare drye: bare piece of dry land

344 ‘Belonged exactly to the regions he had refused (as the destination appointed him by God)’

346 Nylt thou never: will you never (go)

348 me gaynes non other: nothing else will profit me, i.e. I have no option

349 aproche … to: go thither in order to (cf. C 68) Lo: behold, see

350 Lause was used, with reference to speech, to mean ‘utter’ (cf. G 1766), but collocation with loken here also activates its more literal sense of ‘unlock’

354 ‘Only to press through it was three days’ work’

355 ‘The first day’s travel Jonah did without stopping’

358 tenor of his teme: purport of the text on which he preached; teme [theme] was used to refer to the biblical text on which a sermon was based

360 to noght worthe: come to nothing, be obliterated

363 with: by

364 lose the swete: lose the life-blood; sweat had in OE verse the sense of ‘(life-)blood’ and retained that sense in the poeticism ‘lose/leave the sweat’ (= die): see MED swet(e n^1 (a)

368 ‘That their countenances quite altered (i.e. they showed dismay) and they went cold inside’

371 stille: submissively, meekly

375 dust: ashes

376 ‘That this penance should find favour with Him who makes accusation against their wrongdoing’

380 ‘And he dropped into the middle of a heap of ashes’

381 hasped him umbe: fastened (it) around himself

386 Do drive out: proclaim (cf. footgloss to 204)

387 bodyes: persons; pronominal use of ‘body’ is calqued on OF ‘cors’ [body, person] (cf. G 1237) quike: alive

390 Alle faste frely: let all fast without stinting (i.e. wholeheartedly) for: because of

391 ‘Stop children from their (breast-)sucking, however much it may grieve them’

392 Ne best bite: nor let any animal graze

394 The verb passe is understood from the preceding line

395 forclemmed: ?sorely afflicted

397 ‘Who knows or can know if it will please the Being … ’

400 in His mylde amesyng: in His mild tempering (of His wrath): cf. footgloss to 295 and C 764

401–5 leven (401), leve (403): leave, desist from leven (404): believe leved on (405): believed in laften (405): left, desisted from

402 stille: submissively, meekly (cf. 371)

405 law refers to the doctrinal and moral directives of a particular ‘creed’ or ‘faith’ (cf. C 1174, 1307)

407 as he sayde: as he (i.e. the prince (406), the king of the city) had predicted (see 396–400)

408 Thagh He other bihyght: though He had promised something different

414–16 ‘Was not this same (thing) that is now worthen [come to pass] my word [statement, i.e. prediction] that I uttered in my country, when you sent your message that I should go to this town to preach your talent [will]?’

417 quoynte: exquisite

419 late: tardy, reluctant

420 mete: equal, commensurate (i.e. sufficient) be mysse never so huge: however enormous the misdeed

423 pine: pain (undertaken as penance)

424 therefore: for that reason

427–8 ‘For it would be sweeter to me to swelt [perish] at once, it seems to me, than to engage any longer in (the work of expounding) your lore [teaching], which thus makes a liar out of me (literally “makes me untruthful”)’

431 so ronkly to wrathe: to become so vehemently angry

432 ‘Because of anything that I have so far done or ordained for you?’

434 ‘And goes out towards the east side of that great habitation’

436 ‘To observe that city (and) what would afterwards happen (to it)’

439–40 ‘For the place was bare of arching trees that could provide shelter from the bright (sun) or cast any shade’

442 sadly: deeply

443 did grow of that soyle: caused to grow out of that ground

447 lyllede [?quivered] does not occur elsewhere in ME

450 ‘Closed on each side, like a house’

451 ‘An opening on the north (i.e. the coolest) side, and otherwise none anywhere’

454 ‘Which a wind constantly wayved [moved to and fro], most mildly and coolingly’

455b–56 ‘Though no sunbeam could, (to) the amount (even) of one of the little specks of dust (within that sunbeam), shine upon that man’; the expression ‘motes [dust particles] in a sunbeam’ was a common one

457 gay: fine, splendid loge: bower

458 Lys: (that) he lies loltrande: ?sprawling

459 So … he balteres: so … that he stumbles about

460 ‘So that about (procuring) any food that day he did not care “the devil a bit” (i.e. a damn)’

462 there he wone schulde: where he would in the normal course of things dwell

463 Effraym or Ermonnes hilles: the mountains of Ephraim or Hermon

464 ‘Indeed, a finer dwelling place I never wished to possess’

468 by that: by the time that

469 the west: the west wind softe: with all its ‘soft’ quality; soft was the epithet that characterized the west wind as opposed to colder and dryer ones

471 That: so that

472 ho: she (sunne (471) was a feminine noun in OE) candel: i.e. a lit flame

475 wasted: burnt up (see MED wasten v 2b(b))

476 ere ever the schalk wyste: i.e. without the man being aware that it was happening

479 that myght him not hyde: either ‘who could find no shelter for himself’ or ‘which could provide him with no shelter’; the antecedent of that could be man or molde

482 what maystery thee thinkes: what kind of achievement does it seem to you to be

484 that thou may: that you are capable of

488b to: too

489 Yet: And at that

493 Hit is not little … bot lykker to righte: it is not a little matter … but more a question of justice (lykker [more like] to: more in accord with)

494 I wolde I were of this world: I wish I were out of this world

495 if thee forthynk sore: if it sorely displeases you, i.e. if this matter so upsets you

501 ‘Then do not blame me in respect of my (hand-)work, (for the fact) that I wanted to rescue it’

503 of materes myn one: one [exclusively] from materials that were (also) of my own making

506 when it turned were: once it had converted, i.e. turned from sin and to the true God (cf. 518); the two senses of turnen – ‘reform’ and ‘convert’: MED tornen 17(a) and 18(b) – are here hard to distinguish

508 ‘So many are the sinful men that (now) repent in that place’

509–10 ‘And in that number there are moreover some such deranged fools as (are) … ’

511 wale ne couthe: could not tell

512 That on [one] … that other: That is the old neuter form of the definite article ‘the’, still used before ‘one’ and ‘other’ [second] (cf. 355)

513–15 ‘Between the side (of a ladder) and the step cannot distinguish, nor what rule mysteriously divides the right hand from the left, even if his life depended on it’; these lines appear to represent cancelled or displaced material that originally followed 509

517 ‘That cannot sin under any provocation to their own spiritual harm’

520 were harme lumpen: harm would have befallen, i.e. people would have got hurt

521 Couthe I not thole bot as thou: if I could suffer only as you can

523 For malyce is noght to mayntyne: for fierceness is not to be exercised; for the construction, see footgloss to G 356 and cf. Pa 223

526 to rakel: too rash

528–9 The logic is that of political expediency (enpresses: oppresses, exercises compulsive force; saghttel: make terms, agree to a peace treaty)

1 See e.g. notes to 299–300, 372, 491.

2 These are listed by Robbins 1950: 258–9; see also Youngs 2008: 195.

3 In a footnote on p. 17.

4 See pp. 186–7.

5 See further Benson 1961. Other versions of the beheading game are discussed by Elisabeth Brewer 1992, who also surveys analogues for the other plot (243–55).

6 See n. to 1190.

7 Cf. Mann 2009.

8 See n. to 1581–4.

9 See Putter 1996.

10 See e.g. First Continuation I.2546–8, Lancelot do Lac 478.

11 Cf. Chaucer’s reference to ‘Gawayn, with his olde curteisye’ at CT V.95.

12 Cf. Hanna 1983.

13 Cf. Schmidt 1987.

14 See Vale 1982.

1–6 Sithen … sithen: after … then: ‘After the siege and the assault at Troy had ceased … it was Aeneas who then’

2 ‘(And) the city (had been) smashed to pieces and burnt to bits of charred wood and ashes’

3–4 ‘(And after) the man who wrought there the trammes [contrivances, schemes] of treason was tried [ascertained, exposed] for his treachery, which was the truest (i.e. veriest) in the world’; the reference is to Antenor (the Trojan who collaborated with the Greeks), well known as ‘traitour to the town of Troye’ (Troilus IV.204–5)

5 Hit: it athel: noble highe kynde: great kindred/progeny

6 ‘Who then subjugated nations and became the masters … ’

7 Wel negh: well nigh, almost wele: wealth west iles: western realms

8 Fro: from the time that, when riche:great to Rome riches him:directs his course to (what was to be) Rome

9 bobaunce: splendour, pomp burgh:city bigges [builds] upon firste: founds

10 nevenes [names] hit his owne name: gives it his own name hit: it hatte: is called

11 Ticius to Tuskan: Ticius (goes to) Tuscany; idiomatic omission of verb of motion teldes:dwelling places begines: begins, starts upon

12 lyftes up: raises, erects

13 fer: far French flod: i.e. the English Channel

14 bonkes ful brode: extensive banks settes: sets, founds

15 With wynne: ‘with joy’, pleasingly, to happy effect

16 werre:war wrake: destruction wonder: dramatically awful event

17 By sythes:at (various) times wont: dwelt, taken place thereinne: therein, in that place

18 blisse: joy blunder: trouble, disturbance

19 skete:swiftly, unpredictably skyfted:shifted, interchanged synne: since that time

20 bigged: built, founded burn: man riche: great

21 Bolde (adj for n) bredden: bold men were bred, i.e. multiplied baret: battle, strife lofden:loved; -en marks plural person

22 ‘Who wrought trouble over many revolving years’

23 Mo is the form of more used when the sense is ‘numerically more’ ferlyes: wonders, marvels folde: land fallen: befallen

24 Then: than wot: know (of) syn that ilk tyme: since that same time

25 bult: built, made their homes

26 hendest: most courteous, most civilized

27, 29 aunter, aventure: chance event, incident (generally of a dramatic and storyworthy kind)

27–8 in erde [(which happened) on earth] and in sight [visible, manifest] are tags, here functioning as vague assertions of actuality attle: intend schewe: show, make known That: which selly: wonder, marvel hit [it] is a recapitulatory pronoun holden: hold, consider

29 outtrage: egregious, prodigious of Arthures wonderes: among the wonders of Arthur’s reign

30 lysten this laye:listen to this lay [tale in verse] bot on [one]little while: for but a short time

31 as tite: right away, promptly in toun [among the dwellings of men] indicates a public recitation

33–6 ‘In the form in which it (the aventure) is set and embedded in record firm and solid, soundly enclosed in trustworthy words, and as it has existed in the land from long back’; stori [story, history] covered any authoritative and inherited narrative record of past events

37 lay: was in residence

38 mony luflyche lord: many a fine lord ledes of the beste: men of the highest order

39 Rekenly: worthily, in fine fashion tho rich:those great, fine brether (mutated pl): brethren

40 rich revel aryght: really splendid festivity rechlesse mirthes: uninhibited gaieties

41 tournayed tulkes: men took part in tournaments

42 Justed: jousted jolily: with a will, keenly gentyle: noble, courtly (tournaments were group combats between opposing parties; a joust was an encounter between two mounted knights tilting with spears at one another in single combat – inside or outside a formal tournament)

43 Sithen: then kayred: went, made their way caroles to make: to perform song dances; a ‘carol’ was a ring dance for which the musical accompaniment was provided by a song

44 ilyche [alike] ful: kept up as a full or plenary one

45 mete: means ‘food’ (not ‘meat’, for which the term was ‘flesh’) mirthe: pleasure, revelry that men couth avise: that could be devised

46 glam: noise, cries gle: music here: hear

47 Dere: pleasing, fine dyn: sound daunsyng: dancing

48 hap upon high: good fortune to a high degree (‘halls’ were the large communal rooms and ‘chambers’ smaller and more private apartments: cf. 831–3)

49 With: among as levest hem thoghte: ‘as dearest to them seemed’, each doing what s/he found most enjoyable

50 wele: well-being woned: dwelled samen: together

51 kyd:known, renowned under Crystes selven: i.e. under the heavens, in the world

53 ‘And he who presides over the court the fairest of kings’

54 in her [their] first age: i.e. in the flush of youth, in the prime of their lives

55 On sille:upon the paved floor (a tag for ‘in hall’)

56 hapnest: most blessed with good hap, possessed to the fullest degree of all the blessings of life under heven: beneath the skies, on earth

57 ‘Their king a man of the highest mettle’

58 Hit were (subj): it would be nye: trouble, difficulty neven: name, identify

59 here: army, band of fighting men hille has here its military sense ‘raised site for (castle) headquarters’

60 ‘While the new year was (still) so fresh as to be newly arrived’, i.e. it is New Year’s Day

61 double: with twice as many dishes dese: dais, the high table (at the head of the side tables) douth: retinue, followers, company

62 Fro:From the time that, once

63 ‘The singing (of Mass) in the chapel having come to an end’

64 cast of: raised by clerkes and other: clerics and non-clerics

65 nayted onewe: uttered anew, cried out once again nevened: named, rehearsed

66 sithen: then riche (adj for n): great ones, i.e. the members of the court runnen (pa pl): ran reche: give, proffer hanselle: handsel [hand gift], something given, especially at New Year, as a token of good luck

67 Yeyed:called out on high: loudly yelde hem: yielded them, handed them over

68–70 Since there are losers and winners, the New Year’s gifts are obviously the focus of some game

68 Debated busily aboute: disputed eagerly over

70 wan: won wroth: angry, displeased ye: you; plural form of the second-person pronoun (the singular is ‘thou’) trowe:believe

71 mirthe: joy, pleasure to: until mete tyme: mealtime (about noon)

72 worthily: according to proper form; the washing of hands, from basins and ewers provided, was a pre-feast ritual sete: seat(s), benches

73 ‘The best man always higher up (the table), as was best becoming’; the diners are seated in order of precedence down the side tables

74 gay:beautifully, splendidly graythed arranged, set in the myddes: i.e. at the centre of the dais at which the host(s) and chief guests sat and which was set crossways at the head of the side tables

75 Dressed: placed, set dere:great, prestigious dubbed [adorned] all aboute: in a decorative setting

76 ‘(Curtains of) fine silken fabric on either side, a canopy over her’

77 tried: choice, excellent tolouse, tars: fabrics named after Toulouse and Tharsia (a region in Asia) tapites: heavy figured cloths (used for wall-hangings and carpets) forming the drapery of the selure (76) inoghe: many

78 beten: inlaid

79 ‘Which could be shown by professional assessment to be of high value in monetary terms’

80 In day: any day, ever

82 glent: glanced (grey iyen [eyes] were a regular attribute of female beauty: cf. Pe 254 and n.)

83 sye: saw

86 joly: active, full of beans of his joyfnes: in his jeunesse, from the fact of his youth

87 liked him lyght: pleased him (when it was) active (i.e. he liked to be in motion)

88 Other … or: either … or longe lye: lie long in bed, i.e. get up late

89 wylde: wayward, mercurial

90 maner: habit, custom meved him: motivated him (in declining to be seated at table)

91 nomen: taken (up)

92 dere day: special day, major feast day ere him devised were (subj): before there should have been recounted to him

93 aventurus thing: matter associated with chivalric aventure (cf. 27, 29) an uncouthe [unknown] tale: i.e. matter not already well known

94 that he myght trowe [believe]:i.e. which he could assume to be factual; tale [report, account: 93] did not necessarily imply ‘fiction’

95 alderes: elders, leaders

96 Other: or segge: man siker: trusty, doughty

97–9 ‘To encounter him in a joust, (that) Lede [man] to put in jeopardy a life for (i.e. staked against) a life, each one to leve [allow] the other, according to how fortune would fylsen [assist] them, to have the fayrer (i.e. the upper hand)’ (before taking his seat, Arthur wants either a tale (93) of marvel and adventure or a request to him from someone for a joust with one of his knights)

100 countenaunce: mode of behaviour where he in court were (subj): wherever he might hold court

101 uch farande [grand] fest: i.e. on each major holiday fre: noble, fine meyny: retinue, body of followers

103 fere: hale, healthy

104 stightles stif in stalle [position]: remains firmly where he stands

105 yep: fresh, lusty

106 mas is a northern contracted form of ‘makes’

107 standes in stalle: remains standing in (his) place stif: strong, stalwart

108 ‘Making elegant small talk in front of the dais’; -ande marks present participle in northern dialects

109–15 The ‘Round Table’ does not in this poem provide a structure for formal meals, seating at which follows the normal fashions of the period: the guests are placed in order of precedence down side-bordes [side tables: 73, 115], which are crossed at the head by a highe table (108), a dese [dais: 114], at which the hosts and guests of honour are placed (cf. 74–5, C 114–17) – here, the king and queen, flanked on Guinevere’s side by the king’s nephews (Gawain and Agravain) and on Arthur’s by the highest-ranking cleric and Yvain

109 There: where (i.e. at the dais) good: a sobriquet of Gawain’s

110 ‘And Agravain (Gawain’s brother) of the Hard Hand sits on his (Gawain’s) other side’

111 kynges sistersunes [sister’s sons]: nephews to the king siker: trusty, doughty

112 above: at the top begines the table: is placed to the right of the host’s seat

113 ete with himselven: ate with him, i.e. was his mess-mate; guests were served in pairs (cf. 128), here Arthur and Guinevere, Gawain and Agravain, Baldwin and Yvain

114 dight:set derworthly:honourably

115 mony siker segge: many a trusty man side-bordes: side tables

116 com: came

117 thereby:i.e. from the trumpes (116)

118 Newe nakryne [of the kettledrums: gen pl] noyse: contrasting sound from the kettledrums noble: excellent

119a Wylde: loud werbles: musical phrases wight: vigorous

119b–20 ‘wakened (such a) sound that many a heart hef [rose] most high (i.e. swelled) at their notes’

121 driven: come, arrive dere metes: choice foodstuffs

122 Foysoun: abundance, plenty the fresch (adj for n): fresh (as opposed to preserved or salted) meat (which was scarce in winter and so a luxury at this season) fele: many

123 ‘That (there was) trouble (i.e. it was difficult) to find the room before the diners … ’

124 the sylveren: the silver (vessels) sere: different, various sewes: stews, dishes of meat or fish in sauce

126–7 ‘Each man as he himself liked took without reluctance’, i.e. everyone helped himself freely to whatever he wanted

128 Aye two: i.e. each pair of mess-mates (see footgloss to 113)

130 her: their

131 uch wye:each man wont: lack were (subj after wit): was

132 ‘Another very different sound quickly approached’

133 ‘In order that the man (Arthur) might have leave to take sustenance’: a humorous indication that the pre-dinner marvel/challenge required by Arthur (91–9) is about to occur

134 unethe was … not: scarcely was; double negatives are normal in ME noyse: i.e. of the music ushering in the first course (116) sesed: ceased

135 kyndely: duly, properly

136 hales:comes straight in; switches from past tense to so-called historic present are common in alliterative verse awelich: awesome, grim mayster: a man of social consequence

137 ‘The very largest man in the world (in terms of how) tall (he was) in measurement’; ‘one’ + superlative = ‘the -est’ (not ‘one of the -est’): cf. e.g. 2363

138 Fro the swyre [neck] to the swange [waist]: i.e. in torso sware: squarely built

139 lyndes: loins lymmes: legs

140 etayn: giant I hope [think] that he were: I should judge he could be

141 ‘But the biggest possible man I at any rate (i.e. whether or not an etayn) record him to be’

142 And that: i.e. and a man meriest: most handsome muckel: ‘muchness’, size

143 all: although sturne: formidably solid

144 Bot:yet wombe: stomach smale: slender

145 fetures: bodily parts folwande:following on, in accordance in forme that he hade: in the form (= scale) on which he was built; i.e. although his figure was large, it was well proportioned

146 clene: impeccably

147 hue: involves wordplay: it appears to echo forme (145) and have the sense ‘physical form, outward appearance’ (see MED heu 3(a)), as to which the audience assume they know the most striking feature (hugeness), only to discover that ‘colour’ (see MED heu 1 and 2) is more relevant to the Forwonder [great wonder] occasioned by the stranger’s forme

148 semblaunt: external appearance sene: visibly

149 ‘He looked like a man who would be fierce in fight’; omission of relative pronoun is common in ME

150 enker grene: vivid green

151 graythed: set out, arranged gome: man wedes: clothes

152–3 cote [tunic, kirtle] and mantyle [sleeveless overgarment] formed the basic costume of both men and women (cf. 1831) strayt: close-fitting streght: tight stek on: clung to mery: beautiful above: on top (of the cote) mensked: graced, adorned

154 The pane is the fur trim that appears at the edges of the garment where the lining of skilfully (apert) trimmed fur (pelure pured)is visible clene richly elegant (cf. 158, 163 and pp. 87–8)

155 and his hode bothe: ‘and his hood likewise’; i.e. the hood is faced in matching blythe blaunner [beautiful fur]

156 laght fro: removed from lokkes: hair

157 Heme: ?snug-fitting wel-haled: firmly drawn up

158 spenned on: stuck firmly to sparlyr: calf under: below, beneath

159 bordes: straps barred: provided with ornamental bars (of precious metal)

160 scholes: shoeless, without footwear schankes: legs schalk: man

161 clene verdure: pure (colour of) verdure/green

162 barres: ornamental bars (of precious metal) other blythe stones: other metalwork in the form of beautiful gems

163 richely:splendidly rayled: set out

164 upon silk werkes: set into silkwork (i.e. embroidery); the gems form part of embroidered designs

165 ‘To such a degree that it would be too hard to describe half the trifles [ornamental details]’

166 enbrawded: sewn in as ornament above: on the surface flyes: butterflies

167 ‘With splendid beadwork of green, gold amidst it everywhere’

168–72 The metal on the horse’s pectoral and rump harness (the payttrure [poitrel, breast collar or plate] and cropure [crupper]), the molaynes [metal pieces forming the bit] and the stirrup-irons are all stained or enamelled green; while the non-metal arsouns [uptilted front and back parts of the saddle], together with the saddle flaps or skyrtes, are bestudded with green jewels

168 proude: fine, splendid

171 all after: quite in accord, following suit, i.e. continuing the colour motif athel: noble, fine

173 fole: horse ferkes on: goes on, rides fyne of that ilke: ‘exactly of the same’, matching (cf. 1930)

176 stif to strayn: difficult to hold in a controlling grip (of knees and hands)

177 brayden: (well-)fashioned quik: lively, restive

178 gome: man gayn: ready, i.e. responsive, obedient

179 gay: splendidly gered: arrayed, equipped

180 of his horse sute: matching that of his horse (sute:suite, correspondence)

181 fannande: fanning (outwards and downwards) fax: hair umbefoldes: enfolds

182 much: large, great busk: bush

183 highliche: remarkable, impressive of his hed reches: extends from his head

184 evesed: trimmed umbe-torne: around

185 thereunder: underneath halched: enfolded, enclosed wyse: way, manner, fashion

186 knightes capados: garment (covering head, neck and shoulders) worn by a knight under head and neck armour (cf. 572–3) closes his swyre: encloses his neck

188 cresped: curled cemmed: combed

189 Folden in with fildore: interwoven with thread of gold

190 ‘One strand of hair always alternating with another of gold’

191 toppyng: crest, forelock twynnen:form a pair (n.)of a sute:in a matching style (cf. 180)

192–5 ‘And both bound with a bright green ribbon, studded with finest gems, running the length of the dok [bunch of hair], and then interwound into a cord, (secured by) a twirled knot at the top, attached to which brightly shining bells of pure gold rang’ There (195): where

196 fole: horse folde: ground, earth freke: man

197 sale: hall

198 iye: eye

199 as layt so lyght: as bright as lightning

200 sye: saw

201 as: as if

202 dintes: blows drye: endure, survive

203 Whether: however, yet; i.e. the impression of invincibility in combat (201–2) is despite the fact that the stranger is not accoutred for battle hauberghe: hauberk, metal corslet

204 pysan: metal collar, armour for neck and upper breast plate: plate armour pented to: pertained to

205 schaft: shaft, spear schowve: thrust smyte: smite, pierce

206 on:one holyn bobbe: spray of holly

207 ‘Which forms one of the greenest things to be seen when groves are bare (i.e. in winter)’; a branch in the hand indicated a peaceful mission (see 265–6)

208 unmete: beyond the ordinary (size), massive

209 ‘A grim sparth [battleaxe] to describe in words, if anyone could’

210 ‘The (axe-)head had the full length of an ell-rod [a stick for measuring out an ell, about 45in/115cm]’

211 grayn: projection (presumably the socket or casing, holding the axe-head)

212 bitte: blade with a brod egge: with a long cutting edge

213 schapen to schere: designed/adapted to cut

214 ‘By the stele [shaft] of a sturdy staff the strong (man) gripped it’

215 ‘That was strengthened with iron bands along the full length of the staff’

216 bigraven: engraved about, etched werkes: designs

217 lace lapped: cord (having been) twined louked: was fastened

218 after the halme: along the length of the shaft/handle halched: entwined

219 tried: choice, fine thereto tached inoghe: attached in plenty to it (= the lace)

220 brayden ful riche: fashioned very splendidly

221 hathel: man heldes him in: makes his way in; verbs of motion are often reflexive in ME

222 Drivande: directing his course dut: ‘doubted’, feared wothe: danger, harm

223 Haylsed: hailed, greeted high he overloked: he looked high over their heads

224 warp: cast, uttered

225 gyng: troop, household

226 segge: man

227 Resoun: words

228 iye: eye

229 reled hem: rolled them (= his eyes); i.e. he swept his eyes up and down the rows of diners (to see if he can identify the governour (225): Arthur is not in his seat at the head of the table)

230 stemmed: pondered con studie (periphrastic past tense): did seek to know, tried to work out

231 walt: wielded, i.e. possessed renoun: status

232 lokyng on lenthe: prolonged looking lede: man

233 uch: each hit: it

234 hathel: man lache: take, come by

235 As grow: as to be grener: i.e. even greener (than grass)

236 ‘Glowing brighter than green enamel set over gold’

237 All … that there stod: i.e. the serving attendants; the knights (whose reaction is dealt with at 241–2) are all seated at table studied: wondered perplexedly stalked him nerre: stole nearer to him

238 what he work schulde: as to what he would do

239 fele sellyes: many marvels bot such never ere: but such a one never before

240 Forthy: for that reason fayrye: magic demed: judged, took

241 arwe: afraid mony athel freke: many a noble man

242 stouned: were stunned, responded with astonishment steven: voice, words stone-stille seten: sat as stille [without sound or movement] as stone

243 swoghe: swoon- or trance-like sale riche: splendid hall

244 As: as if slaked: died away her lotes: their words

245 In hye:in haste, at once

246–7 ‘I judge that it (= the silence) was not entirely out of doute [fear], but sum [partly]out of propriety (which would forbid them answering for the governour (225) explicitly asked for)’

248 let: they let loute: bow to

249 Cast: cast words, speak

250 before the high dese is where Arthur is at present standing (see 107–8)

251 rekenly: with propriety, courteously reverenced: greeted respectfully rad: frightened, alarmed

252 Wye [man] is a cautious form of address: since the stranger is unarmoured, his status (as a knight) is unclear iwysse: indeed

253 Arthur is replying to the question at 224–5 hostel: place of accommodation, residence hatte: am called

254 Lyght:alight, dismount leng: linger, stay

255 ‘And what your will is we shall find out later’

256 as help me … He that on high sittes: i.e. so help me God

257 Wordplay on verb wone [dwell, remain] and noun won [dwelling, residence] ernde:errand, purpose in coming

258 Bot for: but (I have come) because los: fame lede: man

259 burgh: fortified dwelling, castle burnes: men

260 Stifest: strongest stele-gere: steel trappings, armour

261 wyghtest: most vigorous, doughtiest of the worldes kynde: i.e. of earthly beings

262 ‘Doughty to be engaged in play with in other goodly sports’; i.e. they make equally good opponents in courtly sports and games (cf. 283–4) as in battle

263 kyd: shown herde carpe: heard tell

264 wayned: brought hider: hither, to this place iwysse: indeed

265–6 See footgloss to 207 siker: certain, sure as in pese: peaceably plyt: harm, strife

267 had I founded:if I had travelled in fere: in (an armed) company, i.e. at the head of an army

268 hauberghe: hauberk, metal corslet

270 welde: wield, use

271 for: because wolde no werre: wanted no war/combat

272 be (subj after if): are burnes: men

275 con answare: answered (cf. 230)

277 crave: request bare: unarmed; unarmed batayl is Arthur’s deduction from the contradictory implications of the visitor’s stress on the fighting qualities of its knights which have brought him to the court (259–61) and on the fact that he is not accoutred (268–71) for chivalric combat

278 fayles thou not to:you won’t lack an opportunity to; present with future sense

279 frayste: seek

280 Hit [it] are: there are bot only berdlesse: beardless childer: children, adolescents

281 hasped: fastened, buckled

282 mach: be matched against, oppose

283 Forthy: therefore crave: request

284 Yol: Yuletide yep: vigorous (i.e. ‘game’) young men

286 Be (subj after If: cf. 291): is brayn: furious, berserk

286–7 so bold … That dar (subj): so bold … that he would dare

287 a: one for: in exchange for

288 giserne: battleaxe

289 hondel: wield as him likes: as it pleases him

290 bide: take, stand bur: onrush, forceful blow bare: unarmed (cf. 277)

291 to fonde that I telle: as to test what I say

292 Lepe (subj):let him leap me to: to me; post-positioned preposition, as often with ME pronouns lache (subj): (let him) take

293 quit-clayme hit: renounce all legal claim to it kepe (subj): let him keep

294 stande him a stroke: take one blow from him flete: floor

295 Elles: provided that dight me the dome: ‘assign to me the ruling’, grant me the right

296 Barlay: ?by law

297 respite: postponement, deferral

298 ‘A year (twelmonyth) and a day’ means ‘A year to the day’; i.e. the return blow is to take place on the following New Year’s Day (cf. 453)

299 hye: make haste let see tite: let it be seen quickly

300 Dar (subj) any:if anyone dare; inversion of subject and verb signals a conditional hereinne: in this matter oght: aught, anything

301 hem: them stouned: stunned, astonished stiller: with less motion and sound, even more paralysed and speechless

302 heredmen: members of the household

303 renk: man rounce: rouncy, horse him riched: turned himself

304 runischly: fiercely iyen: eyes reled: rolled, cast

305 Bende his … browes: frowned bresed: bristled, bushy blykkande: gleaming

306 Wayved:moved to and fro wayte: watch, see

307 kepe him with carp: meet his challenge with speech, i.e. say anything in reply coghed: gave an exclamation

308 rimed him: expanded his chest richly: in an impressive manner ryght him: sat upright

310 That all the rous [glorification, praise] rennes of: of which all the renown runs

311 your is second-person plural (i.e. the address is to all the assembled knights) sorquydrye: pride, sense of superiority

312 gryndellayk: fierceness greme: (formidable) wrath grete wordes: threatening words

313 revel: aggressive pride

314 Overwalt: overthrown a: a single on wyes: one man’s

315 all dares: everyone cowers dint: blow

316 greved: took offence, became angry

317 schame: i.e. indignation at imputed shame schyre: bright, fresh, clear

318 lere:face, cheeks

319 wex: waxed, grew

320 ‘As did all who were there’

321 kene:brave kynde: nature

322 nere: near (to)

323 nice: foolish, nonsensical

324 ‘And as you have sought folly, find (it) you must’ (n.)

325 gast: afraid grete wordes: threats (cf. 312)

326 giserne: battleaxe upon Godes halve: on God’s behalf, in God’s name

327 ‘And I shall grant the favour that you have asked’

328 laght at his hande: received (the axe) from his hand

329 fersly: haughtily

330 halme: shaft

331 sturnely stures: stoutly swings that … thoghte: (he) who intended to strike with it; i.e. Arthur is giving the axe some preparatory swings

332 him before: in front of him

333 Herre [higher] then: taller than

334 sturne chere: undaunted expression there: where

335 countenaunce: mien, demeanour drye: unmoved, impassive cote: tunic (see 152)

336 mate: distracted, discomposed dismayd: unnerved for his mayn dintes: at the mighty blows (Arthur was practising)

337 Then any burn: than (he would have been if) any man

338 Of wyne: some wine; ‘of’ + noun = an unspecified quantity of

340 con enclyne:bowed

341 with sawes sene: in clear words, expressly

342 melly: mêlée, combat mot: may

343 Wolde ye: if you would (cf. 300) ye is the plural used as respectful pronoun of address; contrast thou at e.g. 324 worthilyche: worthy, excellent Wawan: a variant form of Gawan

344 bow: go, move

345 That: so that vilany: indecorum, discourtesy; ‘villainy’ [manners becoming a villein or churl] was the opposite of ‘courtesy’ voyde: leave, quit

346 ‘And if it did not displease my sovereign mistress’;that could be used to introduce a clause parallel with a preceding one – here a conditional clause parallel with 343

347 before: in the presence of riche: noble, great

348 me think hit not: it does not seem to me soth [truth] knowen: known for a fact, i.e. widely acknowledged

349 There: where hevened: raised, put forth high: loudly, i.e. publicly

350 talenttyf: eager, i.e. more than willing

351 yow aboute: around you

352 That should be construed with so bold (351) under heven: in the world I hope: I think none hawerer of wille: (there are) none finer in will (i.e. higher-spirited, more courageous: cf. 57)

353 ‘Nor (are there) any better men on the field where combat is raised’

354 wakkest: weakest

355 ‘And my life (would be) the least lur [loss], whoever seeks the truth (i.e. if anyone wants to know the truth)’

356 ‘Only insomuch as you are my em [uncle] am I to be valued’; ‘to’ + infinitive, preceded by part of the verb ‘to be’, generally had passive sense

357 bounte: excellence, worth your blod: i.e. blood relationship with you body: person, self

358 sithen: since note: business, affair nice: foolish, silly (cf. 323)falles: properly pertains to

359 frayned hit at yow: sought it from you foldes (imp): hand over, give

360 carp:speak comlyly: in a fitting way riche: dispose, arrange (the matter)

361 Bout blame: without reproach

362 Riche: noble men con roun: conferred; roun, whose range of meaning included ‘whisper’, implies confidential discourse

363 sithen: then redden: advised all same: all together, unanimously

364 ryd: extricate

366 for to + infinitive was a metrical alternative for ‘to’ + infinitive (see p. xxv)

367 radly: promptly, readily riched him fayre:made his way calmly

369 he luflyly hit him laft: he (Arthur) amicably relinquished it to him lyfte up his hande: raised his hand (to make the sign of the cross as a gesture of blessing)

372 Kepe thee … that thou on [one]kyrf sette: make sure that you do deliver one cut (i.e. don’t fail to make a cut with the one stroke allowed you (294) by the rules of the game) cosyn: kinsman

373 redes him right: (ironic) give him what he asks for (cf. C 1346)

374 bide the bur: endure the blow (cf. 290) bede: proffer

376 baldly:northern form of ‘boldly’ him bides: stands ready for him bayst (aphetic form of ‘abashed’): was disconcerted never the helder: never the more (for that)

378 ‘Let us rehearse the terms of our agreement before we go any further’

379 ethe: adjure thou hattes: you are named

380 telle (subj): should tell as: in such a way that, so that tryst: trust

381–2 I … That: I … who hatte: am called bede: offer buffet: blow

383 at thee: from you an other: i.e. a return buffet (cf. 295)

384 what weppen so: whatever weapon with no wye elles: from no other man

385 On lyve: in life, alive; ‘lif’ occurs as dative lyve after prepositions

386 agayn: in response

387–8 so mot I thryve As: so may I prosper as, i.e. it is true that (a common asseveration) ferly: wondrously, very

389 ‘That it is you who are to deliver this blow’

390 Gog: God me likes: it pleases me

391 fonge: receive, take fyste: hand that: that which, what frayst: sought, requested

392 resoun: speech

393 Clanly:fully

394 siker: assure, promise trauthe: troth, pledged word

395 whereso thou hopes: at whatever place you think

396 upon folde: on the earth fech thee: get for yourself

397 before: in the presence of douth: household troops, court riche: noble, great

398 wale:choose, pick out, i.e. find

399 wot never:have no idea thou wones: you dwell

401 tech me truly thereto: tell me truly the way to it how thou hattes: how you are named

402 ware: spend, use wynne me: get myself, win my way

403 siker: sure, veritable

404 That is inogh in New Yere: that (Gawain’s provisional oath) will do for the beginning of the year (i.e. for the present) hit nedes (impers v): there is needed

405 hende: courteous, gracious

407 ‘And when you have fairly struck me, if I inform you clearly’

409 frayste my fare: find my whereabouts, seek me out forwardes holde: keep the terms of the agreement

410 spedes thou the better: you will prosper the better, i.e. so much the better for you

411 leng: remain layte: seek ferre: further

412 slokes (imp): ‘slake’, i.e. enough!

413 Ta (imp): northern contraction of ‘take’ tole: blade, weapon (cf. 2260, C 1108, 1342)

414 let se: let it be seen (cf. 299) thou cnokes: you strike (cf. 2379)

415 for sothe: in truth, indeed

417 upon grounde graythly him dresses: puts himself in a suitable position (to receive the blow) on the floor

418 lut with: bowed lyre: flesh (i.e. of the neck) discoveres: uncovers

420 note: affair, business in hand (i.e. the decapitation)

422 kay: left folde: ground before (adv): in front

423 hit: it (the axe) lyghtly: with ease lyght: alight, descend the naked (adj for n): the exposed (flesh)

424 ‘So that the sharp (blade) split the bones of the schalk [man]’

425 schrank: sank gres: ‘grease’, flesh schede hit: severed it

426 That: so that bitte: ‘bite’, cutting edge broun: bright bote on: bit into, lodged in

427 halse: neck hit: fell

428 That: so that, in such a way that fele: many foyned: thrust off, shoved her: their there: where

429 brayd: spurted that: (the blood) which blykked: shone

430 faltered: wobbled never the helder: none the more (for that) (cf. 376)

431 stythly: firmly start: started, sprang; verbs ending -t or -d often have contracted past tenses stif schankes: firm legs

432 runischly: roughly, sternly (see n. to 304) raght out: reached out thereas: where

433 Laght to: took hold of lyft: lifted (cf. start at 431) sone: promptly

434 blonk: horse, steed

435 stele-bawe: ‘steel-bow’, stirrup

437 sadly: sedately, composedly

438 As non unhap [mischance] had him ayled: as if there was nothing the matter with him

439 In stedde: in the place, there

440 brayd his bluk aboute: turned his trunk around (towards the dais: see 445)

441 ugly [gruesome, eerie] was more sinister in sense than it is today

442 doute: fear

443 ‘By the time that his words were said’

444 up even: right up

445 derrest: greatest, i.e. the highest-ranking (who are seated at the dese: 109–14) dresses: directs, points

446 lyft: lifted loked ful brode: opened its eyes wide; brode has the idiomatic sense ‘with eyes wide open’

447 meled: spoke thus much … as: to such effect … as

448 grayth: ready, willing hettes: hast promised

449–50 layte: seek also lelly … As thou has hyght: as faithfully as thou hast promised to do (see 402–3) herande: (in the) hearing (of); i.e. there were witnesses to the promise

451 chose (imp): make your way, go fette: fetch, receive

452 dint: blow habbes: have

453 yederly yolden: promptly repaid

455 ‘Therefore, if you seek, you’ll never fail to find me’

456 recreaunt: (a) foresworn, (b) turntail (n.) thee behoves: it behoves you, you will have to

457 runische: rough, decisive (cf. 432) rout: sharp pull, jerk

458 Haled out: went straight out

459 That: so (swiftly) that fire of the flynt: sparks from the hard stone (ground) fole (uninflected gen): horse’s

460 kyth: (native) land, region

461 ‘Any more than they knew from whence he had come’

464 grene (adj for n): green (one)

465–6 ‘Yet it was breved [spoken of]among those men as ful bare [manifestly] a marvel’

467 hende: courtly, well-behaved

468 highe: loudly, i.e. so as to be publicly heard (cf. 349)

470 today: i.e. on a feast day such as this

471 craft: employment (of time), occupation, activity

472 Laykyng: playing, performance enterludes were dramatic representations, small plays or spectacles (often staged during feasts), to which Arthur likens the ‘drama’ that has just occurred

473 these: those kynde: natural, i.e. appropriate (to rank and season) caroles: songs to which ring dances were performed (cf. 43)

474–5 Neverthelesse: i.e. what Arthur has characterized as a festive ‘interlude’ did nevertheless constitute the selly [marvel, wonder] it was his custom to wait for (91–4) mete:food forsake: make denial

476–7 glent: glanced gaynly: fittingly, appositely (by using to punning effect the idiomatic expression heng up thyn axe,which meant ‘Have done!’, ‘Leave off!’) inogh hewen: done enough hewing

478 done: put doser: cloth used as wall-hanging

479 There: where for mervayl: as a marvel

480 ‘And by its authentic validation recount the wondrous event’; when an auxiliary introduces two infinitives, the second is often preceded by ‘to’: hence myght … loke (479) … to telle (480)

481 borde: table

482 kene: skilful, able

483 double (adv): in double portions (cf. 61) as derrest (adv) myght falle (cf. 890): as might most worthily befit (the occasion)

484 mete: food mynstralsye: music

485 wele: well-being, happiness walt: spent, passed worthed: (there) came about

486 In londe: in the land, there (a tag)

488 ‘That you do not wonde [draw back] because of wothe [danger]’ (cf. Pe 153–4, C 855)

489 frayn: try, i.e. undergo, see through

490 tan on honde: taken in hand, taken up

491 hanselle … of aventures: earnest of adventures, downpayment on adventures; a hanselle (cf. 66) was a New Year’s gift given as a token of good luck for the coming year on firste: at the outset

492 yong: i.e. new yelpyng: talk of heroic deeds (see 91ff)

493 him (dat of ‘thay’ or ‘he’) wordes were wane: to them/him such words (as constitute yelpyng) were wanting/lacking

494 stoken of:stuffed full of, packed with sturne werk: manly doings, tough business stafful her hande: their hands completely filled

495 gamnes: games, sports

496 hevy [joyless] is in contrast with glad (495)

497 ben (subj after thagh): are mayn: strong

498–9 yernes: runs by yerne: swiftly yeldes never like: never brings the same (i.e. brings with it change, in fortunes as in weather) forme (positive of comparative ‘former’): first, beginning fynisment: finish, completion foldes: ?accords (these generalities relate to the year’s respite before the return blow: 297–8)

500 Yol: Yuletide overyede: went by

501 uch: each serlepes: separately, individually

502 com:came crabbede: ill-natured, unfriendly Lentoun: Lent; the forty days before Easter during which meat was avoided

503 fraystes: tests, subjects to purgative rigour more symple: even more humble, i.e. unappetizing

504 weder of the world: fine weather ordained by nature hit [it]is a recapitulative pronoun threpes: battles, contends

505 clenges adoun: shrinks downwards up lyften: i.e. lie less low in the sky and so cause less obscurity

507 flat: field, meadow schewen: come into view

508 groundes and the greves: fields and woodlands her wedes: their robes

509 busken to bylde: set themselves to construct homes bremlyche: vigorously, lustily

510 sues: ensues

511 By bonk: over the ground

512 bolne to blowe: swell to blow, swell into bloom

513 rawes: hedgerows rich and ronk: splendid and flourishing

514 notes: i.e. birdsong noble inowe: very fine

515 so wlonk: most splendid

516 ‘After that part of the summer when the winds are genial (i.e. after spring)’; somer here and at 510 refers to the whole of the warmer part of the year, and so includes spring; wynter (522, 530) likewise refers to the whole of the colder half of the year, and thus includes what would be autumn in a four-season division

517 Zeferus: Zephyrus, the god, in classical mythology, of the west wind syfles himself on: blows (with a sibilant sound) himself into/upon erbes: plants

518 Welawynne: very joyful wort: plant waxes thereoute: grows out of them, i.e. from the sedes and erbes of 517

519 donkande: bedewing, moistening of: from

520 bide: experience, receive blusch: look, glance

521 hyes: hastens, comes hurriedly Hervest: the time when ripe crops are harvested (i.e. August) hardenes: urges on him refers to the personified wort of 518

522 for [because of]: i.e. before wynter (here and at 530) refers to the whole of the colder half of the year and thus includes the approaching autumn

523 ‘He (the harvest month) drives up, by his dryness, the dust’; ‘drive to’ + infinitive = force to take a certain direction (cf. 1047–8)

525 i.e. gusty winds bring with them more overcast skies (of the welkyn: in the sky; wrasteles with: contends fiercely against)

526 lausen: loosen, become unfastened lynde: ‘lime-tree’, poeticism for ‘tree’

527 grayes: turns grey

528 ‘Then all which at first rose up reaches maturity and rots’

529 yernes: runs (by)

530 ‘And winter comes round again as the law of the world (i.e. nature) requires’ (see footgloss to 522)

531 No fage:no deceit, in truth

532 Meghelmasse mone: the moon (or lunar cycle) of the month in which Michaelmas (29 September) falls

533 wynter wage: token of winter, sign of winter’s imminent arrival; the autumn equinox – 22/23 September – marked the beginning of the wynter half of the year (see footgloss to 516)

535 anious: burdensome (by reason of winter and lack of directions as well as its purpose) vyage: journey

536 while: until Alhalday: All Saints’ Day (1 November) lenges: stays, remains

537 ‘And he (Arthur) held a fare [feast] on that holy day for the man’s sake (i.e. in Gawain’s honour)’ (cf. 997)

538 rich: splendid, magnificent

540 longing: grief, anxiety (especially for a loved one: cf. C 779, 1003)

541 never the lesse ne the later: none the less or the less readily nevened bot mirthe: spoke only joy, i.e. the conversation remained cheerful

542 that gentyl: that worthy one, that good man

543 after mete: when the meal was over mournyng: sorrow, regret meles: speaks eme: uncle (i.e. Arthur)

544 passage: journey pertly: openly, clearly; Gawain’s imminent departure has not up to this point been explicitly mentioned by him or by anyone else

545 lege lord of my lif: lord to whom I owe allegiance and at whose disposal my life is leve: leave, permission to depart

546a cost:nature, quality

546b–47 ‘I do not care (to go) further to make to you a tale of woe about it, (it being) nothing but an insignificant matter’ (tenes: distresses, troubles)

548 boun to: bound for, ready to depart for bur: blow barely tomorne: tomorrow morning itself

549 gome: man as God wil me wysse: i.e. as best I can; Gawain has been given no directions, and so has only God to wysse [guide] him to his destination

550 bowed: went, made their way

554 bigge: strong, sturdy

555 menskful: honoured/honourable (ones)

556 com the kyng nerre: drew nearer to the king

557 her: their

558 derne: hidden, unrevealed doel: dolour, distress driven: gone through, undergone sale: hall

559 That: for the fact that wende: go ernde: business, mission

560a drye: suffer, undergo delful: doleful, grievous dint: blow, stroke

560b–61 ‘use his sword no more (thereafter)’, i.e. engage no more in knightly combat

562 made aye good chere: assumed a consistently cheerful demeanour

563 What: why on earth wonde: draw back, turn aside

564 destines derf and dere: hard and pleasing lots

565 fonde: make trial of, i.e. undergo

566 dresses: rises (cf. 2009), not ‘puts on his clothes’

567 armes: armour

568 tuly tapit: red-silk cloth tyght: (was) spread flete: floor

569 gilde: overlaid with gold, gilded gere: armour

570 the stele hondeles: runs his hands over the (items made of) steel

571 Dubbed: arrayed dere: fine tarse: luxury fabric associated with Tharsia (cf. 77)

572 crafty capados: artful kind of short cape (cf. 186) closed alofte: i.e. ending in a drawn-up hood or coif

573 bryght: good to look at, fine blaunner: costly kind of fur bounden [set, sewn] withinne:i.e. lined

574 sabatouns: armour for upper part of foot segge fotes: man’s feet

575 lapped: wrapped, enfolded with: by means of greves: greaves, armour for lower leg

576 polaynes: knee-pieces piched thereto: set upon them

577 knaged with knottes: fastened by clasps

578 Queme quyssewes: goodly cuisses [thigh-pieces] coyntlyche closed: neatly enclosed

579 thik-throwen: densely curving, i.e. solid, muscular with thwonges to tached (cf. 219): by means of thongs attached thereto (i.e to the cuisses)

580 brayden: interwoven; the reference is to chain mail, formed by interlocking steel links or rynges bruny: coat of mail

581 Umbe-weved: ‘be-wrapped’, enfolded wye:man upon wlonk stuffe [over luxurious padding] qualifies rynges (580)

582 brace: arm-pieces

583 cowters: elbow-pieces gay: splendid, fine gloves of plate: i.e. gauntlets

584 godlyche gere: goodly armour him gayn schulde: would be of service to him

585 That tyde: at that time, on that occasion

586 riche: splendid cote-armure: coat of arms, i.e. surcoat worn over armour and displaying the knight’s heraldic device

587 spend with pryde: fastened to impressive effect

588 Gurde: girt bronde:sword sure: trusty

589 ‘By means of (i.e. hanging from) a silk belt around his waist’; side [sides] is an old plural form used for rhyming purpose

591 lest lachet over loupe: smallest slot for a tie/cord lemed: shone

593 Offred: participated in the ‘Offering’, i.e. the section of the Mass in which the congregation processed to the highe auter [high altar] to make offerings honoured: worshipped, paid reverence to the Deity

594 Sithen: then court feres: fellow courtiers

595 Laches: takes lovely: cordially at: from

596 conveyed [escorted] is the word regularly used of the courteous attention of ‘seeing off’ a parting inmate or guest (cf. C 678) bikende to Cryste: committed to Christ, i.e. said goodbye

597 By that: by then Gryngolet: Gawain’s horse grayth: ready, i.e. harnessed

598 gayly: brightly, splendidly frenges: borders, trimmings

599 Aywhere: everywhere, all over naylet: nailed, studded for that note [business, affair]riched [prepared]: i.e. refurbished specially for the occasion

600 barred aboute: (metal-)striped all over (cf. 159) bounden: set, trimmed

601 apparayl: style, fashion, i.e. colour scheme payttrure: poitrel (breast-harness) proude skyrtes: fine saddle-skirts

602 cropure: crupper, croup-strap (running under the tail and fastened to the back of the saddle) covertor: cloth, caparison acorded with: matched arsounes: uplifted front and back parts of saddle

603 ‘And all was splendid gold studs rayled [set out] on red’

604 glent: flashed, shone

605 hentes: seizes, takes hold of hastily: promptly

606 stifly: firmly stuffed: padded

607a was: i.e. stood

607b–608 ‘fastened at the back (to the aventayle [neck-armour]), with a soft fabric urysoun [decorative band] covering (the join with) the aventayle’

609 Enbrawden and bounden: sewn and set

610 borde: band bryddes on semes: birds in the stitches, i.e. stitched or embroidered birds

611 ‘Such as parrots depicted among periwinkle flowers’

612a Tortors: turtledoves trulofes: ‘trueloves’, quadrifoliate flowers now called ‘herb Paris’

612b–13 ‘so densely wrought as to suggest that many a burde [lady] had been seven years engaged on the work’; years were frequently calculated in terms of the number of ‘winters’ passed

614 In toun (a tag): in dwelling places, i.e. in the area

615 cercle: metal band encircling upper part of helmet more of pris:of greater value, i.e. even more luxurious than the urysoun

616 umbe-clypped: enclosed, surrounded

617 devise: pattern, design

618 broun when used of minerals meant ‘shining’ (cf. 426)

619 schewed him: brought him goules [gules] is the heraldic term for red

621 bauderyk: baldric, shoulder strap aboute the halse [neck]: i.e. over the shoulder (cf. 2484–6)

623 apendes to: is (as an armorial device) appropriate to

624 I am in tente: I am in purpose, it is my intention tary … me: detain me, i.e. hold up the story

625 syngne: symbol, figure sette sumwhyle: once instituted

626 trauthe: good faith, integrity by tytle that hit habbes: (a signification) that it (the pentangle) has by tytle [just claim]

627 holdes: has

628 ‘And each line overlaps and interlocks with another’; the reference is to a pentagram, drawn with intersecting lines:

629–30 Englych hit callen Overal: the English most generally call it, i.e. the most common vernacular term for it is … (‘pentangle’ being the learned Latin term: 664–5) here: hear

631 Forthy: therefore acordes: is appropriate clere armes: shining armour

632 ‘For, being always fivefold faythful [possessed of good faith, “true”] in five ways each separate time’; sythes [times] here bears its multiplication sense: Gawain is ‘5 × 5 true’ (the five categories and their fivefold subdivisions are specified in the next stanza)

633a for good knowen: known to be good (with allusion to Gawain’s sobriquet ‘good’: cf. 109)

633b–34 ‘and as Voyded [free] of all baseness as refined gold, embellished with virtues …’; the point is that, in a ‘truth’ that is organized in fives, and in his freedom from baseness, Gawain mirrors his device, the pure gold (620) pentangle

635 mote: castle, court

637 bere: bore cote: surcoat (see 586), coat of arms

638 tulk: man of tale most true: i.e. truest to his word (cf. Pe 311)

639 lote: speech gentyl implied respect and sensitivity to others (see Glossary)

640 fyve wyttes: five senses

641 eft: again, likewise (these two sets of five in 640–41 concern the morally proper use of the physical faculties)

642–50 These two sets of five are devotional; the five wounds of Christ and the five joys of the Virgin – most commonly, the annunciation, nativity, resurrection and ascension, and Mary’s own assumption into heaven – were popular themes of devotional literature

642 afyaunce: faith, trust upon folde: on earth

643 caght: received

644 melly: combat stadde: placed, set

645 ‘He kept it firmly in mind above all … ’ (thro: earnest, unwavering; that correlates with That in 646)

646 forsnes: strength fong at: took/received from

647 hende heven-quene: gracious queen of heaven

648 At this cause: for that reason comlyche: in a comely fashion

649 the inner half: the inner part, i.e. the inside

650 That: so that blusched: looked, cast his eyes belde: boldness, doughtiness payred: suffered impairment, weakened

651 used: practised (this fifth set of five consists of the social virtues of gentillesse)

652 fraunchis: ‘freeness’, generous behaviour (the opposite of selfinterestedness) felawschyp: friendship forbi all thinges: above all, in particular

653 clannesse:chastity courtaysye (see Glossary) was the quality for which Gawain was especially famed outside the text – and within it (see 912–27) croked were never:never deviated

654 passes: surpasses poyntes: constituent parts, (often, as here, with reference to) personal attributes or qualities (cf. Pa 531) pure: excellent

655 happed on: fastened on (here and in the following lines Gawain’s twenty-five-fold excellence is described in terms of the interlocking lines of the ‘knot’ of a pentagram: cf. 627–8) then: than

656 all these fyve sythes [‘times’ in the multiplication sense]: i.e. all the pentads listed in the foregoing lines fettled: set

657 halched in:enfolded, intertwined with that non ende hade: so that none of them had a loose or unconnected end (cf. 627–8)

658 fyched upon: fixed into shape by poyntes puns on the sense ‘constituent parts’ (i.e. the categories listed: wits, fingers, wounds, joys, gentillesse) and ‘points’ (i.e. of the pentangle: cf. 627) faylede never: stayed firm, remained true

659 samned: came together, merged sundrede: separated, came apart

660–661 ‘Without any ende [break, loose end] at any noke [corner, angle], so that no one could discern any point at all where the game [design, device] began or came to an end’

663 Ryally: royally, splendidly red was an epithet often used of gold, denoting a tint indicative of its purity goules [gules] is the heraldic term for red (cf. 619)

664–5 ‘Which (the ‘knot’ of 662) is called the pure [true, properly so called] pentangle by people with learning’, i.e. those who can read Latin – ‘pentangle’ being a word not current in the vernacular, in which the term ‘knot’ was used (see 629–30)

666 graythed: equipped, ready gay: richly, splendidly

667 laght: took hold of launce: lance thore: there

668 hem: them

669 wende: weened, thought

671 stif: forcibly stonefire: sparks arising when stone is struck (cf. 459)

672 syked: sighed

673 sothly: in truth, indeed same: together segges til other: men to one another

674 Carande: ‘caring’, i.e. anxious about hit is scathe: it is a bad thing, it is a pity

675 lost: destroyed, wiped out (cf. C 909, Pa 198) of lif noble: noble in the conduct of your life

676 fere: companion, i.e. peer, equal ethe: easy

677 Warloker: with more awareness or foresight; -loker is a comparative-forming suffix wroght: acted had … bene: would have been wyt: good strategy, wise course of action (see MED wit n 5)

678 dight: arranged for, caused worthed: become, i.e. been made

679 lowande: shining, i.e. illustrious ledes [men], in collocation with a word referring to a ‘ruler’, means ‘subjects’ him wel semes: it beseems him well to be, i.e. he is well qualified to be (cf. 848–9, where the same complimentary judgement is made by Gawain as is here made of him)

680 ‘And it would have been better for him to have been so than hacked to nothing’

681 Hadet with: beheaded by alvisch ‘elvish’, i.e. supernatural for angardes pryde: out of the pride that comes from arrogance

682–3 such counsel to take As: to take such counsel as comes from in cavelouns on: in cavilling arguments in the course of

684 waltered: rolled, streamed; usually used of sea and waves (cf. C 1027, Pa 142) iyen: eyes

685 soght: went wones: dwellings

687 abode: stay, delay

688 wightly: vigorously, quickly

690 ‘As I heard from The boke’, i.e. the authoritative source the poet has claimed for the story (31–6)

691 Logres, the name of Arthur’s realm in pre-‘England’ Britain, is a piece of historical colour

692 on Godes halve:on God’s behalf, i.e. in a holy cause (that of truth) him … thoghte: to him it seemed

693 ledeles: ‘man-less’, without attendants lenges on nightes: spends the night

694 There: where fare: food, entertainment

695 fere: companion fole:horse frithes: wooded areas downes: exposed uplands, hills

696 gate: road, way with to carpe: to talk with

697 neghed: neared (Gawain’s journey is probably imagined as having started from Caerleon, a city (in south-east Wales) traditionally associated with Arthur’s court)

698 Anglesay: Anglesey is the largest of a triad of islands lying off north-west Wales on lyft half he holdes: he keeps to his left; i.e. he turns eastward to cross the north coast of Wales

699 fordes: water-crossings (along the north coast) forlondes:coastal headlands or promontories

700 ‘(And then crosses) over at the Holy Head, till he had the bank again (i.e. gained the opposite bank)’; Gawain here crosses the Dee estuary into Cheshire, the poet’s home territory (see pp. x–xiii)

701a wyldrenesse: uninhabited and uncultivated terrain

701b–702 ‘There dwelled there but few who loved with good will either God or man’; the Wirral was a haunt of outlaws and marauders

703 frayned: enquired ferde: fared, went

706 nikked him with nay: replied to him with a ‘no’ (cf. 2471) her their

709 gates: ways, paths straunge: obscure, not well known

710 unbene: ‘unpleasing’, i.e. not easy to traverse

711 ‘(And) often changed the direction of his gaze’, i.e. he looked in many directions

712 sene: see

713 clyff: hill overclambe: scaled contrayes: regions

714 floten: removed fremedly: as a stranger; frend and fremed [stranger] were antonyms

715 warthe other water there: riverbank or body of water where; fording places were, in chivalric romance, often patrolled by hostile knights who had to be fought with before crossing could be made

716 bot ferly hit were:unless it were a wonder, i.e. regularly, as a matter of course

717 that^1: i.e. the foe him behoved: it behoved him, he had to

718 So mony mervayl: so many a horror; mervayl here has the negative meaning the word wonder (cf. 16) could also have

719 Hit were to tor: it would be too difficult the tenthe dole [part]: i.e. even a fraction (cf. Pe 136)

720–21 Sumwhyle … Sumwhyle: at one time … at another wormes: dragons wodwos: satyrs knarres: crags

722 other while: at another time

723 etaynes: giants him anelede: panted after him of: out of, from

724 Nade (= ne hade)he ben: had he not been drye: unmoved, i.e. resolute, stoical

725 Douteles: undoubtedly dreped: destroyed, slain

726 ‘For combat did not afflict him so much as to change the fact that winter was even worse’

727 schadden: shed, fell

728 fres:froze fale: faded (with respect to vegetation), i.e. no longer green, bare

729 yrnes: irons, pieces of armour

730 then: than nakede: bare

731 Thereas: where crest: summit borne: stream

732 ikkle [icicle] was usually, though not always, prefixed, as here, by ‘ice’

733 payne: discomfort plytes ful harde: sore straits

734 By countre: outside secure and populous areas; countre here = ‘land lying outside the walls of city or castle’ (see MED contre(e n 4)

736 tyde: (liturgical) time, festival

737 made his mone [lament]: i.e. appealed

738 ‘That she should instruct him (where) to ride’

739 wysse: guide wone: dwelling

740 By: beside, near morn:i.e. of Christmas Eve (see 734) meryly: ‘fairly’, in due course

741 ferly: ‘wondrously’, extremely

742 on uch a halve: on each side, all round holtwodes under: forest-woods underneath

743 hore: grey, i.e. shade-creating, light-blocking a hundred togeder: clustered together by hundreds

744 harled: entwined samen: together

745 rogh, raged mosse: moss forming a shaggy covering, as of unkempt hair rayled: spread

748 glydes hem under: passes underneath them

749 mony misy and myre: many a bog and mire all him one: all on his own

750 Carande [caring] for: anxious about costes:qualities, i.e. observances, the proprieties to be observed (cf. 1483; and compare also 1295) ne kever schulde: should not manage

751 servyce of that Syre: (liturgical) service in honour of that Lord self: same

752 burde: (well-born) woman, lady baret: strife, (spiritual) affliction quelle: dispel

753 sykyng: sighing

755 herber: shelter, lodging there: where highly: nobly, with due dignity

755–6 The reference is to the first two services the laity were required to attend at Christmas: the midnight Mass (marking the passage into Christmas Day) and the immediately following service of Matins

757 thereto: to that end prestly: earnestly Pater and Ave: i.e. the prayers beginning Pater Noster [Our Father] and Ave Maria [Hail Mary]; these and the Creed (758) were the first prayers that children learned

760 cryed: cried out in sorrow, lamented mysdede (pl): transgressions, sins; Gawain’s contrition substitutes for the formal confession which the pious would make in preparation for communion at Christmas Mass, but which, without a priest, he cannot make

761 sayned him: signed (i.e. crossed) himself in sythes sere: several times

762 Cros Cryst me spede: May Christ’s cross prosper me; subjunctive spede [cause to succeed] was common in prayers: cf. ‘God speed the plough’

763 ‘He had not crossed himself, the man, but (the ritual) three times’

764 won: dwelling, residence mote: moat

765 launde: open space, clearing lawe: rising, mound loken: enclosed boghes: boughs

766 borlyche: sturdy, imposing bole: tree-trunk diches: moat

767 aghte: had, owned

768 ‘Set on a meadow encircled by a covert/hunting ground’ (park: enclosed area surrounding a castle or manor, often serving as a game preserve)

769 ‘pyned [impounded, enclosed] by a spiked palisade with posts set close together’

770 umbe-teye: went round, surrounded

771 holde: stronghold on that on side: to one side of him avised:looked at, observed

772 schyre: bright, fair

773 has … of: takes off hendly: politely, decorously highly: devoutly

774 Saynt Gilyan [Saint Julian the Hospitaller] was associated with the provision of hospitality to travellers gentyl: gracious, responsive

775 courtaysye had him kyd: had shown him courtesy cry: appeal, entreaty

776 bone hostel: good hostelry yete: to grant

777 gederes … to: i.e. strikes gilt heles: gilt-spurred heels (see 587)

778 ful chauncely: quite by chance chef gate: main path, most direct route; gate [road, path] is distinct from yate [gate]

779 bremly: directly, at once

781 breme up brayde: firmly drawn up

782 yates:gates stoken faste:barred firmly

783 arayed: constructed

784 Hit dut: it (= the castle) ‘doubted’ (= feared)

785 ‘The man, who paused on his blonk [steed], remained on the bank’

786 double:extra wide drof to: adjoined, abutted on place: place of residence, mansion

787 wod in: went into, passed down into

788 eft: again, i.e. likewise haled upon lofte:rose upwards

789–90 tables were horizontal slabs (cf. Pe 994, 1004) marking the top of the wall, those tables being here Enbaned [made to project outward, to form a shelf or parapet], so that the abataylment [battlements] surmounting them likewise projects outward, a form of battlementation today termed ‘machicolation’ (cf. C 1459) in the best lawe: according to best practice

791 sithen:then, next (Gawain’s eye is moving upwards) garytes: defensive turrets, set into and rising higher than the battlemented wall

792 loupe: aperture, opening (for watching or shooting from) louked ful clene: formed a neatly enclosed space

793–4 barbican: outer or forward fortification; this fortified wall-gate is a structure distinct from the castle beyond it described at 794–802 (where Gawain’s eye, still travelling upwards, reaches all that is visible to him of that castle or halle (794): the elegantly towering spires, chimneys and pinnacles, seen rising up over and behind the wall) blusched: looked innermore: further in

795 telded bitwene: erected at intervals troched ful thikke: with many troches (= ?pinnacles)

796 fylyoles: pinnacles, steeples fyed: were joined (to them) ferlyly: wondrously

797 corven coprounes: ornamentally carved cops [surmounting tops] craftyly sleye: expertly skilful

798 chese: discerned inoghe: in plenty

799 bastel-roves: turret-roofs that blenked: which (i.e. the chimneys) shone

800 powdered aywhere: bestrewn everywhere

801 carneles: crenellations, battlements clambred: crowded thikke: densely (these battlements and turrets of 799 and 801 are not those of 790–91 (which belong to the barbican wall-gate), but those of the castle visible behind and above the barbican)

802 pared: cut purely: absolutely, veritably

803 fre freke: noble man inoghe: very

804 If: if only kever: manage cloyster: enclosure

805 herber: take lodging halyday: holy days, festival period

806 Avinaunt: agreeably, becomingly

808 pure plesaunt: truly complaisant

809 ‘From the wall he received his (Gawain’s) request’

810 ‘And greeted the knight errant’; erraunt (< French errer [go]) is a separate word from er(a)nd(e) [errand]: a knight errant is an itinerant knight, i.e. one on a journey or quest

811 go myn ernde: go on my business, take my message

812 high lord: master crave: ask, request

813 Ye, Peter: yes, by St Peter (who bore the keys of heaven) purely I trowe: I quite believe

814 ‘That you will be a man welcome to stay as long as it pleases you’; where Gawain used the informal thou to the porter (811), his social inferior, the porter uses the polite form ye to Gawain

815 yede him: went yateward: gatekeeper com ayain swythe: came back again quickly

816 folk: servants, attendants frely: nobly, courteously fonge: receive

817 draght: drawbridge derely: in noble manner yede: went

819 ‘To welcome this same man in what hem thoghte [to them seemed] a worthy manner’

820 ‘They yielded him (entrance via) the broad gate, (which was) set wide open’; the brode yate is a double gate (two gates set side by side and opening at the centre) at the inner end of the drawbridge

821 hem raysed rekenly: graciously bade them rise (from their knees: 818)

822 ‘Various men took hold of the saddle for him while he alighted’; the saddle is liable to slip during dismounting, especially when the rider is a heavily armed knight

823 stif men inowe: many stalwart men

824 swyeres: squires comen (pa pl) doun: i.e. from the hall (generally at first-floor level and reached by steps)

825 with blisse: with public celebration

826 hef up: took off hyed: hastened inowe: many (men)

827 ‘To take it from his hands, in order to be of service to the worthy man’

828 bronde: sword blasoun: shield

829 haylsed: greeted, saluted hendly: graciously

830 mony proud man: many a great man (cf. C 1177) presed: pressed forward

831 hasped: buckled high wede: noble array, i.e. armour wonnen: brought

832 There: where flet: floor ferslyche brenned: burned fiercely

833 lede: men, i.e. community over which the lord has authority (see footgloss to 679) loutes fro: makes his way from

834 menske: courtesy

835 welde: have control or command, be master as yow likes: as it pleases you

836–7 ‘Everything that is here is your own, to have and be master of at your pleasure’

838 Grant mercy: many thanks

839 ‘May Christ reward you for it’

840 frekes: men fayn: glad, well pleased

841 ‘Each enfolded the other in (his) arms’

842 glyght on: looked at gome: man godly: graciously grette: greeted

843 bold burn: fine man that the burgh aghte [had]: who ruled the castle

844 for the nones: certainly of high elde: at the height of his powers

845 bever hued: beaver-coloured, i.e. brown

846 Sturne: tough, dauntless stif on the strythe [stance]: firm on his legs

847 Felle [fierce, stern] face as the fire: a face as fierce as fire (cf. 832) fre of his speche: his speech expressing noble liberality

848–9 (cf. 679) wel him semed … To: it well beseemed him to, he was well qualified to for sothe: in truth segge: man (Gawain) lede a lordeschyp in lee of ledes ful goode: head an estate of a worthy feudal community in a castle

850 charred to: led him aside into chefly: especially, particularly

851 To delyver him a lede: that a man should be given to him

852 boun: ready, obedient bode: bidding burnes inowe: many men

853 bryght bour: splendid chamber there: where beddyng: soft furnishings for a bedroom

854 cortynes of clene silk: bed-curtains of pure silk

855 curious: elaborate, intricately worked panes: sections, panels

856 ‘With (panels of) splendid fur on the top and embroidered side panels’

857 ‘The bed-curtains running on cords (going through) pure gold (curtain-)rings’

858 Tapites tyght to the wowe: hangings set upon the wall tuly red silk tarse fabric from Tharsia

859 under fete: underfoot flet: floor of folwande sute: i.e. the cloths on the floor match those on the wall

860 dispoyled: disarmed speches of mirthe [happiness]: cheerful talk

861 bruny: mail corslet bryght wedes: shining garments, i.e. armour

862 Riche robes: fine outfits; robe often indicated a set of clothes rad: promptly renkes: men

863 charge: put on chaunge: have a change of apparel chose of the beste: select the best

864 one hent: took/chose one (outfit) happed: was enwrapped

865 with saylande [flowing] skyrtes: i.e. long and full-skirted

866 ver: spring by his visage: by his appearance, from the sight of him verayly: truly

867a uche hathel: each man

867b–68 clearly refers to the Lowande [glowing] colours of the costume covering Gawain’s limbs; but, since 867b is metrically defective, there is evidently some corruption here, and only awkward sense can be made of the MS as it stands

869 That: so that comloker: more comely, fairer

870 Hem thoght: it seemed to them

871 ‘From wherever he had come’; the court does not discover who Gawain is or from whence he had come until 901–7: it was a rule of hospitality that guests should not be questioned as to their identity or business till they had been fed (cf. 254–5)

872 moght: might, could well

873 withouten pere: without peer/equal

874 there: where felle: fierce, stern foght: fought

875 chymne: fireplace there: where

876 Wordplay on graythed [made ready] and graythly [properly, suitably] clothes: fabrics, soft furnishings

877 Whyssynes: cushions queldepoyntes: quilted cloths quoynte: skilfully fashioned, well made

878 mery: beautiful

879 broun [dark], as specifying a colour, covered brown through violet or purple; a dark mauve or berry colour is probably indicated here bleaunt: a kind of fabric enbrawded: provided with decorative detail; the verb ‘embroider’ covered any kind of in-sewing, e.g. of jewels or gold thread, as well as ornamental stitchwork riche: splendidly

880 felles of the beste: pelts of the most superior sort

881 in erde: in fact (a tag) of the same: i.e. matching (cf. 157, 170)

882 Wordplay on sete [sat] and settel [seat] semlyche riche: becomingly luxurious

883 And achaufed him chefly: and, most to the point, warmed himself up his chere mended: i.e. he felt better, cheered up

884 ‘Soon a table [board] was raised up on trestles in the proper fashion’ (the board is set up for and removed after each meal: cf. 1648, C 832); since it is Christmas Eve, the household has already eaten the single meal usual on a fast day, and the meal here is specially prepared for their guest

886 Sanap: ‘save-nap’, cloth runner over tablecloth salure: vessel for salt

887 wesch: washed (his hands) (cf. 72, C 831) mete: food

888 semely inoghe: very finely

889 ‘With sewes [stews, sauces] that were both sere [various] and sete [wholesome, appetizing], sesounde [mixed, cooked together] with the best ingredients’

890 ‘With double portions (cf. 61), as is the proper custom, and many kinds of fish’; since it is a fast day, the dishes are all fish rather than flesh

891 bred: pastry brad on the gledes: roasted over the coals

892 sothen [pa ppl of ‘seethe’]: boiled sewe: stew savoured: flavoured (cf. C 825)

893 sawes: sauces (often provided in separate dishes) sleye: skilful, expertly cooked liked: was pleased

894 frely: with generous courtesy (cf. 816 for the contextual social sense ‘showing appreciation’)

895 hendly: graciously, courteously when: whereupon, at which point rehayted him: encouraged him

896 As hende: as (equally) courteous men, i.e. being (themselves) courteous

897–8 penaunce: penitential fare eft: later, afterwards amende: improve (the household responds to Gawain’s compliment (894) by pointing out that the fare is actually that of a fast day not a feast day, but will (when Christmas Day comes) get more interesting, just as penance leads to spiritual amendment)

899 much mirthe con make: made merry, behaved cheerfully

900 ‘On account of the wine that made its way to his head’

901–2 ‘Then questions and enquiries were made of that noble man in a sparing (i.e. non-insistent) way by poyntes [observations] put to him whose purpose (to extract information) was privy [not obvious]’

903 That he beknew cortaysly: with the result that he courteously acknowledged

904 athel: noble him one: alone, i.e. as absolute sovereign

905 That: who

906 hit: it Wawan: a variant form of Gawan (cf. 348) won: dwelling place

907 that Cristmasse: those Christmas festivities case: chance lymped: befell

908 lord: master of the house hade lerned: was informed lede: man (Gawain) (since Gawain is being served in his chamber with a meal specially prepared for him, the lord and other guests (cf. 910–11) are not present, but the news (of the guest’s identity) is at once taken to them)

909 so lef hit him thoghte: so dear it seemed to him, i.e. so glad did it make him

910 mote: castle

911 prestly: promptly, eagerly

912–13 That … Apendes to his persoun: to whom pertains pris [price and praise]: worth prowes: prowess in arms purede: flawless thewes: social and/or moral (good) qualities in behaviour and praysed is ever: and who is universally praised

914 molde: earth mensk: moral-social grace and standing

915 Uch segge: each man fere: companion

916–17 ‘Now shall we see sleghtes [skills, arts] of thewes [manners, behaviour] becomingly (practised) and the flawless (command of) expressions proper to excellent talking’

918 Wich sped [what kind of success] is in speche: what can be done in the way of speech unspurd: without asking, i.e. without efforts of investigation (contrast 901)

919 Syn: since fonged: received socially (cf. 816), i.e. received as a guest fyne (cf. C 794, 1122): free of faults (like refined gold: cf. 633–4) fader: ‘father’, i.e. fount, wellspring nurture: courtly and gracious manners and conduct

920 godly: with good will, i.e. liberally for sothe: in truth

921 That: who (referring back to God: 920)

922 When: at a time (Christmas) when burnes: men

924 menyng: understanding mere: beautiful

926 ‘I think whoever may hear him’

927 of luf-talkyng: about speech that is a delight to hear

928 By that: by the time that diner: the first (or, on a fast day, as here, the only) meal of the day the dere: the noble one (Gawain) uppe: risen from the table

929 ‘It was almost to night that the time had approached’

930 Chaplaynes: priests of the household chapel chosen the gate: took their way

931–2 Rungen … To: rang the bells to summon to hersum: ?reverent evensong of the highe tyde: i.e. Christmas Eve Vespers

933 loutes: makes his way lady was not a polite word for ‘woman’, but a status term, referring to the female equivalent of a lord and here indicating the ‘mistress’ of the house (whose existence is here mentioned for the first time)

934 closet: private enclosure – often situated, as here, in the chancel (cf. 946), close to the altar coyntly: with comely propriety ho: she

935 glydes: proceeds gay: richly apparelled, in his finery (see 862–70)

936 laches: takes lappe: fold (of the sleeve, which hung loose and long in fashionable dress: cf. Pe 201)

937 couthly him knowes: acknowledges him in the manner of a friend his name: by his name (see 908–9)

938 wye: man

939 throly: earnestly ayther: each halched: embraced; but the word does not alliterate and may be inauthentic

940 seten: they sat samen: together the servyce while: for the duration of the service

941 lyste: it pleased loke on: look toward, give her attention to

942 com ho of: she came out of clere burdes: lovely (attendant) ladies

943–4 fayrest … of all other: fairer than all other woman in felle [skin]: in body lere: face compas and colour: figure and skin colour costes: (good) qualities, graces of manner

945 Wordplay on wener [more lovely] and Wenore [Guinevere] then: (even) than

946 Ho chese: she made her way chaunsel: chancel (the part of the church containing the choir and altar) cherisch: show favour to that hende: that gracious man

948 alder: older auncian [revered elder] is a term of respect

949 with hatheles aboute: by the men (i.e. attendants) surrounding her

950 on to loke: to look upon

951 yep: fresh, vibrant yolwe [yellow], as applied to skin, meant ‘wan, without ruddiness’

952 red: ruddiness rayled [spread] aywhere: to be seen everywhere

953 ‘Hairy, wrinkled cheeks hung loosely on that other’

954 Kerchofes (< OF cuevre-chefs) of that one: kerchiefs/head cloths belonging to the one lady (all married and older women covered their heads, but there were different styles of veiling: the younger lady has chosen the minimal amount of covering, which leaves her throat and breast exposed to view: 955–6)

956 schyrer then: more brightly than

957 gorger: neck-covering gered: decked, arrayed swyre: neck (contrast 955: the older lady’s head coverings are concealing rather than revealing)

958 Chymbled over: wrapped up around blake: grey, lustreless with: by means of vayles: head cloths (here arranged to cover also the chin and forehead)

959 frount folden in silk: brow (also) enfolded in (further) silk veiling enfoubled: enwrapped

960 The sense of the key terms in this line is not known (see n. to 957–62)

961 That noght: so that nothing burde: lady

962 twayne iyen: two eyes; with linking alliteration on -ne iyen

963 soure: unattractive sellyly: wondrously, extremely blered: bleary, watery

964 mensk: comely on mold: on earth (a tag) man: one

965 For goode: seriously, truly

967 balwe: swelling

968 lykkerwys: delicious lik: lick, taste

969 that scho had on lode: the one she had in her leading

970 ‘When Gawain looked on that beautiful one who was looking at him with courteous good will’ (cf. 842)

971 leve: permission (to approach the ladies) laght: taken, obtained lut hem agaynes: turned towards them

972 haylses: hails, greets heldande: bowing

973 loveloker: lovelier lappes: enwraps, encloses

974 Kissing (within and between the sexes) was common as a social and friendly gesture (cf. 1979, 2492) knyghtly he meles: he speaks with the courtesy becoming a knight

975 callen him of: require from him aquoyntaunce [(closer) familiarity] indicated a friendly intimacy that went beyond mere ‘aquaintance’ in its ModE sense quik: earnestly hit [it] is an anticipatory pronoun referring forward to 976a

976 her: their sothly: truly if hemself liked: if it was pleasing to them

977 tan [take], leden: cf. 936; the ladies are taking over from the lord the hospitable escort of the guest (cf. 1315–16)

978 chamber: one of the smaller, more private rooms (as opposed to the large public ‘hall’), with its own chymne [fireside] chefly: directly, in particular

979 Spyces: spiced edibles (served over the evening as a nightcap and digestive) unsparely: unsparingly, in plenty speded hem to brynge: sped to bring to them

980 wynnelyche: delightful

981 luflych: in a good-humoured way aloft: to his feet

982 Mynned … upon mony sythes: frequently exhorted

983 Hent highly of: ceremoniously/ostentatiously took off

984–5 ‘And directed them to win the honour of it (as a prize for) whoever might move (i.e. bring into being) most mirthe [happiness, fun] for the duration of those Christmas festivities’

986 fonde: try fylter: struggle, contend

987 Ere me wonte the wedes: ‘before my clothing be wanting to me’, before I lose my clothes; i.e. the lord too will compete, to try and retain his hood

988 laghande lotes: laughing words hit tayt makes: behaves festively

989 glade: gladden, cheer gamnes: games, amusements

992 lyght: i.e. torches and candles to light the inmates to their beds

993 his leve con nyme: took his leave

994 him dight: betook himself

995 morn as: day when mynes: commemorates

996 Dryhtyn: (the) Lord for our destine: i.e. so that our destined end should be salvation in heaven

997 Wele: well-being, joy waxes: arises won: dwelling

998 dayntyes: choice foods

999a Both at messe and at mele is usually taken to refer to an informal meal or buffet (an unattested sense of messe) and a formal one; but the line is suspect, alliteration formed by repetition of the same word (messe … messes) being highly anomalous

999b–1000 ‘Doughty men disposed upon the dais most skilfully made dishes of the best kind’; the dese was the transverse table – at the head of the side tables – where the most important diners were seated

1001 auncian: venerable wyf: woman ho [she]: recapitulatory pronoun (on the dais, the aged lady is given the place of honour to the right of the host and thus ‘sits highest’ or ‘begins the table’: cf. 112)

1002 lovely her by lent: seated with gracious friendliness beside her

1003 gay burde: beautiful lady (Gawain’s position at table is, as at Camelot, next to the hostess at the dais: cf. 109, 339)

1004–5 ‘(These four persons) in that very middle (at the dais) where the dishes would fittingly first come and then (pass) through all the hall, as (i.e. in the order that) best befitted them (the diners)’; the guests are seated and served in order of social precedence (cf. C 92)messe: course and/or portion of food

1006 By: once (cf. 2032) at his degre: in the order dictated by his rank graythly: duly

1007 mete: food mirthe: joy, revelry

1008 hit me tene were: it would be trouble to me

1009 ‘If I should yet perhaps make a strenuous effort to set it down’

1010 wot: know wale: choice, beautiful

1011 of her [their] compayny: in each other’s company caghten: received

1012 dere dalyaunce: excellent conversation derne: private

1013 carp: speech closed fro: closed off from, excluding fylthe: uncleanness, impropriety

1014 play: pleasurable occupation passande: surpassing, superior to uch a prince game: every sport/pleasure open even to a prince

1015 In vayres: in truth

1016 nakerys: kettledrums

1017 pipyng: music of pipes repayres: assembles, is gathered

1018–19 ‘Each man attended to his own affairs, and those two attended to theirs’

1020 dut was … driven: revel was engaged in that other: the next

1021 Saynt Johnes day is 27 December gentyl to here: fine to hear

1022 thrid: third (day after Christmas), i.e. 28 December (Holy Innocents’ Day) also thro: in equally lively fashion throng in: pressed in, came in

1023 layk: sport, revelry thoghten: had in mind, were aware (the three feast days following Christmas were festa ferianda (holy days on which all business or travel was forbidden); the last of them therefore forms a natural terminus for the house party, the guests all being due to leave the next morning: cf. 1024, 1028)

1024 to go: due to go gray: was a standard epithet for the dawn or morning

1025 Forthy: therefore woke: ‘watched’, i.e. stayed awake partying, revelled far into the night

1026 dryly: unceasingly caroles: ring dances performed to sung words

1027 lachen her leve: take their leave (of their host) (since the guests are due to go early (before dawn: 1126–7), they make their goodbyes the night before; Gawain similarly performs the ceremony of leave-taking the night before a departure scheduled for very early the next day: 1960ff)

1028 ‘Each one who was strange [not an inmate of the house] due to go on his way’

1029 gave him good day is a parting formula (cf. e.g. 668) (Gawain, like the other guests, also intends to leave the next day – to resume his search, suspended for the duration of the holy days) the goodman: i.e. the owner of a house, the host in this case (cf. e.g. 1392) him laches: takes hold of him (cf. 936)

1030 Charres: turns, conducts the chymne biside: near to the fireplace

1031 drawes him on drye: draws aside derely: earnestly

1032–3 Of the wynne [joy-bringing] worschip that he him wayved hade As to: for doing him such a gratifying honour as to highe tyde: major Church festival, holy season (e.g. cf. 932)

1034 enbelyse: embellish burgh: castle bele chere: beautiful manners, graces of behaviour

1035–6 while … me worthes the better [it will become for me the better] That: i.e. my whole life will be enhanced by the fact that Goddes owne fest: the feast day of God Himself (as opposed to a holy day associated with a saint)

1037 Grant mercy: French for ‘thank you’ hit is youres: i.e. it is you who have bestowed honour (on me), not I (on you)

1038 the High-Kyng yow yelde: may God reward you; Gawain always uses to his host the honorific plural pronoun ye, not the informal thou

1039 ‘I am a man at your disposal, to carry out your commands’

1040 ‘As I am holden [beholden, morally obligated] to do in great and small matters’

1041 By right: rightfully

1042 fast con him payne: earnestly exerted himself

1043 holde lenger: keep longer, detain (in his house)

1045 ‘That he could by no means (stay)’

1046 frayned the freke … at himselven the man (i.e. the host) asked of him

1047 derve dede: tough business, demanding mission driven: compelled dere tyme: special time, major festival (cf. 92)

1048 kenely: hastily, urgently kayre all his one: take his way all on his own

1049 ‘Before the festive season was wholly withdrawn from houses’

1051 ‘An important mission and an urgent one took me from those living-quarters’

1052 sumned myself to sech to: called upon to make my way in person to

1053 ‘(Which) I do not know in what direction in the world to wende [go] to find’; omitted relative pronoun followed by recapitulatory pronoun

1054 I nolde bot if I hit negh [come near] myght: I would not (have it otherwise) but that I might approach it

1055 inwith: within Logres: Arthur’s kingdom (see 691) so me our Lorde helpe: so help me God

1056 ‘Therefore, sir, I here make this request of you’

1057 tale: talk

1059 kepes: guards

1060 stabled: legally fixed, confirmed statut: compact, covenant steven: agreement, appointment

1061 mere: boundary, demarcated or designated place laste: live long enough to do so

1062 ilk: same bot neked: only a mere small piece (cf. 1805), scarcely anything wontes: is lacking

1064 Gladloker: more gladly then any good welde: than possess any kind of goods

1065 by your wille: with your permission wende me behoves: it is necessary for me to go, I must go

1066 Naf (= ne haf) I now to busy bot bare: I have not now (any time left in which) to busy myself (in seeking out the chapel) except only

1067 ‘With me being as fain (= glad) to fall down feye [doomed to death] as to fail to accomplish the business I am pledged to’ (fayle: fail to stand by a promise or pledge)

1068 laghande: laughing leng: stay (as a guest) thee behoves: you must (see 1065)

1069 teche yow to: show you the way to (cf. Pe 936) terme: goal (of a journey), destination by the tymes ende: i.e. by the end of the three days left before New Year

1070 ‘Let the Green Chapel standing on the face of the earth trouble you no more’

1071 at thyn ese: in comfort

1072 While forth-dayes (cf. C 1764): until the day is well forth, until clear day, i.e. there will be no need to get up at or before dawn ferk: go, depart

1073 merk: target, place aimed at mydmorn: about 9.00 a.m. make what yow likes: do whatever it pleases you to do

1074 In spenne: there, in that place; spenne is a topographical term out of which a tag with loose sense is here created

1075 Dwelles (pl imp: see p. xviii) while: stay until

1076 ris and raykes: get out of bed and go

1077 ‘(I will provide) someone (who) will put you on the right road’ (cf.1971)

1078 henne: hence, from here

1079 gomenly: happily, joyfully

1080 thryvandely: profusely, vigorously thurgh all other thinges: above all, first and foremost

1081 Gawain feels that, now that he knows where the Chapel is, he cannot fail to keep his promise (to do his best to arrive at it on New Year’s Day: 402–3), and so his chaunce [adventure] is as good as acheved, i.e. ‘in the bag’

1082 Dwelle: stay elles: otherwise, in all else demen: bid, say

1083 him^1 provides the object for both sesed [took hold of] and set [seated] him biside: beside himself, by his own side

1084 Let the ladies be fette: had the ladies brought like hem: entertain them

1085 seme solace: seemly pleasure by hemself stille: privately among themselves (see MED stille adv 4(a)); the other guests have said their farewells (1027–8) and gone to bed

1086 let: let out, uttered luf: pleasure, joy lotes: words, cries

1087 ‘(That he seemed) like a man who was about to go out of his wits and was acting on impulse’

1088 carped: spoke cryande loude: crying out loudly

1089 ‘You have said you will do what I say’ (see 1082)

1090 ‘Will you keep this promise here and now?’ (at this ones: on this occasion)

1091 Ye: yea, yes

1092 bide: remain, stay burgh: castle bayn: obedient heste: command, bidding

1093 travayled: toiled, taxed your strength towen fro ferre: journeyed from far away

1094 sithen: then waked: stayed up late warist: cured, recuperated

1095 of sustnaunce ne of: with respect to nourishment nor with respect to

1096 leng: linger, stay loft: upstairs room

1097 while the Masse-while: until the time of Mass mete: food, meal wende: go

1100 lende (imp): remain, stay

1103 these: these things

1104 Him heldande: bowing to him as the hende: like the courteous man he was (as = being someone who was: cf. 321, 896)

1105 Yet ferre: furthermore freke: man we make: let us make

1106 wode: wood, i.e. hunting ground hit worthes to: it will become

1107 what chek so ye acheve: whatever spoils you gain chaunge me therefore: exchange it with me for that, i.e. for what I give you

1108 ‘Dear man, let us exchange in this way, answer by letting me have your word on it’

1109 ‘To whichever man there thus befalls (what is) lere [empty] or better (in value)’; lede [man] is dative: it is the indirect object of the impersonal verb lymp [fall to the lot of]

1110 the goode is Gawain’s sobriquet (cf. 109, 633) I grante theretille: I agree to that

1111 yow lyst for to layke: it pleases you to play games lef hit me thinkes: ‘dear it seems to me’, i.e. I really appreciate it (cf. 909)

1112 ‘If someone will bring us the drink, this contract will be sealed’; drinking on an agreement, especially a mercantile one, was a way of formalizing it (cf. 1409, 1684, 1935); this beverage: the drink that is customary on such occasions; this is exophoric, referring to a category known to speaker and audience from outside the text (cf. 1139, 1514)

1113 lord of that lede [people]: master of that community (cf. 679, 833) uchone: each one

1114 daylyeden: ‘dallied’, conversed dalten untyghtel: ?talked informally

1115 while that hem liked: for as long a time as it pleased them

1116 frenkysch fare: ‘French behaviour’, in the French manner (France was the source and model of social and courtly behaviour and procedures)fele: many lotes: words

1117 stemed: fell silent stilly: quietly, calmly

1118 comlyly: pleasantly caghten her leve: took their leave of each other

1119 ‘With the aid of many an attendant (who was) happy (to perform that service) and gleaming torches [large waxen candles: cf. 1650]’

1122 ere: before yede: went

1123 Recorded: they rehearsed (cf. 392–3)

1124 olde: may be appreciative and/or knowing in tone (‘good old’) and may imply ‘no novice’, i.e. in the matter of being a lord and knowing how to play games and entertain guests; there is something of a wink to the audience in this fitt-closing comment

1125 ‘Knew well how to keep up sport’

1126 the folk: the servants, household staff; the specially early rising is because (a) all guests except Gawain are going home today (see 1024) and must maximize the hours of daylight available for their jour(= day)neys; and (b) the lord is going hunting, which also involved a pre-dawn rising (1137; cf. 1101). The scene is set in the castle courtyard and depicts the preparations for departure of both groups: the guests (1127–32) and the huntsmen (1133ff)

1127 gromes: servants with outdoor and stable duties

1128 busken up bylive: rise up quickly blonkes: horses

1129 Tyffen her takles: set their gear in order trussen her males: pack their bags

1130 ‘The most important men (i.e. the masters, as opposed to the gromes) make themselves ready, having completed the preliminaries for a long ride’

1131 lachen: take hold of

1132 wye: man there him wel liked: to wherever it well pleased him

1133 leve: dear, good (attention here switches from the departing guests to the inmates preparing for the hunt)

1134 Arayed for the rydyng: prepared for serious riding (cf. 1130) renkes: men

1135 A sop was a snack (typically bread soaked in milk, wine or water), which the lord here takes after Mass (which was heard fasting) in place of the first of the two main meals of the day (dinner, which Gawain eats after rising at 1312), the second (supper) taking place after he has returned from the field (1400)

1136 bent-felde: field buskes bylive: proceeds promptly

1137 By that that: by the time that, i.e. before lemed: shone

1138 hatheles: men high horses: tall (i.e. fine) horses

1139 these cacheres that couthe: the dog handlers who knew their trade well; these is exophoric (see 1112) coupled her houndes: ‘coupled’ their dogs; hunting dogs were leashed together, often in pairs, before being released to pursue the game

1141 bigly: stoutly, strongly bare thre motes: precisely three long calls

1142 Braches were smallish scenting and chasing hounds therefore: at that breme: vigorous, intense

1143–44a ‘And they who were to take part in the chasyng [driving] of the deer checked and directed a hundred hunting-dogs’ (chastysed: checked, not punished; charred: turned the course)

1146 The hunt is to be a ‘drive’, in which the deer will be driven towards pre-set stations or trysteres, where they will be brought down with the aid of special sorts of dogs – greyhounds (1170–71), a category which included veuteres or alaunts, for which handlers called feuterers (vewters) were responsible yod: variant of ‘yede’ [went]

1147 ‘Huntsmen took off the leashes’ (by which the hounds are leashed to one another: see 1139)

1149 rurd: noise forest, like wood (cf. 1106) and park (768), often referred to a hunting preserve

1150 quethe: ‘speech’, utterance quest: (dogs engaged in the) hunt quaked the wylde: the wild animals quivered

1151 Dere drof in the dale: in the valley, the deer raced doted for drede: crazed with fear

1152 Hyed to the high: hastened to the high ground heterly: forcefully, sharply

1153 Restayed with: checked by the stablye: (those manning) one of the hunting stations placed so as to prevent the deer leaving the course in which they were to be driven stoutly ascryed: loudly shouted at them

1154 herttes: harts, male red deer have the gate: go their way, have egress with the highe hedes: with antlers (which female deer do not have)

1155 breme: vigorous, sturdy bukkes: bucks, male fallow deer her: their paumes: flat parts of antlers

1156–7 fre: noble, right-minded in fermysoun tyme: in the closed season (when male deer could not be hunted) defende … That there schulde no man meve to: forbidden anyone to proceed against

1158 hindes: hinds, female red deer Hay (cf. 1445) and Ware [mind out!] were cries used in hunting

1159 does: female fallow deer depe slades: low-lying areas at the base of the slopes; the deer are driven back downhill from the high ground they have made for (1152) towards the trysts, which are situated on ‘low’ ground (1170)

1160 thay slypped: they (arrows) were let go slentyng of arwes: the shooting flight of arrows

1161 uch wende: each turning wande: (thinnish) branch wapped a flone: whapped an arrow

1162 bigly: firmly bote [bit] on: lodged themselves in the broun: the brown hides hedes: arrowheads

1163 What: Indeed by bonkes: on the hill slopes

1164 raches: ‘braches’ (see 1142), dogs used in chasing res: rush radly hem folwes: rapidly pursue them

1165 high horne: loud horn

1166 crakkande: shattering as: as if had brusten: had burst apart with a crash

1167 ‘Whatever wild animal escaped men that shot arrows’

1168 to-raced: torn to pieces (to)-rent: rent apart resayte: receiving station, tryst

1169 ‘By the time that they had been tened [afflicted, harassed] on the high ground and taysed [‘teased’, harried, driven] to the water (i.e. to the low ground: cf. 1159, 1170)’

1170 The ledes were so lerned: so expert were the men (one of the many references to the hunt as an art and a discipline: cf. 1139, 1143) low trysteres: receiving stations situated on low-lying ground

1171 that geten hem bylive: which got them at once

1172 hem to-fylched: fell upon them as frekes myght loke: i.e. in the blink of an eye

1173 There right: right there

1174 abloy has not been satisfactorily explained

1175 con launce and lyght: galloped forward and alighted

1176 drof: spent, passed

1178 laykes: sports, amuses himself lyndewodes eves [eaves]: in the outskirts of the wood

1179 gay: fine, splendid lygges: lies

1180 Lurkkes: remains under cover while: until lemed on the wowes: gleamed on the walls

1181 covertor ful cler: most beautiful coverlet (coverlet and curtain are described at 854–6)

1182–3 ‘And as his mind slid along in slumber, he heard a slight sound (made) sleyly [so as not to attract attention] at his door and (heard) it dernely [secretly, quietly] open’

1184 heves up: lifts up

1185 caght up: lifted up

1186 ‘And looks furtively in that direction (to see) what it could be’

1187 loveliest on lyve: loveliest (of women) alive

1188 dernly: secretly, surreptitiously stille: quietly, stealthily

1189 bowed: went, proceeded schamed: felt embarrassed

1190 lystily: with careful art let as [behaved as if] he slepte: pretended to be asleep

1191 ho: she stilly: softly, gently stel: stole

1192 Cast up: lifted up creped withinne: crept within the curtained space

1194 lenged: remained selly: ‘wondrously’, extremely to loke when he wakened: to watch for when should wake up

1195 lurked: stayed covered up

1196–7 ‘Turned over in his mind what this action might point or amount to – to a marvel, it seemed to him’

1198 semely: seemly, decent were: would be

1199 ‘To see in space [in due course] by means of spelle [speaking (with her)] what she wants’

1200 wroth: ‘writhed’, twisted himself around to-her-ward: towards her

1201 unlouked his iye-lyddes: opened his eyes wider let as him wondered: acted out wonderment

1202–3 ‘And crossed himself, as if to worthe [be, become] the safer in his sawe [words, morning prayer] by accompanying it with such a hand gesture’ (the sign of the cross was believed to ward off evil)

1205 in blande: in commixture, blended together

1206 ‘Most charmingly did she lete [behave, demean herself]’

1207 laghande: laughing

1208 moroun: morrow, morning gay: beautiful

1209 Gawain and the lady consistently address each other with the respectful ye (see footgloss to 343) a sleper unslye: an incautious sleeper that man may slyde hider: in that one can slip in here; the reference is to military situations, in which sleepers were vulnerable to surprise attacks (cf. C 1765–88)

1210–11 The military metaphor continues through tan as tite [taken (prisoner) at once], Bot true us may schape [unless a truce can be brought about for us] and bynde [bind] that be ye ful trayste: be assured of that

1212 laused: released, uttered tho bourdes: those joking words

1213 gay: lovely (one) blythe: friendly, well disposed

1214 Me schal worthe [to me shall it come about] at your wille (cf. 1302): i.e. my fate is in your hands me wel likes: pleases me well

1215 ‘I surrender myself readily and call for mercy’; Gawain is taking up the lady’s conceit of a ‘captured’ prisoner

1216 dome: judgement me bos nede: so must I needs (do)

1217 bourded agayn: jested back again (cf. 1212) blythe laghter: light-hearted laugh

1218 wolde ye: if you would lady (the female equivalent of a lord) is here used by Gawain to acknowledge the young wife as ‘mistress’ of his fate leve: permission to ‘leave’ a place (cf. 545, where Gawain asks leve from his lord)

1219 deprece: ?release from durance prysoun: prisoner rise is a kind of pun: it would be from his knees, rather than from his bed, that a surrendering knight (cf. 1215) might be graciously bidden to rise

1220 bow of: go from buske me better: array myself better, put myself in better array

1221 kever: acquire, get carpe yow tille: converse with you

1222 beau sir [my fine sir] is a French phrase often used with a touch of irony swete: fair one

1223–4 Ye schal not: you’re not going to; ‘will’ and ‘shall’ retained their original senses when used as auxiliary verbs, ‘will’ implying volition, and ‘shall’ [must] futurity, compulsion or inevitability: the lady is exercising the captress’s right to command rest: bed I riche yow better: I’ll put you in better array (the lines are a response to 1220–21: the lady says she finds Gawain better wrapped for the purposes of carp (1221, 1225) in the bed ‘clothes’) happe: enwrap here: on this side (where she is sitting) that other half alse: and on that other side as well

1226 wene wel: think well, am sure iwysse: indeed

1227 worschipes: honours, reveres whereso: wherever

1228 hendelayk: courtesy, gracious considerateness hendely: courteously, in courtly terms

1229 With: by with all that lif bere: by everyone alive

1230 bot our one: just (the two of us) on our own

1231 lord: husband are on lenthe faren: are some way away

1232 burnes: gentlemen; burn implies gentle birth; the reference is to well-born inmates and attendants: the menials arise at dawn and are already at work (1126) burdes: gentlewomen alse: as well

1233 drawen: closed dit: (held) shut (cf. C 320) derf haspe: strong clasp

1234 sithen: since him that all likes: him who pleases everyone

1235 ware: spend, use while: time while that hit lastes: for as long as it lasts

1236 tale: talk, words

1237 ‘You are (a guest) welcome to my corse (i.e. me: cf. C 683)’

1238 Your owen won [recourse, choice of action] to wale [choose]: to do as you will

1239 ‘It behoves me (i.e. I must) of very necessity’

1240 and schale: and I shall be; the offer of service was a respectful gesture – here of host to an honoured guest – common in polite circles (cf. 976)

1241 gayn hit me thinkes: your words are welcome to me

1243 reche to: reach, be equal to reverence: honour, high regard reherse: set out, describe

1244 wye: a man I wot wel myselven: I myself know it well

1245–7 ‘By God, I would be glad and [if] you were pleased in respect of any words or service I might dedicate to the pleasure of your worthy self – it would be a sheer joy (to me)’; your pris [your worth] is a polite form of address of the kind still heard in e.g. ‘your Highness’

1248 gay: beautiful

1249 pris: worth prowes: excellence other: others, other people

1250 hit lakked [found fault with] or set at lyght [set light by]: dispraised it or put small value on it hit were little daynte: it would show little courteous respect (on my part)

1251 hit are ladies inogh: there are plenty of ladies that lever were nowthe: to whom it would now be dearer, i.e. who in today’s world would prefer

1252 Have thee, hende, in her holde: to have you, courteous one, in their custody

1253 To daly with derely: to converse with in a choice manner for your daynte wordes: through your exquisite speech

1254 Kever hem comfort: to get themselves a source of comfort (cf. 1221)colen: to cool, assuage her: their

1255 Then: than (dependent on lever: 1251) garysoun: treasure, valuables gat that thay haven: that they have won; Gawain as a prisoner would be prized beyond any other booty that had been gained

1256 love (not ‘lovy’ [love]): praise ilk: same that the lyft holdes: who holds the heavens in his hands (see C 734)

1257 hit … that: that thing … that

1258 Thurgh grace: through the grace (= free, i.e. unearned, gift) of God

1259 ‘Such good entertainment did she extend to him/So warm a welcome did she give him’; the expression was usually used with reference to the treatment of a guest

1260 That: (she) who

1261 skere: ‘clear’, fair, unexceptionable

1262 ‘Responded to each point’

1263 Madame: my lady mery: handsome, comely Mary yow yelde: may the Virgin Mary reward you

1264 fraunchise: magnanimity (in paying him such honour)

1265 The line appears to be corrupt, but its general sense is plainly: ‘And have fongen [received] also equally gracious marks of respect from other members of the household’

1266 daynte: (marks of) courteous respectfulness delen: deal out, give for my desert nis hit: is not occasioned by my deserts

1267 ‘It is the honourable worth of yourselves (which dictates such honourable treatment of me), who can (see and do) nothing but what is well’

1268 By Mary: by the Virgin Mary (countering 1263) menskful: honourable or courtly person me think hit an other: the case seems to me to be a different one

1269 were I: if I were won: means, wealth

1270 wele: wealth

1271 And I schuld: and (if) I were to chepen: conduct mercantile negotiations, i.e. go shopping cheve me a lorde: obtain for myself a husband

1272 costes: qualities knowen upon thee: found in you

1273 debonerte: gracious behaviour blythe semblaunce: pleasant manner

1274 ‘And all that I have before heard (of you) and now (having met you) hold it to be true’; Gawain was famed for his courtesy (cf. 908–27)

1275 freke upon folde: man on earth before yow: in preference to you

1276 worthy: good lady wye: man waled wel better: chosen much better (a reference to the lady’s husband)

1277 pris that ye put on me: excellence that you impute to me

1278 soberly: in all seriousness soverayn: superior, mistress holde: consider

1279 Cryst yow foryelde: may Christ reward you

1280 meled: talked muchwhat: many matters mydmorn: about 9.00 a.m.

1281 ‘And always the lady behaved as if she liked him and loved [praised] him a lot’; but the line has been editorially reconstructed from a corrupt MS reading

1282 ferde with defence: practised defence, used defensive measures feted: acted, behaved

1283–4 ‘Even had it been the most beautiful of women, the man had with him in his mind the less (capacity for) love because of the lur [perdition] he was making his way to’; lode [load] was used of a ‘journey’, and may here refer to what one leads or carries with one (cf. 969) on a (grim) journey: Gawain’s luggage does not include refinements, of the material kind (as he points out at 1808–9) or of the emotional kind, i.e. amorous sensibility

1285 Bout hone: without delay

1286 dint: blow deve: ‘deafen’, stun, confound

1287 nedes: necessarily

1288 speke: spoke leve: permission to depart

1289 ‘He granted (it) to her very promptly’

1290 ho: she glent: glance

1291 stouned him with ful stor wordes: delivered in words a stiff blow that stunned him

1292 ‘Now may He that spedes [gives success or efficacy to] each act of speech reward you for this pleasant diversion’

1293 ungayn gos hit in mynde: with difficulty does it go into the mind, i.e. is hard to believe

1294 freschly: with energy, eagerly

1295 Ferde: feared castes: utterances (cf. 249); Gawain, famed for his courtesy (see 912–27), fears he may have been discourteous in some way

1296 burde: lady By this skylle: for the following reason

1297 gaynly: directly, explicitly; the allusion is to Gawain’s sobriquet of ‘good’ (see 109, 633)

1298 is closed so clene: is so perfectly enclosed

1299 Couth not lyghtly have lenged: could not easily have remained

1300 ‘Without requesting a kiss through his (skills in) courtesy’; the lady interprets Gawain’s ‘goodness’ and courtaysye as implying skills in gallantry

1301 ‘By lightly bringing up some little thing at the conclusion of some remark’, i.e. by giving a suggestive little concluding twist to something said; for the application of touch to words, cf. 1541, where it figures as a verb meaning ‘discourse upon’

1302 worthe: let it be as yow likes: as it pleases you

1303 as a knight falles: as it behoves a knight (who must obey his soverayn: 1278) to do

1304 prestly (emendation of MS fire): promptly, at once he refers back to a knight (1303) plede argue (a legal case for), sue for (cf. Pe 563)

1305 Ho: she nerre: nearer caches: takes

1306 ‘Bends amicably down and kisses the man’

1307 ‘With becoming propriety they commend each other to God (i.e. say goodbye [God be with you] to each other)’

1308 dos her forth: betakes herself, goes out withoute dyn more: without more ado

1309 riches him: prepares himself, gets ready rapes him sone: makes haste at once

1310 ‘Calls to his bedroom servant, choses his clothes’; a chamberlayn is assigned to Gawain along with a bedroom (851) and wede [clothing: 862–3], for the only dress he has with him is the armour he arrives and leaves in

1311 Bowes forth: goes forth boun: ready blythely: readily, promptly

1312 mete: food, meal menskly: courteously, in a civilized fashion keped: awaited

1314 game: amusements, pleasure, recreation

1315 fayrer: more beautifully fonge [taken]: received socially (cf. 816); but the word retains some of its concrete sense, since the ladies obviously ‘take’ Gawain physically Bitwene them (1316) as they literally ‘lead’ him (cf. 977) through an entertaining day

1316 dyngne dame: worthy ladies

1317 alder: elder

1318 solace: pleasure set thay: they made for themselves same: together

1319 lent on: engaged in

1320 holtes: woods, groves barayne: without offspring

1321 soumme: sum slow: killed helded: went down

1322 to deme were wonder: it would be a marvel to estimate

1323 fersly: vigorously flokked in: flocked together

1324 quelled: killed, slaughtered querre: ‘quarry’, collection of game

1325 The best: the best-born men bowed thereto: made their way there

1326 Gedered: gathered the grettest of gres: the fattest deer

1327 ‘And had them broken up professionally, in the way the procedure requires’

1328–9 ‘A selected few of those that were present examined them at the assay: two fingers’ thickness of fat they found on even the worst of them’

1330–31 ‘After that they slit the slot [the hollow running down from the base of the throat], took the erber [first stomach], trimmed it with a sharp knife and tied up the gleaming (organ) with a knot’

1332–4 ‘Then they cut (the skin round) the four limbs and tore off the hide. Then they broke open the belly, took out the entrails carefully, to avoid undoing the lere [ligature] of the knot’

1335–6 ‘They took hold of the throat and neatly separated the gullet from the windpipe and pulled out the guts’

1337–9 ‘Then they cut out the shoulders with their sharp knives, pulled them out through a small opening so as to keep the sides in one piece. Then they cut open the breast and pulled it in two’

1340–43 ‘And then one man begins again at the throat, cuts it open swiftly up to the byghte [fork of the forelegs], clears out the neck offal, and in the true way thereafter they quickly loosen all the membranes from the ribs’

1344–8 ‘Thus they trim away (the offal) in the right manner along the backbone right down to the haunch, so that it hung all together, and they lift it up whole, and cut it off there, and that they understand (neme [take]) as by kynde [nature] constituting what, as I believe, they call by the name of the numbles’

1349–52 ‘At the fork of the thighs they remove the lappes [folds of flesh] at the back (of the thighs). They hasten to hew it (the carcase) in two, dividing it along the backbone’

1353–5 ‘Both the head and the neck they cut off then, and after that they separate the sides swiftly from the chine (i.e. spine), and the corbeles fee [raven’s perquisite] they cast into a grove’

1356–8 ‘Then they pierced each of the thick sides through the ribs, and then used the hocks of the legs (thrust through the holes) to hang the sides by. Each man receives the perquisite that it conventionally befalls him to have’

1359–61 ‘On a piece of skin from the animal they feed their dogs with the liver and the lungs, the lining of the stomachs, and bread soaked in blood mixed in with it’

1362–4 ‘Boldly they blew the horn signal for prys [capture or taking of game], the dogs bayed, and then they take their meat and turn homewards, forcefully blowing many firm motes [single notes]’

1365 By that: By the time that douth: company wonnen: arrived

1366–7 there: where bides Ful stille: stays quietly at home

1368 bette: kindled

1371 ‘There was nothing but happiness to be enjoyed at will’

1372 ‘Then the lord commanded all the household to be gathered together in the sale [hall]’

1373 on lowe to lyght: to come down her burdes: their attendant gentlewomen

1374 flet: floor of the hall

1376 godly: in a good-humoured way in game: sportively

1377 ‘Directs his attention to the tails of very sturdy beasts’, i.e. points to the number of separate animals

1378 schyre grese: bright flesh schorne: cut

1379 payes: pleases pris [pre-eminence, distinction] wonnen: excelled (as a hunter)

1380 thryvandely: abundantly craft: skill served: deserved

1381 wayth: game, animals of the hunt

1384 by acorde of covenaunt: according to our contractual agreement crave: demand, claim

1385 segge: man that ilke: the same thing

1386 That: what these wones withinne: inside this house

1387 worthes to youres: it shall become yours

1388 ‘He clasps his (the host’s) fair neck within his arms’

1389 comlyly: properly, with affection (cf. 1794) avise: devise

1390 Tas yow (imp): take, receive chevisaunce: gains, profit cheved: achieved, gained

1391 ‘I would vouchsafe (i.e. grant) it unreservedly, even though there were more of it’

1392 goodman: head of the household grant merci: many thanks (cf. 1037) therefore: for it, for that

1393–4 ‘It may be such as to be even better, if you were willing to tell me where you won this wele [desirable property] with your own cleverness’

1395 forward: (part of) the agreement frayst me no more: seek no more of me (than was agreed)

1396–7 ‘Since you have taken all that is due to you, believe well you may (have) nothing further’

1398 made hem blythe: made merry

1399 ‘With excellent interchange of words’ (were to lowe: were to be admired: cf. 356)

1400 yede: went as swythe: quickly

1401 dayntyes: delicacies inowe: aplenty

1402 chymne: fireplace seten: sat

1403 Wyes: men wale: fine weyed: brought

1404 eft: again bourdyng: joking, sport baythen: agree in the morne: the next day

1405 fylle … forwardes: fulfil … agreements

1406–7 ‘Whatever chance befalls, to exchange their winnings, whatever in the way of a new thing they had got, when they met again at night’

1408 acorded of: agreed to

1409 bourde: sport, jest; contracts were sealed with a drink: the agreement is playfully treated as a formal compact (cf. 1112)

1410 leghten leve: took leave

1411 busked bylive: proceeded quickly

1412 By that: by the time that bot thryes: only three times (i.e. it is not yet dawn: n.)

1413 ‘The lord had jumped out of his bed, and each of the men’

1414–15 ‘Once the meal and the Mass had been duly dispatched, the company made their way to the woods, before any daylight had dawned’

1417 High: vigorously hunt: hunter

1418 in space: in due course

1419 Uncoupled: unleashed (see 1139 and footgloss) tho thornes: those thorny thickets

1420 ‘Running hounds that ran with headlong rush’

1421 ‘Soon they (the dogs) bay to announce pursuit (of a quarry detected) at the side of a stretch of shrubby marshland’

1422 hunt: huntsman rehayted: encouraged that hit firste mynged: that first announced it

1423 Wylde: loud hem warp: uttered to them wrast: forceful, loud

1424 swythe: swiftly

1425 as fast: as fast as possible fuyt: trail, track of the hunted animal

1426 glaverande glam: resounding noise gedered raches: assembled hounds

1427 rocheres: rocky hills

1428 hardened: urged on, encouraged

1429 semble: group sweyed: moved

1430–33 ‘ … between a swamp in that wood and a forbidding crag. On a mound near a cliff at the side of the marshland, at a point where the rugged cliff had collapsed in massive pieces, they (the dogs) went to the search, and men [went] after them’

1434–6 ‘The men scoured the crag and the mound too, until they were quite sure that the beast which had been announced there by the bloodhounds was somewhere within the ring they had formed’

1437 buskes: bushes him: i.e. the boar

1438 ‘And he dangerously issued out through the line of men’

1439 On [one] the sellokest swyn: incomparably the most prodigious boar (cf. 137)

1440 I.e. long ago old enough to have left the sounder [herd of wild swine] to roam alone (n.)

1441 borlych: sizeable althergrattest: biggest possible

1443 thrast: thrust, attack thryght: pushed, forced

1444 ‘And sprang forth at great speed without more delay’

1446 Haden: took heterly: eagerly rechated: blew the horn signal to summon dogs and huntsmen

1447 Mony: i.e. many-tongued mery mouth: fine cry

1448 bost: threats

1449 To quelle: to kill (it)

1450 bides the bay: stands at bay, i.e. turns around when cornered to face the barking hounds

1451 mute: pack of dogs in melle: thereto, in the process

1452 of the houndes: some of the dogs

1453 yomerly: piteously yaule: howl

1454 schowven to: pressed forward

1455 Haled to him of her arewes: drew their bows (and fired) arrows at him

1456–7 ‘But the arrowheads lost force on impact with the pyth [tough skin] that clung to his scheldes [hide at the shoulders] and none of the barbs would penetrate his brow’

1458 schyndered: shattered

1459 hed: arrowhead hypped ayayn: bounced back

1460 ‘But when the blows of their unremitting strokes started to distress him’

1461 braynwod for bate: battle-frenzied rases: rushes

1462 heterly: grievously hyes: dashes

1463 arwed: took fright allyte drowen: held back

1464 launces: gallops

1465 bent: field

1466 rechated: blew the recheat (see 1446) rones: thornbushes

1467 Suande: pursuing schafted: ?sent horizontal beams (i.e. was low in the sky)

1468 driven: pass

1470 graythly: in a regular way, ‘right and tight’ geres: (bed-)trappings

1473 salue: greet

1474–5 ‘She was with him very early in order to change his attitude’

1476 totes: peeps

1478 ‘And she returns his greeting in very ready words’

1479 swythely: gaily

1480 lovely: friendly, affectionate layd him: put to him

1481 me thinkes: it seems to me

1482–4 ‘ … a man who is always so thoroughly given to good conduct, and yet you don’t know how to observe the costes [manners] of polite society, and if one teaches you to know them, you cast them from your mind’

1485 yederly: promptly that: that which

1486 ‘By the truest indication in words that I could manage’

1488 that ye breve: what you say

1489 kende … of: taught about the clere: the beautiful lady

1490 ‘Wherever good will is manifest quickly to claim (a kiss)’

1492 Do way … that speche: enough of those words derf: doughty

1493 devayed: refused

1494 ‘If I were repulsed it would put me in the wrong, indeed, to have made the proffer’

1495 Ma fay: By my faith mery wyf: fair woman

1496 stif: strong yow likes: it pleases you

1497 ‘If anyone were to be so ill-mannered as to want to repulse you’

1499–1500 ‘But force is unblessed in the land where I reside, as is any gift that is not given with good will’

1501 yow likes: it pleases you

1502–3 ‘You make take it when it pleases you and leave it when it seems good to you, at any time’

1504 loutes: bends

1507 ‘About love’s grief and happiness’

1509 ‘ … if it would not make you angry, what the reason might be’

1510 yep: lusty, vibrant

1511 oute: everywhere

1512–13 ‘And to choose from the subject of knighthood, the chief thing that is alosed [praised] is the faithful practice of love, which is the very bible (lettrure: learning in written form) of knighthood’

1514–17 ‘For, to speak of the endeavour of these faithful knights, what forms both the descriptive heading and the whole text of their works is how men for the sake of their faithful love have risked their lives, have endured for their drury [romantic love] grievous tribulations’

1518–19 ‘And have afterwards avenged themselves with their valour and ended their suffering and brought bliss into the chamber by their own deeds of prowess’

1520 comlokest kyd of your elde: famed as the finest knight of your generation

1521 word: fame worschip: esteem, high standing

1522 sere twyes: on two separate occasions

1523 helde: come

1524 longed: pertained

1525 quoynt of your hetes: punctilious in your assurances (of knightly service)

1526 Oghe: ought thing: creature yerne: to desire

1528 lewed: uneducated, ignorant that all the los weldes: you who possess all the renown

1529 dille: slow-witted dalyaunce: conversation skills

1531 com: came

1532 game: (skill or accomplishment in) pleasant pastime

1533 Dos teches me: do teach me; Dos is used to give emphasis to a following imperative (cf. Pa 204)

1534 fro hame: not at home

1535 God yow foryelde: may God reward you

1538–9 ‘And so far trouble yourself with so humble a man as to entertain yourself in the company of your knight with a show of favour of any kind – it affords me pleasure’

1540 torvayle: labour, effort

1541 touche: discuss temes of tyxt: subjects dealt with in literary texts; Gawain is responding to the lady’s reference at 1512–19 to how knights are portrayed in romances

1542–5 ‘To you who (as I am well aware) have more skill in that art, by half, or [than] a hundred of such as I am or ever shall be in the world where I live – that would be a manifold folly, my noble (lady), upon my word’; or at 1543 is from ar(e) [before], not other [or]

1546 ‘I would like to do your will to the best of my ability’

1549 him frayned: tried him out fonded: tested

1550 ‘In order to bring him to (moral) harm, however else she might herself have regarded the matter’

1551 semed: was apparent

1552–3 ‘Nor any wrongdoing on her side or on his, nor did they undergo anything but happiness’

1554 layked: played, amused themselves

1556 con scho fonge: she took

1558 ruthes him: bestirs himself

1559 dight: prepared derely: in a fine manner

1560 layked: played, indulged in amusements

1561 launced: galloped

1562 Sues: follows uncely: ill-boding, dangerous swynges: rushes bonkes: slopes

1563–5 ‘And slashed asunder the backs of the best of his dogs where he stood at bay, until archers broke it (i.e. the bay, the defensive position of the animal) and forced him to move into the open despite himself’

1566 flones: arrows flete: fleeted, sped gedered: gathered

1567 ‘But yet he made the boldest man leap aside at times’

1568 mate: overcome, exhausted (cf. ‘checkmated’)

1569–70 ‘But as hastily as he can he gets to a rasse [level piece of ground] in front of a hollow formed by an inlet in the rocky bank where the stream runs’

1571 gete the bonk at his bak: stood with his back to the bank

1572 femed: foamed wykes: corners

1573b–76 ‘Then all the bold men who stood near him became vexed with him and with attacking him from a distance, yet no one dared to get close to him because of the danger’

1578–80 ‘That all were then most reluctant to face the prospect of being further slashed by the tusks of him who was both fierce and frenzied’

1581 cachande: urging on blonke: steed

1582 biside: nearby

1583 lyghtes: alights luflyche: i.e. in a self-possessed way corsour: knight’s horse, charger

1584 Braydes out: draws bryght bronde: gleaming sword bigly: sturdily

1585 Foundes: proceeds there: where the felle: the fierce (animal)

1586 The wylde: the wild (beast) wye: man

1587 ‘Raised his hairs right up, so fiercely he snorted …’

1588 ‘That many feared for the man lest the worse (of the encounter) should befall him’

1589 settes him out: sets off on the segge even: straight at the man

1590 That: so that, with the result that

1591 ‘Where the current was strongest – it was the other (i.e. the boar) who got the worse of it (cf. 1588)’

1592 merkkes: takes aim at

1593 ‘Set the sharp (blade) firmly right in the slot [hollow at the base of the throat]’

1594 hult: hilt of the sword that: so that schyndered: split, was cleft

1595 yarrande: snarling him yelde: yielded, succumbed yedoun (= yede doun): went down

1596 tite: quickly

1597 hent: seized

1598 ‘That savagely sank their teeth into him’

1599 to bent: to the field, ashore

1600 to deth endite: consign (him: 1599) to death

1601 prys: horn signal announcing a kill breme: sturdy

1602 with hatheles that myghte: by men who (having their mouths free from horns) could do so (cf. 1914)

1603 as bidden the maysters: as the experts command

1604 ‘Who were the huntsmen-in-chief of that demanding hunt’

1605 wodcraftes: the arts of the hunt

1606 unlace: dismember lovely: adroitly

1607 on high settes: sets it up (on a stake)

1608 ‘And then splits him open all rough (i.e. unflayed) along the backbone’

1609 Braydes: draws glede: coal fire

1610 blent: mixed braches: hounds

1611 brittenes out: chops out brawne: flesh scheldes: slabs

1612 has: takes hastlettes: choice cuts as hightly bisemes: as is in accord with best practice

1613 ‘And he folds the two halves, still all whole, together’

1614 sithen: then stif stange: strong pole stoutly: firmly

1615 swythe: quickly ilk: same

1616 before the burnes selven: ahead of the selfsame man

1617 forferde: destroyed

1620 him thoght ful longe: it seemed to him a long time (i.e. he couldn’t wait to see Gawain)

1621 gayn: readily

1622 ‘To receive his dues there’; fees punningly equates the fees [payments] owed to Gawain under the terms of the game with the fees [entitlements to particular portions of game: see 1358] enjoyed by huntsmen

1623 loude with lote [sound]: loudly

1625 geten: fetched gedered the meyny: the household (was) gathered together

1626 scheldes: slabs of boar’s flesh schapes hem the tale: gives them an account

1627 lithernes: hideousness

1628 werre: ‘war’, onslaughts there: where

1630 pris: superior prowess (cf. 1379) proved: demonstrated

1633 hende: courteous

1634 ‘And let [acted] with abhorrence at it in order to here [praise] the lord’

1635 this game: this venison

1636 By fyne forward and fast: by formal and firm agreement faythely: truly

1637 soth: true, right as siker true: as reliably true (as you are)

1638 get: winnings agayn: in return (for what you give me)

1639 hent: took hathel: man halse: neck hendly: courteously, prettily

1640 ‘And a second time he provided him with the same thing’ (i.e. he gave him a second kiss)

1641 Wordplay on even [clear of debt, square] and eventide [evening]

1643 By lawe: in due legal form

1644 Saynt Gile: Saint Giles

1646 ben: will be

1647 ‘If you acquire such (valuable) merchandise’: a masculine wink as to the ‘value’ of the kisses (cf. 1392–4)

1648 ‘Then they erected tables [boards] on top of trestles’

1649 clothes: tablecloths upon: on top (of the boards)

1650 Wakened: lit by wowes: along the walls

1651 ‘(They) seated the men and served them throughout the hall’

1652 glam: noise gle: music glent: sprang

1653 upon flet: on the floor, i.e. in the hall and on fele wyse: (music and sounds) in many fashions

1654 athel: noble

1655 ‘Such as coundutes [motets, part-songs] for Christmas and novel caroles [songs for ring dances]’

1656 manerly: decorous

1658–60 ‘Such semblaunt [signs of favour] she prettily directed to that man, surreptitiously stealing countenaunce [meaningful looks] at him, to ingratiate herself with that stalwart one, that the man was quite at a loss and at division within himself (i.e. divided between instincts to be agreeably friendly and to repel her advances)’

1661–3 ‘But he would not for the sake of his nurture [good breeding] turn against her, but treated her in every respect with courtesy, no matter how this course of action might turn to his harm’

1665 ‘As long as their desire (to do that) lasted for them’

1666 he refers to the lord, him to Gawain

1668–9 dalten: conversed demed eft newe To norne on the same note: agreed once again to return to the same business

1670 kayre: go

1671 ‘For it was near to the time of the appointment that he had (to go) to’

1672 ‘The lord prevented him from doing that, detained him to make him stay longer’

1673 segge: man siker my trauthe: pledge my faith

1674 cheve to: get to thy charres to make: to conduct your business

1675 Lede: man on New Yeres lyght: at the first light (= dawn) of New Year’s Day long before pryme: i.e. before 9.00 a.m. (n.)

1676 Forthy: therefore thou lye in thy loft: lie in your upstairs room lache: take

1677 holt: forest holde the touches: ?keep to the terms agreed

1678 ‘Exchange gains with you when I come back here’

1679 fraysted: tested twys: twice

1680 ‘Now bear in mind tomorrow “may the third time turn out best” ’

1681 mynne upon: put our minds to

1682 ‘For one can have trouble whenever one likes’

1683 graythely: duly lenged: detained

1684 Blythe: promptly hem: to them (agreements were sealed with drink: cf. 1112, 1409) yeden: went

1685 With lyght: with the provision of torchlight

1688 his craftes kepes: keeps up his chosen pursuits

1689 dight: dressed

1691 Mery: fair, pleasant mounture: horse

1692 schulde helden him after: were to follow him

1693 boun busked: ready prepared blonkes: horses

1694 Ferly: wondrously, very folde: ground clenged: lay on the ground

1695 In red rudede upon rak: in redness ruddied upon the clouds

1696 costes: skirts welkyn: sky

1696 unhardeled: unleashed hounds holt side: forest edge

1697 Rocheres: cliffs by rys: in the woodland rurd: noise

1699–1700 ‘Some (dogs) picked up the scent (that indicated) where the fox was, they trail him with much turning to one side or another, according to whatever stratagem their artfulness prompted’; the fox was famed for twisting and turning so as to leave a confusing trail (cf. 1707)

1701 kenet: small running-hound hunt: huntsman

1702 fallen him to: run to him fnasted ful thikke: snorted heavily

1703 Runnen: ran in his right fare: following accurately the course he (the fox) had taken

1704 fyskes: runs here and there, runs around hem before: ahead of them

1706 Wreyande him ful weterly: announcing his location most clearly wroth: aggressive

1707 trantes and tournayes: uses stratagems and wheels around tene greve: rough grove

1708 Havilounes: runs a crooked course herkenes: listens

1709 ‘Finally he runs over a patch of open land under cover of a little ditch’

1710 ‘Emerges very cautiously onto a rande [strip] of marshy scrubland’

1711 ‘Thought he had got out of the wood by his artfulness, away from the dogs’

1712 ere he wyst: before he knew it wale tryster: fine hunting station

1713–14 ‘Where three vigorous (greyhounds) in one swoop threatened him all together, all grey’

1715 blenched ayain bylive: shied back quickly

1716 stifly start astray: struck out hard (in a new direction)

1717 on lyve: in the world

1719 lef upon list: delightful to the sense of hearing lythen: hear

1720 ‘When the whole pack had encountered him, (their cries) all blended together’

1721 sorwe … set on his hede: directed such curses at him

1722 clamberande: clustering

1723 halowed: shouted at hatheles: men

1724 Yonde: yonder, over there yayned: opposed, encountered yarrande: snarling

1725 threted: abused

1726 titleres were hounds let slip from relay stations as the quarry passed

1727 out rayked: broke from cover

1728 reled in ayain: he swerved back in Reynarde: the fox (OF renart), personified as Reynard in medieval beast epics

1729 lad hem by lagmon: led them on at his tail meyny: household

1730 while mydoverunder: until about noon

1731 hende: courteous, amiable holsumly: healthfully, to the benefit of his health

1732 cortynes: bed curtains

1733–4 ‘But the lady, because of love, had no thought of sleeping or of (allowing) the purpose fixed in her heart to weaken’

1736 mery: beautiful mete to the erthe: extending to the ground

1737 ‘That was lined most splendidly with colour-enhanced furs’

1738–9 ‘There were no fine colours on her headdress except the splendid gems which were studded around her hairnet in clusters of twenty’; i.e. colour from a head covering (which married women always by convention wore) comes from nothing less or other than her jewelled hairnet (cf. footgloss to 954)

1740 thryven: splendid throwen all naked: laid bare

1743 Wayves up: opens wye: man

1744 radly [quickly] thus rehayted [reproached] him: burst out with the following reproof to him riche wordes: goodly speech

1745 With chere: with a friendly demeanour

1748 droupyng: sleep disturbed by bad dreams

1749 con her here: heard her

1750 drye: heavy draveled: babbled, muttered that noble: that noble man

1751 mournyng: distress thro: intense

1752 schulde … dele him his wyrde: was to deal him his fate

1754 withoute debate more: without further struggle; Gawain cannot, by the terms of the agreement, defend himself

1755 that comlyche: that beautiful lady kevered: recovered

1756 swevenes: dreams swares: answers

1758 Fel over: dropped herself down to fetly: prettily

1759 with a wale chere: with marked good will

1760 gayly atyred: gorgeously attired

1761 hues: i.e. rosy complexion (cf. 944, 952) set amid the bright hues of her gemmed hairnet (1738)

1762 Wyght wallande joy: strong joy welling up in him

1763 smothe: amicable smolt: peaceful, relaxed smeten: fell, passed

1764 That: so that bonchef: well-being brek hem bitwene: was broached (i.e. uttered) between them

1765 wynne: joy

1766 laused: uttered

1767 wele: pleasure

1769 ‘If Mary should not take thought for (i.e. come to the aid of) her knight’

1770 of pris: noble depresed: pressed thikke: hard

1771 Nurned him so negh the thred: pushed him so close to the limit

1772 Other: either lach: accept lodly: in an offensive way

1773 lest crathayn he were: lest he should act as a churl

1774–5 ‘And (he cared) more about his (spiritual) perdition, were he to commit a sin and be a traitor to the man who owned that dwelling’

1776 God schylde: God forbid

1777 a lyte: a little layd him biside: parried, deflected

1778 speeches of specialte: utterances indicating special affection for him

1780 lif that ye lye nexte: creature whom you are placed next to

1781 Before all the wyes in the worlde: more than anyone in the world

1782 ‘Unless you have a sweetheart, someone dearer, who pleases you better (than I do)’

1783–4 ‘And (have) given your faith to that noble (lady), bound so firmly that it does not please you to loosen (that knot) – and that is what I now believe’

1786–7 ‘For all the “loves” on earth I could conjure you by (i.e. for the love of God, Mary, your lady, etc), don’t conceal the truth out of dishonesty’

1789 smethely: meaningfully con he smyle: he smiled

1790–91 ‘In faith, I possess none, nor do I at present wish to possess one’

1792 word: statement wyght: creature, person

1793 ‘But I have in truth been answered in such a way as gives me pain’

1794 comly: nicely, kindly cach hethen [hence]: go away

1795 ‘I can only grieve on earth, as a maid who loves greatly’

1796 Sykande: sighing sweye doun: stooped down

1797 sithen: then ho severes him fro: she disengages herself from him ho standes: she straightens herself

1798 do me this ese: give me this comfort

1800 That I may mynne on thee: whereby I might remember you mournyng: grief

1801 I wolde: I would that, I wish

1802 levest: dearest, most precious in londe welde: have in the world

1803 sellyly [wondrously] ofte: on so many occasions

1804 by resoun: rightly then I reche myghte: than I could give

1805 ‘But (as something) to give you as a love token, that (i.e. a glove: see 1799) would be worth only an insignificant amount’

1806 Hit is not your honour: it is not consistent with your honour

1807 garysoun: treasure, item of value

1808 on erande: on business erdes uncouthe: lands unknown to me

1809 men: servants males: bags menskfulle: elegant, fine

1810 for luf: because of my regard for you

1811–12 ‘Each man mon [must] act according to the situation he finds himself in; don’t take it as any offence or injury to yourself’

1813 hende of high honoures: courteous (man) whom all honour highly

1814 that lufsum under lyne (a tag): that lovely (lady) in linen

1815–16 ‘Even though I didn’t have anything of yours, yet might you have (something) of mine’

1817 raght: held out to of red golde werkes: whose design was of pure gold

1818 starande: shining stondande alofte: projecting from it

1819 bere: bore, had bluschande bemes: gleaming beams

1820 wele: wealth

1821 renk: man renayed: refused

1822 for goode: seriously, truly my gay: my fair lady

1823 norne: return

1824 bede: offered bode: offer wernes: refuses

1825 sothe: truth, troth sese nolde: would not take

1826 forsoke: refused

1827 renay: refuse to rich for hit semes: because it seems too valuable

1828 holden: beholden

1829 gaynes yow lesse: brings you less profit

1830 ‘She took a belt of soft fabric that was fastened around her waist’

1831 Knit upon: fastened round kyrtel: under-tunic clere: splendid

1832 Gered: fashioned schaped: designed, trimmed

1833 ‘Simply inlaid all round and inset by the fingers (of ladies who did the stitchwork)’

1834 blythely: eagerly

1835 unworthy: of no value

1836 nay that he nolde negh [approach] in no wyse: denied that he would in any way associate himself with

1837 garysoun: treasure, valuables

1838 acheve to: succeed in reaching chaunce: adventure

1840–41 ‘And desist from your persistence, for I will never consent to grant this’

1842 derely: very much

1843 semblaunt: kind behaviour

1845 To be: i.e. obliged (beholde: 1842) to be

1846 silk: silken belt burde: lady

1847 symple: not grand, humble so hit wel semes: so it indeed seems to be

1849 costes: qualities, properties

1850 prayse: appraise, rate more pris: greater value paraventure: perhaps

1851 what gome so is gurde: whatever man is girt

1852 hemely: ?closely halched aboute: fastened around him

1853 to-hewe him that myghte: who could cut him down

1854 for sleght upon erthe: by any sleight in the world

1855 caste: thought, deliberated

1856 ‘It would be a jewel indeed for the plight ordained for him’

1857 acheved to: arrived at chek: doom, fate feche: receive

1858 ‘Could he have got away without being slain, it would be a grand stratagem’

1859 thulged with: tolerated, put up with threpe: insistence tholed: suffered, allowed

1860 bere on: pressed upon bede: offered swythe: earnestly

1861 him gave: (she) gave (it) to him

1862 discover hit: to reveal it (i.e. the fact of the gift)

1863 lelly: loyally layne: conceal him acordes: agrees

1864 wit: know bot thay twayne: apart from the two of them

1865 For noght: not for anything in the world

1866 ful swythe: very much

1867 thro: with energy, warmly

1868 ‘By then on a threesome of times’; the lady’s present parting kiss follows those given at 1758 and 1796

1869 toght: tough, stout

1870 laches: takes

1871 more mirthe of: more joy out of, more of what she wanted from

1872 geres him: gets himself ready

1873 riches him: dresses himself

1874 Lays up: puts away raghte: delivered, gave

1875 holdely: securely there he hit eft fonde: where he might find it again

1876 chefly: first of all

1878–9 ‘That he would hear his confession and give him better instruction as to how his soul should be saved when he should pass hence’

1880 schrof him schyrly: confessed himself completely

1881 Of the more and the mynne: the greater and the smaller

1882 ‘And he calls on the man for absolution’

1883a asoyled: absolved

1883b–84 ‘and rendered him as free from sin as (he would need to be) if Judgement Day had been appointed for the morrow’ (mercy for sin being no longer be available on Doomsday)

1885 mas him as mery: makes as merry fre: noble

1886 comlyche caroles: delightful dance-songs all kynnes: all kinds of

1887 to: until

1889–90 had daynte … Of: took admiring pleasure in

1891 are: previously

1892 Syn: since ere this: before now

1893 ‘Now let him remain in that lee [shelter] – where may joy befall him’; bityde is subjunctive (expressing a wish), and there is thus poised between a relative (‘where’) and the adverb as used to introduce a wish (cf. 839, 2120)

1894 Yet: still on the launde: in the field ledande his gamnes: pursuing his sport

1895 forfaren: got ahead (in order to block the path) of

1896 sprent: sprang, galloped spenne: patch of open ground schrewe: miscreant, wretch

1897 Thereas: where hasted him swythe: drove him on hard

1898 richchande: making his way greve: grove

1899 rabel: noisy pack res: rush

1900 wylde: wild animal warly: watchfully

1901 braydes out: draws out bronde: sword castes: lunges

1902 schunt: blenched the scharp: the sharp weapon schulde have arered: was about to retreat

1903 rach: running hound rapes him to: rushes at him ere he myghte: before he could do so

1904 horse (uninflected gen): horse’s

1905 woried me this wyly: tore at the wily (creature); me is the so-called ethic dative, an idiomatic use of the first-person pronoun in narrative, presenting the narrator as a mental spectator of the action (cf. 1932)

1906 lyghtes bylive: dismounts quickly laches: takes hold of

1907 Rased: tore radly: hurriedly rach (uninflected gen): the hounds’

1908 halowes faste: cries ‘halloo’ vigorously

1909 bayen him: bay to announce capture of him (cf. 1362) bremly: fiercely brothe: fierce

1910 Huntes: huntsmen hyed hem: hurried

1911 rechatande: blowing the horn summons renk: man sawen: saw

1912 By that: When

1915 meriest: most pleasing mute: pack-baying, i.e. clamour

1916 rich rurd: glorious noise Reynarde saule: Reynard’s soul

1917 With lote: with sound

1919 fawne: caress, stroke frote: rub

1920 tan: take

1921 tyrven of: strip off

1922 helden to: head for negh: near

1923 Strakande: blowing horn signals store: sturdy

1924 is lyght: has arrived

1925 upon flet: on the hall floor the freke therebiside: the man (Gawain) beside it

1926 goode is Gawain’s sobriquet (cf. e.g. 109, 633)

1928 wer: wore bleaunt: overgarment, robe bradde to: extended to

1929 surkot: overtunic (visible under the mantle) semed him wel: looked well on him

1930 of that ilke: of the same (material), i.e. matching

1931 ‘Both were lined all round with blaunner [a kind of fur]’

1932 me (ethic dative: see footgloss to 1905) is redundant to sense goodman: head of household

1933 game: sport, jolliness gret: greeted godly: with good humour

1934 fylle: fulfil nowthe: now

1935 spedly: in proper form there: where (on the drinke, see footgloss to 1112)

1936 acoles: embraces

1937 ‘As savouringly and as earnestly as he could deliver them’

1938b–39 ‘You come by much profit in the purchase of these goods, if the price was good’

1940 Ye, of the chepe no charge: oh, never mind about the price chefly: promptly

1941 ‘The gains that I owed (to you) being clearly paid’

1942 Mary: by (the Virgin) Mary bihinde: inferior

1944 felle: pelt the fende have the godes: may the devil take the goods

1945 pris: valuable

1946 thryght: delivered to thro: heartily

1949 rode: cross

1952 metes: foodstuffs, dishes

1953b–56 ‘as any men could have done … unless the company had lost their wits or else had been drunk’

1954 lotes of bourdes: jesting words

1957 man and the meyny: the lord and his household japes: jests

1958 sesoun: time seyen: come sever moste: had to part

1959 ‘At last men had (to go) to their beds’

1960 lowly: humbly

1961 Foches: takes fre: noble

1962–3 Of … the High-Kyng yow yelde: for … may God reward you sellyly: wonderful Your honour: your honourable behaviour high fest: major festival

1964 ‘I give myself to you as one of your men, if it pleases you’

1966–8 ‘If you give me some man to show, as you promised, the road to the Green Chapel, as God will suffer the sentence of my fate to be dealt to me on New Year’s Day’

1970 redy: punctually, punctiliously

1972 coundue: escort downes: hills drechch: delay

1973 ferk: go frith: wood fare at the gaynest: go by the most direct route

1975–6 ‘Gawain thanked the lord for being willing do him such honour’

1977 wlonk: noble

1978 tan: taken

1979 care: sorrow carpes hem tille: talks to them

1980 fele: many thryvande: profuse thrat: compelled

1981 yelden him ayain: returned to him yeply: promptly that ilke: the same (thanks)

1982 bikende: commended sykynges: sighing

1983 meyny: household menskly: courteously

1985 and his sere [distinct, separate] pine: and the specific trouble taken by each

1986 ‘With which they had been busy around him in order to serve him’

1988 ‘As if they had always dwelt with that splendid man’, i.e. as if Gawain had been a member of the family they served

1989 ledes and lyght: servants and torchlight

1991 ‘Whether he will sleep soundly, I would not venture to say’

1992 mynne: think about

1995 ner: nearly, almost that: that which

1996 And: if stille: quiet

1998 neghes: approaches

1999 drives to: follows

2000 wederes of the worlde: storms of the season thereoute: outside

2002 ‘With pain enough from the north to afflict the naked (flesh)’ (cf. 423)

2003 snitered: snowed down snart: bitterly, smartingly that: which snayped: nipped with cold the wylde: wild animals

2004 werbelande: shrilling wapped: whapped down highe: high ground

2008 ‘Each time the cock crew he well knew (that it was close to the hour stipulated in) the agreement’

2009 Deliverly: nimbly dressed up: got up sprenged: broke

2010 lemed: shone

2011 The chamberlayn is the servant appointed at 850–51 to assist Gawain to dress cofly: promptly swared: answered

2012 bruny: coat of mail blonk sadel: horse’s saddle

2013 ferkes him up: gets up

2014 graythes: dresses me is ethic dative (cf. 1905, 1932)

2015 were: keep off

2016 harnays: armour holdely: faithfully was keped: had been looked after

2017 paunce: stomach armour plates: back and breast plates piked: freed from dirt

2018 ‘The rings of mail of his splendid hauberk rocked free of rust’; mail was burnished by rolling it

2019 fayn: glad, happy

2021 uch pece: each piece of armour

2022 Wypped: wiped wlonk: splendidly

2023 ‘The most splendidly equipped (man) from here to Greece’

2024 ‘The man commanded his horse to be fetched’

2026–8 ‘(Culminating in) his coat-armour with the heraldic cognizance (i.e. the pentangle: see 636–7) of beautiful workmanship, decoratively picked out upon velvet (by means of) potent gems inlaid and inset here and there and embroidered stitchwork’

2029 pelures: pelts, pieces of fur

2031 good: behoof

2032 By: when bronde: sword balwe haunches: the curve of his hips

2033 dressed: arranged drury: love token double: twice

2034 ‘The man firmly wound it neatly around his waist’

2035 that gay wel bisemed: suited that fine (man) well

2036 ‘Set against the magnificent red cloth that was rich to behold’

2037 wered: wore ilk wye: same man wele: (its) costliness

2038 pryde: splendour pendauntes: hanging ends (often richly ornamented: the present ones are inlaid with gold) polysed: embellished

2039 glyterande: glittering

2040 when suffer him behoved: when he would have to suffer passively

2041–2 ‘Endure harm without resistance by sword or knife to protect himself’

2043 By that: When boun: ready in his armour

2044 Wynnes: goes bylive: quickly

2045 meyny of renoun: worthy household

2046 ryve: abundantly

2047 Gryngolet: Gawain’s horse (see 597) grayth: ready

2048 sojourned: lodged, stalled saverly: comfortably in a siker wyse: safely

2049 ‘That fine horse was then keen to go, because of being in condition’

2050 wynnes: goes wytes on his lere: looks in his face

2051 soberly: seriously, earnestly soth: troth

2052 meyny: household mote: castle mensk: honour, courtesy

2053 The man hem maynteines: The man who provides for them; omission of relative pronoun

2054 lef: dear on lyve [alive] is a tag luf her bityde: may joy befall her

2055 cherysen: extend favour and protection to

2056–7 ‘ … And take honour by the hand, may the man who rules heaven on high (i.e. God) reward them, and also all of you’ (yow alle: the members of the meyny who have courtyard duties and whom Gawain is addressing: see 2043–6)

2058 lif upon londe lede any while: live on earth for any length of time; Gawain knows he may soon die

2059 reche: give

2060 strydes alofte: mounts, gets astride

2061 His schalk [man] refers (as does his hathel at 2065)to the guide allotted to Gawain by the lord (1971–2) laghte: took, i.e. hung

2062 Gyrdes to: strikes gilt heles: heels with gilded spurs (see n. to 587)

2063 startes: springs forward

2067 kenne: commend

2068 He gyve: may He give

2069 brygge: drawbridge brayde doun: lowered

2070 born open upon bothe halve: pushed open on each side; the gate is a double one

2071 blessed him: crossed himself bredes: planks (of the drawbridge)

2072–4 ‘Says complimentary things to the porter, (who) knelt before the nobleman, commended him to God and wished him good day, (praying) that He would save Gawain, and (Gawain) went on his way accompanied only by his man’

2075 turne: go tene: painful, terrible

2076 There: where rufulle race: sorry sweeping stroke

2077 bonkes: hills boghes: boughs

2078 there: where

2079 ‘The cloud cover was high, but it looked sinister underneath’

2080 muged: drizzled malt: fell as rain

2081 hatte: hat mist-hakel: mist-robe

2082–4 ‘Brooks bubbled and broke into foam here and there by the hillsides, striking with a sparkle against the banks by which they (= the brooks) forced their way downwards. Most tortuous was the path they had (to follow) through the wood’

2086 That tyde: that time of year

2088 biside: nearby, around (them)

2089 him by: next to him

2090 ‘Told his master to pause’

2091 wonnen: brought

2092 nar: are not note: notorious

2093 spied and spured … after: sought and inquired after

2096 ‘If you would act on my advice you would be better off’

2097 pres: press forward

2098 wones: lives

2099 stif: strong

2100 more: bigger myddelerde: the earth (between heaven and hell)

2101 bigger: stronger

2103 He cheves that chaunce: he always has the good fortune (that)

2104 so proud in his armes: so splendidly armed

2105 dynges: beats dint: blow

2106 methles: without restraint

2107–8 chorle [peasant] other [or] chaplayn … Monk other masseprest: i.e. even persons who do not profess arms, non-knights

2109 ‘It seems as desirable to him to kill him as to be himself alive’

2110 soth: truly, certainly

2111 ‘If you come there, you will be killed, if the knight has his way’

2112 Trowe ye me that: believe you that

2114 ful yore: for a very long time

2115 bent: (battle-)field baret: strife bende: brought about

2116 Ayain: Against

2118 let the gome one: leave the man alone

2119 ‘And go away by a different route, for God’s sake’

2120 ‘Go to some other land, where Christ may spede [prosper] you’

2121 hye me: hurry hete: promise ferre: furthermore

2122 halwes: saints

2123 ‘ “So help me God and the holy relics,” and many (other) oaths’

2124 lelly: faithfully yow layne: conceal you (i.e. keep quiet about it) lause: utter

2125 ‘That you ever sought to flee because of any man I ever knew’

2126 Grant merci: Many thanks gruchyng: grudgingly

2127 ‘May good fortune befall you, man, (you) who desire my welfare’

2128 leve: believe

2129 ‘But, however holde [faithfully] you held it (= your promise), if I left this place … ’

2130 Fonded: sought for ferde: out of fear

2131 were: would be

2132 chose: proceed for chaunce that may falle: no matter what may befall

2133 that ilk tulk: that same man me lyste: may please me

2134 Worth hit wele other wo: whether weal or woe should come of it the wyrde: fate

2136 knape: carl, fellow

2137 stightel: stand against stad with stave: furnished with a staff; giants in romance typically used the churl’s club or staff, rather than the chivalric sword

2138 ‘The Lord can well contrive’

2140 so much spelles: go as far as to say

2141 nye: harm nyme: take

2142 ‘If it pleases you to lose your life, I do not care to prevent you’

2144 rake: path; ethic dative me [for me] has no equivalent in ModE (cf. 2112)

2145 brem: big

2146 launde: level space, clearing lyfte: left

2147 slade: valley

2148 borlyche: burly on bent: on the (battle-)field kepes: guards

2149 fares (imp ‘go, fare’) wel is a ‘farewell’ formula

2150 nolde: would not

2151 frith: forest on: one

2152 By that: Thereupon wendes: turns

2153 heles: i.e. spurred heels

2154 Lepes him: gallops launde: open ground

2157 grete: weep

2158 bayn: obedient

2159 me tone: betaken/committed myself

2160 gyrdes he to: he puts the spurs to gederes the rake: enters on the path

2161 Schowves in: strikes in schore: cliff schawe side: the edge of a grove

2162 thurgh the rogh bonk: down the rugged slope

2163 wayted: looked hit him thoghte: it seemed to him

2164 no syngne of resette [accommodation]: i.e. nothing resembling a building bisides: in the vicinity

2165 brent: steep

2166 knoklede knarres: knobbly crags knornede: gnarled, knobbly

2167 ‘The skies seemed to him to be skayned [scraped, grazed] by the scowtes [jutting rocks, crags]’

2168 hoved: paused withhelde: held back

2169 chaunged his chere: looked this way and that (cf. 711)

2170 selly him thoghte: it seemed strange to him

2171–2 ‘Except, just a little, on a clearing, what seemed to be a mound, the bulge of a barrow by a cliff beside the water’s edge’

2173 ‘By the channel of a stream that ran there’; this is apparently a different stream, running down into the one referred to at 2172

2174 borne: stream blubred: seethed

2175 caches his caple: moves his horse forward lawe: mound

2176 lynde: ‘lime tree’, poeticism for ‘tree’ taches: fastens

2177 hit riched with: fastened it by means of

2178 bowes: goes berwe: barrow

2179 Debatande: debating

2181 glodes: patches

2182 nobot: nothing but/only

2183 deme: judge

2184 spelle: words

2185 We: ah! gentyl: good

2186 Whether this be: could this be; whether was used in ME to introduce direct questions

2188 Dele is a shortened form of ‘devel’ [devil] matynes: the midnight office of Matins

2189 wysty: waste, desolate

2190 oritore: oratory ugly: sinister, eerie erbes: grasses

2191–2 ‘It well befits the man set out in green to perform his devotions here in the manner of the devil’

2193 fyve wyttes: five senses

2194 stoken me this steven: fixed this meeting for me to strye: in order to destroy

2195 that chek hit bityde: may evil befall it (that … hit: which)

2196 corsedest: most accursed kyrk: church

2198 roffe: roof tho … wones: that dwelling

2199 of: out of, coming from in a hard roche: i.e. within a cleft in the cliff where the rockface was bare

2200 wonder: very breme: intense, loud

2201 as hit cleve schulde: as if it (i.e. the cliff) were splitting

2202 As: as if gryndelston: grindstone sythe: scythe

2203 wharred: whirred whette: made a whetting sound mulne: mill

2204 rusched: made a rushing noise ronge: rang out routhe to here: grievous to hear

2205b–7 ‘this business, as I believe, is being put on in my honour, in order to receive me fittingly, in due form’

2208 worke: do His will we lo: alas!

2209 ‘There’s no help to be had’

2211 ‘No lote [sound] will cause me to feel dread’

2212 highe: loudly

2213 ‘Who presides in this place, to keep the appointment with me?’

2214 good is Gawain’s sobriquet (see 109) goande: walking

2215–16 ‘If any man wants anything, let him come here fast, either now or never, to conclude his business’

2218 that I thee hyght ones: what I once promised you

2219 ‘He went on with that rushing sound busily for a little while yet’

2220 ‘And remained drawn aside with his whetting before he would come down’

2221 keveres by: comes round comes of a hole: comes out of a crevice

2222 Whyrlande: whirling wro: nook

2223 ‘A Danish axe newly made ready with which to deliver the blow’

2224 ‘With a large blade curving outward from the shaft’

2225 Fyled in a fylor: sharpened by a sharpening device

2226 by that lace: as measured by that girdle lemed: shone

2227 gered as firste: decked out as he had been before

2228 lere: face

2229 on his fote [feet]: i.e. not mounted, as he had been when first seen foundes: makes his way

2230 ‘Knocked the stony ground with the shaft as he strode with it at his side’

2231 wan to: reached there: where nolde (ne + wolde): did not want to

2232 hypped: jumped, vaulted orpedly: boldly

2233 Bremly brothe on a bent: very fierce on a field

2235 ‘Sir Gawain went to meet the knight’

2236 ‘He bowed to him by no means low’

2238 ‘One can trust you to keep an appointment’

2239 God thee mot loke: May God watch over you

2241 travayl: onerous journey true: faithful, honest

2242 cast: made

2243 twelmonyth: twelve months ago that thee falled: what was due to you

2244 schulde … yeply thee quyte: was to repay you promptly

2245 our one: on our own

2246 ryd: separate rele as us likes: (we can) lay about us as it pleases us

2247 Haf … of: take … from

2248 Busk no more debate: put up no more of a battle bede: offered

2249 wypped: whipped at a wap one: with only one blow

2250 that me gost lante: who gave me the spirit of life

2251 ‘I shall not be reluctant to grant you a jot, no matter what harm befalls’

2252 stightel thee upon: confine yourself to on: one

2253 warp thee no wernyng: make you no resistance

2254 Nowhare: at no point

2255 lutte: bowed

2256 that schyre: the gleaming (flesh)

2257 let as: behaved as if noght dutte: feared nothing

2258 dare: cower

2259 graythed him swythe: made great preparations

2260 Gederes up: lifts

2261 bur: power

2262 Mynt: directed the blow marre: destroy

2263 as drye as he attled: as straight as he aimed it

2264 ‘He who was ever doughty would there have been dead from his blow’

2265 giserne: battleaxe glyfte him biside: glanced up sideways

2266 on glode: on the patch of ground schende: destroy

2267 for the scharp yrne: because of the sharp iron (i.e. weapon)

2268 schalk: man schunt: jerk the schene: the shining (axe)

2270 good alludes to Gawain’s sobriquet (cf. 2214 and see 109)

2271 arwed: was afraid here: army

2272 fles: flee ferde: fear

2273 couthe I never here: I never did hear

2274 fyked: retreated flagh: fled myntest: directed the blow

2275 ‘Nor made any cavilling in King Arthur’s house’

2276 Wordplay on flagh (past tense of both ‘fly’ and ‘flee’)

2277 ere any harme hent: before having received any harm arwes: take fright

2278 Wherefore: for which reason me burde: I should

2280 schunt: drew back, recoiled

2281 ‘And I will do so no more’

2284 busk: proceed, get on poynte: critical moment

2285 out of hande: without fuss

2286 stande thee a stroke: endure one blow from you (cf. 294) starte: start back

2288 Haf at thee: Have at you! heves: lifts

2289 waytes as wrothly: glares with as much rage wod: mad

2290 myntes: directs the blow rynes: cuts

2291 heterly: sharply

2292 graythly: firmly hit bides: awaits it (= the blow) glent: flinched

2293 or a stubbe other: or else a tree stump

2294 ratheled is in: is twined into roche: rocky

2295 con he mele: he spoke

2296 hert: courage hole: intact

2297–8 ‘Now may the high order (of knighthood) which Arthur bestowed on you preserve you and protect your collarbone in this plight, if it can manage (to do so)’

2299 gryndelly: angrily greme: wrath

2300 thresch: strike thro: bold thretes: threaten to: too

2301 ‘I think that you have managed to scare yourself’ (arwe with: is intimidated by)

2302 felly: fiercely

2303 on lyte [in delay] lette [hinder]: hold up, put off ernde: business, mission

2305 tas: takes strythe: stance, posture

2306 frounses: creases, puckers

2307–8 ‘No wonder if it should be unpleasant for him who expected no rescue’

2309 lome: tool, weapon

2310 ‘With the curving outer edge of the blade (coming down) on the bare neck’

2311–12 ‘Though he struck forcefully, he hurt him no further than to graze him on the one side, so that the skin was broken’

2313 The scharp: the sharp blade schrank to: sank into schyre grece: bright fat

2314 That: so that schene: bright

2315 blenk: shine

2316 sprit forth: spurted forward spenne-fote: with feet together

2317 heterly: quickly, eagerly

2318 ‘Shot himself by a shoulder movement under his fair shield’; the shield lay on the knight’s back when not in use

2319 Braydes out: draws bremly: fiercely

2322 Blynne: cease bur: (aiming of) blows bede me no mo: proffer me no more (blows)

2323 a: one hente: received

2324 quyte: give requital

2325 ‘And yelde … ayayn [repay]immediately, be sure of that’

2326 foo (adv): as a foe (i.e. not with the submissiveness Gawain has so far shown)

2327 on: one me falles: is due to me

2328 schop: prescribed

2330 hende: courteous (man)/sir hoo: stop! enough!

2331 helded him fro: stepped back from him

2332 upon schore: aslant to the scharp lened: leaned upon the bladed end

2333 launde: clearing yede: went

2334 that doghty: that brave (man) dredles: fearless derfly: boldly

2335 awles: unawed, unafraid hit him likes: it pleases him

2336 meles: speaks meryly: good-humouredly, unaggressively much steven: loud voice

2337 ryngande: ringing rurd: sound

2238 bent: (battle-)field gryndel: fierce

2339 mysboden: mistreated

2340 ‘Nor acted towards you other than as agreement at the king’s court prescribed’

2341 hyght: promised a: one (cf. 2323, 2327) holde thee: consider yourself

2342 ‘I release you from the remainder of all the other rights I could have claimed’

2343 deliver: unrestrained buffet: blow paraunter: perhaps

2344 wrothloker: more fiercely waret: delivered to thee have wroght anger: and (could) have given you anguish

2345 mansed: threatened meryly: in sport, non-aggressively with a mynt one: with a feint alone

2346 rove: cut rof-sore: gash thee profered: took aim at you

2347 For: because of fest: fastened, confirmed

2348 ‘And you keep to me your pledged troth trustily and faithfully’

2350–51 other: second the morn … Thou: the next day when you clere: beautiful raghtes: handed over

2352–3 ‘For both these two (occasions) I gave you nothing here except two mere feints, without harm’

2354 ‘A true (man) mon [must] truly restore’

2355 thar: need wathe: danger

2356 thrid: third (occasion) thore: there,in that respect

2357 ta thee: take to yourself

2358 wede: item of clothing

2359 weved: gave

2360 costes: behaviour

2361 wowyng: amorousness

2362 asay: test me thinkes: it seems to me (that you are)

2363 On the fautleste: singly the most faultless

2364 by: compared with white pese: white pea (white peas were used as pig food) pris more: greater value

2366 ‘But here there was a little wanting in you, sir, and fidelity was lacking in you’; ‘lack’ and ‘want’ are both impersonal verbs

2367 wylyde werk: intricate(?) workmanship (of the girdle) wowyng: amorousness

2369 stif: strong in study: in thought

2370 agreved for greme: mortified gryed: shuddered

2371 blende in: suffused

2372 that the schalk talked: (at) what the man said

2373 forme: first upon folde: on the ground, i.e. there meled: spoke

2374 worthe (subj): be

2375 vilany: baseness disstryes: destroy

2376 caght to: laid hold of cast: tie, fastening lauses: unties

2377 Brayde: held out brothely: angrily

2378 ‘There is the (thing that occasioned) false dealing, may it go ill with it!’

2379–81 ‘Because of anxiety about your blow, cowardice instructed me to make terms with covetousness, forsaking my nature (as a knight), which is the freedom in giving and the good faith belonging to knights’

2382 ferde: afraid

2383b–84 ‘may misery and trouble betide both of them’

2385 stille: submissively

2387 overtake your wille: gain your good will

2388 eft: from now on ware: wary (not to repeat the offence)

2389 loghe: laughed luflyly: with friendliness

2390 hardily: assuredly hole: healed harme: injury

2391–3 Thou art confessed so clene … I holde thee: you have made so clean a confession … that I consider you beknowen of: (have) acknowledged mysses: misdeeds

2392 ‘And you have received the penance clear to see of (the mark left by) the point of my blade’; penance was a necessary part of a valid confession

2393 polysed of that plyght: rubbed clean of that sin

2394 forfeted: transgressed

2395 gold-hemmed: trimmed or edged with gold

2396 For: since

2397 this ilke threpe: this same contest there: where thrynges: press, go

2398 princes of pris: great noblemen pure: very, veritable

2399 chaunce: adventure at: in the presence of chevalrous: noted for prowess in arms

2400 schal: shall come; omission of verb of motion wones: dwelling

2401 schyn revel: shall spend in revel riche feste: splendid festival

2402 bene: pleasantly

2403 lathed: invited

2404 wene: believe

2408 has hit of: takes it off hendly: courteously

2409 sojourned: been lodged, enjoyed hospitality sadly: plentifully sele yow bityde: may good fortune befall you

2410 ‘And may He who is the source of all (such) gracious acts fully reward you for it’

2411 comaundes me: give my compliments that cortays: that courtly lady fere: spouse

2413 her: their cast: trick, stratagem coyntly: neatly

2414 ferly: wonder fol: fool madde: should commit folly

2416 with one: by one (woman)

2417 with fele sere: by many different (women) eftsones: likewise

2418 wyrde: fate

2419 blended with: blinded by (his passion for) that [who] refers to David tholed: suffered

2420 ‘Since these men were brought to grief through their wiles, it would be an enormous blessing …’

2421 leve: believe a lede that couthe: if a man could

2422–4 ‘For these were in former times the greatest, whom every blessing (i.e. wisdom, strength, etc) attended to a degree that surpasses all other men who have mused [dwelled] under the kingdom of heaven’

2426 used: had relations with

2428 Me think me burde: it seems to me I should; both think and burde are impersonal verbs

2429 God yow foryelde: may God reward you for it

2430 wynne: delightful

2431 saynt: fabric cincture syde: long pendauntes: the (often highly ornamented) hanging ends of a girdle (see 2038–9)

2432 wele: costliness worschip: i.e. the respect it might command wlonk werkes: splendid workmanship

2433 surfet: transgression

2434 remorde to myselven: recall with remorse

2435 fayntyse: weakness crabbed: perverse, graceless

2436 entyse: attract teches: blemishes

2437 prik: stimulate

2438 lethe: lower, bring down

2439 one: one thing displeses yow (reflexive imp): be not displeased

2440 lent: resided

2441b–42a ‘may He reward you for it who holds up the heavens’

2443 norne: call

2444b Linking alliteration on that other

2445 hat: am named

2446 Thurgh myght of: i.e. and I rule Hautdesert through the power of lenges: resides

2447–8 ‘And, by craftes [skills] well learned, has taken [acquired] quoyntyse of clergye [learned arts] and many of the maystres [specialist skills] of Merlin’

2449 dalt drury: had a love affair

2450a conable clerk: accomplished clerk

2450b–51 ‘that fact all your knights at home know’

2454 Weldes: possesses hawtesse: arrogance

2455 make ful tame: fully subdue

2456 wayned: sent upon this wyse: in this fashion, i.e. as a green man wynne: beautiful

2457–8 ‘To test its pride in itself, if what is reported about the great glory of the Round Table were true’

2459 wayved me this wonder: furnished me with this wondrousness reve: deprive you of

2460 gart: caused

2461 glopnyng: shock gostlyche: in an unearthly way

2463 auncian: of venerable age

2464 even: actually

2465–6 ‘The daughter of the duchess of Tintagel, upon whom noble Uther later begot Arthur, who is now a great man’

2467 ethe: urge

2468 meyny: household

2469 I wil thee as wel: I wish you as well

2470 under God: i.e. on earth

2471 ‘And he said no, he would not (come) under any circumstances’

2472 acolen: embrace kennen: commend

2474 On colde: on the cold ground

2475 on blonk ful bene: full fair on horse

2476 buskes bolde: proceeds without delay

2477 enker: ?bright, vivid (cf. 150)

2480 that the grace had geten of his live: who had received the grace [free gift] of his life

2481 herbered: was lodged

2483 tyght: intend remene: recall, recount

2484 hent: received

2485 blykkande: glittering thereaboute: around it (i.e. around his neck)

2486 Abelef: diagonally bauderyk: baldric, shield strap

2487 Loken: tied

2488 tan: taken, detected tech: blemish

2489 all in sounde: i.e. safe and sound

2490 ‘Joy arose in that dwelling when the nobles knew …’

2491 gayn hit hem thoghte: greatly to be welcomed it seemed to them

2493 siker: trusty haylse: greet

2494 ‘And who asked him about how he had fared, and he tells wondrously’

2495 Beknowes: reveals costes of care: hardships

2496 chaunce: adventure chere: behaviour

2498 nirt: nick

2499 laght: received unleute: bad faith

2501 tened: felt pain

2502 grame: anger (at himself)

2503 con melle: mingled, entered (cf. 2371)

2504 schewe: reveal, confess

2506 ‘This is the bende [heraldic term for diagonal band] that emblazons the mark of blameworthiness I bear in my neck’; the reference is to the girdle, worn slantwise across his body (see 2486)

2507 lothe: harm laght: received

2511 ‘For a man may hide his harm but may not unbind it (from his being)’

2512 there: where is tached: has attached itself twynne: part, detach itself

2514 Laghen: they laugh luflyly: with friendly good will

2516 bauderyk: baldric, shoulder strap

2517 bende: heraldic diagonal band abelef him aboute diagonally across himself

2518 in sute: matching each other (i.e. as a badge or livery: see MED sute n 1a(b))

2519 ‘For that (= the green band) was agreed to represent the glory of the Round Table’; was governs both acorded and honoured in the next line

2521 breved: written

2523 Brutus bokes are books of British history, so called from the foundation of Britain by Brutus (see 13–15)

2524 Sithen: Since the time that

2527–8 ‘Many such adventures have heretofore befallen before this time’

2529–30 ‘Now may He who wore the crown of thorns bring us to His bliss’

HONY SOYT QUI MAL PENCE [Shame be to him who thinks evil (of it)] is the motto of the Order of the Garter