1 00:00:01,265 --> 00:00:03,564 [gear noises] 2 00:00:40,938 --> 00:00:43,722 This is a monument to one of the greatest 3 00:00:43,722 --> 00:00:46,852 technological triumphs in the history of mankind. 4 00:00:47,320 --> 00:00:50,526 And, for those of us who witnessed what happened here, 5 00:00:50,526 --> 00:00:55,490 at 9:32 on the morning of July the 16th, 1969, 6 00:00:55,490 --> 00:00:57,715 it's an object that brings back, 7 00:00:57,715 --> 00:00:59,712 as fresh as if it were yesterday, 8 00:00:59,712 --> 00:01:02,697 one of the most profoundly moving events of our lives, 9 00:01:03,274 --> 00:01:06,680 for it was from this tower that Apollo 11 10 00:01:06,680 --> 00:01:10,392 lifted off on incandescent flame and thunder, 11 00:01:10,392 --> 00:01:12,629 to carry man to the surface of the Moon, 12 00:01:12,629 --> 00:01:13,344 for the first time. 13 00:01:15,044 --> 00:01:18,931 An estimated 1.000 million people watched the Moon landing. 14 00:01:19,517 --> 00:01:21,876 and, what that landing involved 15 00:01:21,876 --> 00:01:26,352 still somehow staggers the imaginations today, 16 00:01:27,414 --> 00:01:30,600 becasue it involved launching from the Earth, 17 00:01:30,600 --> 00:01:32,849 which was spinning at a 1.000 miles an hour, 18 00:01:32,849 --> 00:01:34,608 and at the same time, circling the sun 19 00:01:34,608 --> 00:01:36,419 at nearly 70.000 miles an hour, 20 00:01:36,419 --> 00:01:38,371 and launching from a point on earth 21 00:01:38,371 --> 00:01:39,880 away form where the Moon was, 22 00:01:39,880 --> 00:01:42,862 and then, aiming at a point in space 23 00:01:42,862 --> 00:01:45,139 where the Moon would be, in three days time. 24 00:01:45,829 --> 00:01:50,554 and then, after a journey of 240.000 miles, 25 00:01:50,554 --> 00:01:54,264 landing within 1.5 miles of the target point. 26 00:01:56,326 --> 00:01:59,763 Apollo is a supreme example of why technology 27 00:01:59,763 --> 00:02:01,241 is so often a double-edged weapon, 28 00:02:01,241 --> 00:02:04,453 because the navigational instrument developed to make 29 00:02:04,453 --> 00:02:06,531 a precision landing on the surface of the Moon, 30 00:02:07,070 --> 00:02:10,464 makes child's play of the business of moving 31 00:02:10,464 --> 00:02:12,268 from one part of our planet to another. 32 00:02:13,112 --> 00:02:15,122 Those instruments are basically, 33 00:02:15,122 --> 00:02:18,840 what take your holiday jet to its destination, 34 00:02:18,840 --> 00:02:20,326 virtually unaided. 35 00:02:21,664 --> 00:02:23,221 They also make it possible to launch 36 00:02:23,221 --> 00:02:24,910 an intercontinental ballistic missile, 37 00:02:24,910 --> 00:02:27,436 carrying several atomic warheads, 38 00:02:27,436 --> 00:02:31,121 each one of which can be independently guided 39 00:02:31,121 --> 00:02:34,224 to within 100 yards of its target point. 40 00:02:35,886 --> 00:02:37,806 Now, what that means is that the underground 41 00:02:37,806 --> 00:02:39,676 missile sites on the other side, 42 00:02:39,676 --> 00:02:41,033 are no longer safe. 43 00:02:41,944 --> 00:02:43,608 They will not survive attack 44 00:02:43,608 --> 00:02:46,186 so as to be used in retaliation afterwards. 45 00:02:47,194 --> 00:02:49,220 Now, the temptation, when you know that fact, 46 00:02:50,473 --> 00:02:51,672 is to launch your missiles first. 47 00:02:53,197 --> 00:02:54,945 The question is, will that happen? 48 00:02:57,130 --> 00:03:01,031 It's not a new problem; this is the second time in history 49 00:03:01,521 --> 00:03:03,713 that a major breakthrough in missile technology 50 00:03:03,713 --> 00:03:05,323 has fundamentally changed the situation. 51 00:03:06,442 --> 00:03:08,497 The last time, 600 years ago, 52 00:03:09,363 --> 00:03:11,254 the missile was a cannonball. 53 00:03:12,882 --> 00:03:14,260 And look what happened then. 54 00:03:44,576 --> 00:03:46,383 15th century Europe was a place 55 00:03:46,383 --> 00:03:47,519 where hardly a day went by 56 00:03:47,519 --> 00:03:48,815 without somebody fighting somebody. 57 00:03:49,617 --> 00:03:51,923 But, in those early years of the use of gunpowder, 58 00:03:51,923 --> 00:03:55,155 the cannon was more bang and smoke than real impact. 59 00:03:55,518 --> 00:03:57,330 Still, it frightened people enough. 60 00:03:58,418 --> 00:04:00,598 Then, the armies devastating the countryside 61 00:04:00,598 --> 00:04:02,619 stopped firing stones and rubble, 62 00:04:02,619 --> 00:04:05,126 and started using the new iron cannonballs. 63 00:04:05,470 --> 00:04:08,845 And life in places like this became very earnest. 64 00:04:09,267 --> 00:04:11,521 This is Egmont in the south of France, , 65 00:04:11,521 --> 00:04:13,911 built in marshland on the edge of the Mediterranean, 66 00:04:13,911 --> 00:04:15,761 and nothing much has ever happened here. 67 00:04:16,166 --> 00:04:19,272 As you can see, it's never been destroyed by cannon fire, 68 00:04:19,834 --> 00:04:22,177 which is why it serves as a perfect example 69 00:04:22,177 --> 00:04:24,956 of why most of the other places like it, were. 70 00:04:25,571 --> 00:04:27,793 It's one of the most untouched examples 71 00:04:27,793 --> 00:04:31,155 of a pre-cannonball medieval fortification, 72 00:04:31,155 --> 00:04:32,609 and it's also quite beautiful. 73 00:04:43,679 --> 00:04:45,633 When this place was built in 1300, 74 00:04:45,633 --> 00:04:46,503 life was simple. 75 00:04:46,923 --> 00:04:49,047 Wraparound vision from these drum towers 76 00:04:49,047 --> 00:04:50,704 gave your archers complete command 77 00:04:50,704 --> 00:04:51,768 of anything within bowshot. 78 00:04:52,439 --> 00:04:56,009 Nice, tall, slim walls, proof against catapults, 79 00:04:59,136 --> 00:04:59,136 battering ramps, knights on horseback, 80 00:04:59,136 --> 00:05:01,774 you name it; and if anybody should try 81 00:05:01,774 --> 00:05:05,067 to scale the wall, boiling oil. 82 00:05:05,815 --> 00:05:07,298 The cannonball changed everything; 83 00:05:07,690 --> 00:05:09,854 it knocked the tall walls down, couldn't miss. 84 00:05:10,324 --> 00:05:12,902 And, if they started firing at you from long range, 85 00:05:12,902 --> 00:05:14,365 the only way to hit them was to get your own cannon 86 00:05:14,365 --> 00:05:16,292 and fire back; and that left one problem, 87 00:05:16,292 --> 00:05:17,386 and you're in it. 88 00:05:17,848 --> 00:05:19,921 If i come down there and play the part of the attacker 89 00:05:19,921 --> 00:05:21,944 and you go up there on the castle walls 90 00:05:21,944 --> 00:05:24,171 and be the defender, i'll show you what I mean. 91 00:05:25,204 --> 00:05:27,965 Okay, follow me with your gun; you can see me, 92 00:05:27,965 --> 00:05:32,573 you can still see me, but now, you can't see me. 93 00:05:33,018 --> 00:05:34,718 Now go to the other side of the tower. 94 00:05:35,870 --> 00:05:38,536 Okay, now follow me again; you can see me, 95 00:05:38,536 --> 00:05:44,232 you can still see me, but now, you can't see me. 96 00:05:44,598 --> 00:05:46,931 So, there's a blind sopt in front of this round tower 97 00:05:46,931 --> 00:05:47,935 that you can't cover. 98 00:05:49,291 --> 00:05:51,680 It's an area between these white tapes, you see. 99 00:05:51,680 --> 00:05:53,462 now, if I can get my commanders in here, 100 00:05:53,462 --> 00:05:54,101 I can blow this wall up, 101 00:05:54,101 --> 00:05:55,427 and there's nothing you can do about it. 102 00:05:55,797 --> 00:05:57,678 So, what's the best solution to your problem? 103 00:05:57,678 --> 00:06:00,983 You've got a hole; yes, fill it, 104 00:06:00,983 --> 00:06:02,886 build the tower this shape; 105 00:06:03,465 --> 00:06:06,914 and about 1450, that's just what they did. 106 00:06:13,405 --> 00:06:14,996 It was an italian idea, 107 00:06:14,996 --> 00:06:17,219 and it totally altered the shape of the towns. 108 00:06:17,833 --> 00:06:21,035 This is what the new pointed rampart looked like, 109 00:06:21,035 --> 00:06:24,057 called a bastion, and because it made town walls 110 00:06:24,057 --> 00:06:26,721 look star-shaped the new defensive layout 111 00:06:26,721 --> 00:06:29,408 became known as the star fort. 112 00:06:37,100 --> 00:06:39,451 The architects that used to build these things 113 00:06:39,451 --> 00:06:41,436 used to come along to towns, and sell the idea 114 00:06:41,436 --> 00:06:42,563 rather like you sell cloth. 115 00:06:42,563 --> 00:06:43,569 They'd say, you know now how many bastions 116 00:06:43,569 --> 00:06:44,731 can you afford; you know, 117 00:06:44,731 --> 00:06:46,745 we can give you five, six, two; whatever you like. 118 00:06:47,130 --> 00:06:49,276 And the town would buy whatever it could afford; 119 00:06:49,276 --> 00:06:51,698 but you forgot the cost, once you came up 120 00:06:51,698 --> 00:06:52,426 on to the bastions. 121 00:06:52,461 --> 00:06:55,108 Here, you get a warmly impregnable feeling. 122 00:06:55,108 --> 00:06:57,699 Look around, the walls are nice and low; 123 00:06:57,699 --> 00:06:58,791 they're very difficult to hit, 124 00:06:58,791 --> 00:07:00,777 they're sloped so that any cannonnball 125 00:07:00,777 --> 00:07:02,015 that hits them will ricochet off, 126 00:07:02,015 --> 00:07:04,708 an they're built in brick to withstand impact. 127 00:07:05,141 --> 00:07:07,368 Now, one bastion protects another. 128 00:07:07,709 --> 00:07:09,098 See over there, in that inlet, 129 00:07:09,098 --> 00:07:11,307 there would be guns over there firing along the side 130 00:07:11,307 --> 00:07:13,922 of my bastion protecting me, and i can do 131 00:07:13,922 --> 00:07:15,489 precisely the same thing for the other bastion. 132 00:07:15,869 --> 00:07:18,515 And, what is more, between us, we can put up 133 00:07:18,515 --> 00:07:20,539 really withering crossfire in this area, 134 00:07:20,539 --> 00:07:22,323 protecting the main wall of the fortress. 135 00:07:23,279 --> 00:07:26,124 Add to that scheme, the island in the moat, 136 00:07:26,124 --> 00:07:29,297 the raveline as it's called, and put guns on it; 137 00:07:29,999 --> 00:07:30,661 and you're really wrapped up, nice and snug. 138 00:07:30,976 --> 00:07:32,420 And, should the enemy, by any chance, 139 00:07:32,420 --> 00:07:33,203 get on to that island, 140 00:07:33,203 --> 00:07:35,459 well, you've simply get a big pile of guns 141 00:07:35,459 --> 00:07:37,273 on this bastion, a big pile of guns 142 00:07:37,273 --> 00:07:39,874 on the other bastion, and you blow them to kingdom come. 143 00:07:40,261 --> 00:07:41,815 That's what was so good about these bastions; 144 00:07:41,850 --> 00:07:44,452 you could use the guns on them so effectively. 145 00:07:49,126 --> 00:07:51,147 Look, the guns in the little inlet 146 00:07:51,147 --> 00:07:52,982 behind one bastion cover the next and, 147 00:07:52,982 --> 00:07:55,950 their neighbors return the favor. 148 00:07:56,407 --> 00:07:58,227 They also protected the main wall, 149 00:07:58,262 --> 00:08:00,603 if you got past this defense, 150 00:08:00,603 --> 00:08:03,032 and you never even got that far; 151 00:08:03,032 --> 00:08:05,679 the entire town was snug behind 152 00:08:05,679 --> 00:08:07,556 a cat's cradle of cannon fire. 153 00:08:19,802 --> 00:08:22,515 You wanted straight streets to move guns and ammunition 154 00:08:22,515 --> 00:08:24,181 from bastion to bastion, if needed; 155 00:08:24,181 --> 00:08:26,097 so, town planning got a boost. 156 00:08:26,585 --> 00:08:30,708 From the mid 16th century onwards, people stood a fair chance 157 00:08:30,708 --> 00:08:33,881 of living out their lives in safety behind their new walls. 158 00:08:34,270 --> 00:08:38,295 All they need was food and, of course, ammunition. 159 00:08:40,731 --> 00:08:43,649 Now, some of these places had as many as over 200 guns, 160 00:08:43,649 --> 00:08:45,793 firing about once every ten minutes. 161 00:08:46,319 --> 00:08:48,531 The guns were zeroed up before they were put into position; 162 00:08:48,531 --> 00:08:50,304 that is to say, they were test fired. 163 00:08:50,304 --> 00:08:51,528 You fire the gun horizontally, 164 00:08:51,528 --> 00:08:52,612 and you see where the ball drops. 165 00:08:52,612 --> 00:08:55,302 Then, you raise it one degree, see where the ball drops; 166 00:08:55,302 --> 00:08:57,327 raise it one more degree, see how far the ball goes; 167 00:08:57,327 --> 00:08:59,254 and so on until you reach maximum range. 168 00:08:59,714 --> 00:09:01,408 Now, since you live here and you know 169 00:09:01,408 --> 00:09:03,296 exactly how far across the moat the enemy are, 170 00:09:03,296 --> 00:09:05,530 you know the angle at which your gun has to be, 171 00:09:05,530 --> 00:09:06,254 in order to hit them. 172 00:09:06,289 --> 00:09:09,053 To get that angle right, you use an adapted 173 00:09:09,053 --> 00:09:10,606 astronomical instrument like this, 174 00:09:10,606 --> 00:09:12,472 it's called a gunner's quadrant, dead simple to use. 175 00:09:12,472 --> 00:09:15,483 You just shove it down the muzzle and watch 176 00:09:15,483 --> 00:09:17,329 where the plum line goes past the scale, 177 00:09:17,329 --> 00:09:20,175 so you know the angle of elevation of your gun; 178 00:09:21,438 --> 00:09:23,923 and knowing that, you're ready to load and fire. 179 00:09:24,659 --> 00:09:25,613 Well, expect for one thing; does your gunpowder 180 00:09:25,613 --> 00:09:27,672 work as well as it should? 181 00:09:28,273 --> 00:09:29,914 And that's what that rather silly pole 182 00:09:29,914 --> 00:09:30,968 is all about, over there. 183 00:09:32,396 --> 00:09:34,831 Testing gunpowder was a bit like going to the fair ground, 184 00:09:34,831 --> 00:09:35,882 because this is what you did. 185 00:09:35,882 --> 00:09:37,359 You took a measured amount of standard gunpowder 186 00:09:37,359 --> 00:09:39,293 and you put it in that cup like that; 187 00:09:39,826 --> 00:09:42,682 and then, you put a cannonball of a known weight on top; 188 00:09:43,185 --> 00:09:44,928 and then, you lit the fuse and stood back, 189 00:09:44,963 --> 00:09:47,631 and depending on how far up the pole the ball went, 190 00:09:47,666 --> 00:09:49,475 you knew whether your gunpowder was okay or not. 191 00:10:24,115 --> 00:10:25,258 Well, so much for the defenders, 192 00:10:25,258 --> 00:10:26,738 what about the attackers out there? 193 00:10:27,131 --> 00:10:28,450 Well, they had a much harder time; 194 00:10:28,838 --> 00:10:31,597 they had to try and get those guns on the bastions out, 195 00:10:32,183 --> 00:10:33,615 with whatever they were carrying at that time, 196 00:10:33,615 --> 00:10:34,531 the instruments they had. 197 00:10:34,531 --> 00:10:36,488 In general, that tended to be this. 198 00:10:36,488 --> 00:10:38,649 It's an astronomical instrument called an astrolabe, 199 00:10:38,649 --> 00:10:40,689 it's kind of a medieval astronomer's computer 200 00:10:40,689 --> 00:10:42,066 that can do all sorts of amazing things 201 00:10:42,066 --> 00:10:44,452 relating to the sky and eclipses, and so on. 202 00:10:44,452 --> 00:10:46,266 Fortunately for the illiterate gunners, 203 00:10:46,266 --> 00:10:49,095 and the back, it has a very simple star sighting device 204 00:10:49,095 --> 00:10:51,646 which you can also use to find out how high above you 205 00:10:51,646 --> 00:10:53,398 those guns are that you want to knock out. 206 00:10:53,398 --> 00:10:56,319 You just line up the sites, read off the thing 207 00:10:56,319 --> 00:10:57,762 and it says 7 degrees, 208 00:10:57,762 --> 00:10:59,612 yo, so you know how high to elevate your gun. 209 00:10:59,981 --> 00:11:01,939 Okay, how far away are they; that's important. 210 00:11:01,939 --> 00:11:04,989 Well, if you take the astrolabe and turn it like that; 211 00:11:04,989 --> 00:11:08,199 horizontal, you end up with a device 212 00:11:08,199 --> 00:11:09,795 that was called a circumferente, here's one, 213 00:11:09,795 --> 00:11:12,245 and that's used for getting the distance away from you 214 00:11:13,105 --> 00:11:15,438 You line up north-south, because it's got a compass. 215 00:11:15,438 --> 00:11:18,671 Then, you use these two sites here to draw a beat 216 00:11:18,671 --> 00:11:20,258 on the guns you want to destroy, 217 00:11:20,258 --> 00:11:21,736 and you can see from the scale 218 00:11:21,736 --> 00:11:23,466 how many degrees they are away from north, 219 00:11:23,466 --> 00:11:25,510 to one side as it were from you here. 220 00:11:25,510 --> 00:11:27,296 You then go down the road a known distance 221 00:11:27,296 --> 00:11:28,058 and do that again, 222 00:11:28,058 --> 00:11:30,085 and that comes down to some very simple geometry; 223 00:11:30,085 --> 00:11:32,207 which they used to do on their drumheads like this. 224 00:11:32,207 --> 00:11:33,482 We are here. 225 00:11:33,837 --> 00:11:36,278 That other observation point, let's say, is down there 226 00:11:36,278 --> 00:11:37,594 and we know that''s a 100 meters away. 227 00:11:37,594 --> 00:11:39,821 We just took a bead on the guns 228 00:11:39,821 --> 00:11:42,091 that was this much of north, if that's north, 229 00:11:42,091 --> 00:11:43,934 down the road; when we did it, 230 00:11:43,969 --> 00:11:45,210 perhaps it would have been like that. 231 00:11:45,210 --> 00:11:46,658 So, we know that the gun we want to hit is there. 232 00:11:47,226 --> 00:11:49,961 If we get a pair of compasses, and use a scale, 233 00:11:49,961 --> 00:11:52,507 that's a 100 meters and that's going to be about 110, 234 00:11:52,507 --> 00:11:54,423 and this is going to be about 105. 235 00:11:54,423 --> 00:11:55,755 So, we know how far away to shoot 236 00:11:55,755 --> 00:11:57,426 if we're going to shoot from here or here. 237 00:11:57,426 --> 00:11:59,678 Fine, that was all right; except that while 238 00:11:59,678 --> 00:12:01,177 you were doing all this, they shot you. 239 00:12:01,562 --> 00:12:04,361 So, when Leonard Diggs, an englishman, brought out 240 00:12:04,361 --> 00:12:06,750 in about 1560, a thing called a theodolite 241 00:12:06,750 --> 00:12:08,192 that did all these jobs in one go; 242 00:12:08,691 --> 00:12:09,618 he was a very popular fellow. 243 00:12:11,043 --> 00:12:13,216 This is it; see, it's got a plum line, 244 00:12:13,216 --> 00:12:14,783 so you can set it up straight; 245 00:12:14,783 --> 00:12:17,305 and a built-in compass for pointing north. 246 00:12:17,761 --> 00:12:21,075 Well, the bit for finding the angle of the target 247 00:12:21,075 --> 00:12:24,476 off to one side of you, works exactly the same way 248 00:12:24,476 --> 00:12:28,758 as the circumferente, and so does the geometry bit 249 00:12:28,758 --> 00:12:31,108 that you do afterwards to find out how far away 250 00:12:31,108 --> 00:12:33,889 from the target your guns will be, once you've done two sightings. 251 00:12:34,683 --> 00:12:37,384 The new thing is the part that tells you 252 00:12:37,384 --> 00:12:39,913 how high up the target is, this bit. 253 00:12:40,487 --> 00:12:43,462 With Diggs' theodolites, you know all you need, 254 00:12:43,462 --> 00:12:44,859 fast enough to stay alive. 255 00:12:45,776 --> 00:12:47,478 What you don't know is wether you're in 256 00:12:47,478 --> 00:12:49,135 the right place or or not, because in spite of 257 00:12:49,170 --> 00:12:50,647 all these sophisticated instruments, 258 00:12:50,647 --> 00:12:52,750 at the time, maps were a joke. 259 00:12:52,750 --> 00:12:55,829 Look, this is all you got; the rivers you were 260 00:12:55,829 --> 00:12:58,651 going to cross, a few bridges where there was a bridge, 261 00:12:58,651 --> 00:13:00,603 and if there was a town that was going to give you 262 00:13:00,603 --> 00:13:03,370 something to eat, you've got a little box 263 00:13:03,370 --> 00:13:04,784 with a steeple on it; that's all you had. 264 00:13:04,784 --> 00:13:06,400 No wonder so many people got lost. 265 00:13:06,873 --> 00:13:09,089 Anyway, Leonard Diggs and his theodolites solved 266 00:13:09,089 --> 00:13:11,176 that mapmaking problem; thanks in the main, 267 00:13:11,176 --> 00:13:14,033 to a recent and rather unsavory divorce case. 268 00:13:24,046 --> 00:13:26,151 This is the short but sobering tale 269 00:13:26,151 --> 00:13:27,977 of what happened to monasteries in England, 270 00:13:27,977 --> 00:13:29,967 because Henry the VIII divorced his wife; 271 00:13:29,967 --> 00:13:33,263 and how little Jack Horner pulled out his plum. 272 00:13:42,786 --> 00:13:45,782 See, Henry divorced his wife in defiance of the pope, 273 00:13:45,782 --> 00:13:49,360 that turned the country protestant, and in 1536, 274 00:13:49,360 --> 00:13:51,871 started taking their lands and properties away 275 00:13:51,871 --> 00:13:52,864 from these monasteries. 276 00:13:53,143 --> 00:13:54,558 a) because they were catholic; 277 00:13:54,558 --> 00:13:58,006 and b) because they had twice as much money as he had; 278 00:13:58,006 --> 00:14:00,101 and he was a bit short of cash. 279 00:14:07,053 --> 00:14:09,567 Now, at some places like Glastonbury, 280 00:14:09,567 --> 00:14:11,752 they thought they knew how to buy a little time. 281 00:14:19,717 --> 00:14:22,871 The idea was probably cooked up by the abbot's steward, 282 00:14:22,871 --> 00:14:26,383 a certain Jack Horner, send a pie to the king 283 00:14:26,383 --> 00:14:29,251 containing title deeds to some abbey properties. 284 00:14:37,934 --> 00:14:41,044 This rich little pie thing was supposed to make the king 285 00:14:41,044 --> 00:14:43,513 conveniently forget the rest of the abbey's property. 286 00:14:43,824 --> 00:14:46,612 Well, on the way to London, little Jack Honer 287 00:14:46,612 --> 00:14:49,035 pulled out his plum; one of the property deeds, 288 00:14:49,035 --> 00:14:50,642 and the king got what was left, 289 00:14:50,642 --> 00:14:52,910 which wasn't enough. 290 00:15:03,864 --> 00:15:06,518 So, the plan failed. Henry took everything, 291 00:15:06,518 --> 00:15:08,945 and that's why mapmaking got better; 292 00:15:08,945 --> 00:15:11,691 because when Henry sold all those monastic lands, 293 00:15:11,691 --> 00:15:14,039 he kicked off a surveyor's bonanza, 294 00:15:14,039 --> 00:15:16,810 because all the buyers wanted their land mesured first. 295 00:15:26,563 --> 00:15:28,611 Christopher Saxton, one of the surveyors, 296 00:15:28,611 --> 00:15:30,923 put his profession on the map in 1584, 297 00:15:30,923 --> 00:15:33,986 by producing the first national atlas in the western world, 298 00:15:33,986 --> 00:15:36,362 showing almost every river and town, 299 00:15:36,362 --> 00:15:38,283 and the rough idea of the terrain. 300 00:15:39,287 --> 00:15:41,660 His maps didn't of course; include Scotland 301 00:15:41,660 --> 00:15:43,556 because it was a separate sovereign state 302 00:15:43,556 --> 00:15:44,273 at the time. 303 00:15:47,061 --> 00:15:50,884 Strangely enough, John Ogilby left Scotland out of his maps too, 304 00:15:50,884 --> 00:15:52,085 nearly 100 years later 305 00:15:52,085 --> 00:15:54,488 when Scotland was ruled from London. 306 00:15:54,789 --> 00:15:57,507 These were the first systematic surveys of all 307 00:15:57,507 --> 00:15:59,731 main roads in the country, and like this one, 308 00:15:59,731 --> 00:16:03,043 of the road north from London, they showed county names, 309 00:16:03,043 --> 00:16:05,795 towns, bridges, and distance 310 00:16:05,795 --> 00:16:07,406 marked by the new statute mile. 311 00:16:07,905 --> 00:16:10,257 And yet, Ogilby went only as far as the border 312 00:16:10,257 --> 00:16:11,814 with all this fancy detail. 313 00:16:13,310 --> 00:16:16,414 Up here in the Scottish Highlands, there wasn't anything like that. 314 00:16:16,731 --> 00:16:17,851 "Why bother", said the english, 315 00:16:17,851 --> 00:16:19,903 "look at it; there's nothing worth bothering about." 316 00:16:20,254 --> 00:16:23,959 Well, the 1715 rebellion proved that there was. 317 00:16:24,318 --> 00:16:28,491 And still, nothing was done, until in 1724, 318 00:16:28,491 --> 00:16:30,546 the member of parliament from Bath, 319 00:16:30,546 --> 00:16:32,984 a retired major general called George Wade, 320 00:16:32,984 --> 00:16:35,118 was sent up here to report on how 321 00:16:35,118 --> 00:16:38,449 the post-war pacification of the clans was going. 322 00:16:39,287 --> 00:16:40,535 He wrote back a letter saying that it wasn't; 323 00:16:40,535 --> 00:16:43,408 and that they were as ready to revolt as they ever had been; 324 00:16:44,098 --> 00:16:46,402 and that what this country needed was more garrisons, 325 00:16:46,402 --> 00:16:48,032 more troops, and above all, 326 00:16:48,032 --> 00:16:50,159 a road to move the troops around on. 327 00:16:50,890 --> 00:16:51,906 So the king said, "Okay, go ahead;" 328 00:16:51,906 --> 00:16:52,911 and they started to work. 329 00:16:53,383 --> 00:16:56,239 The work took 500 men with picks and shovels; 330 00:16:56,239 --> 00:16:58,826 and they laid a layer of large stones 331 00:16:58,826 --> 00:17:00,748 and a layer of smaller stones; and then, 332 00:17:00,748 --> 00:17:02,372 packed the surface with gravel 333 00:17:02,372 --> 00:17:03,520 and where necessary, 334 00:17:03,520 --> 00:17:06,593 built drainage ditches on either side of the road. 335 00:17:06,908 --> 00:17:08,623 When the military road was finished, 336 00:17:08,623 --> 00:17:10,267 it was one of the best in Europe. 337 00:17:10,267 --> 00:17:11,987 and, to this day, 338 00:17:11,987 --> 00:17:14,218 it's named after the man who built it. 339 00:17:14,218 --> 00:17:17,465 This is called Wade's road. 340 00:17:41,974 --> 00:17:45,382 The english were so pleased with Wade that in 1745, 341 00:17:45,382 --> 00:17:47,710 when he was using his road to chase Bonnie Prince Charlie, 342 00:17:47,710 --> 00:17:49,798 they even added a verse to the national anthem. 343 00:17:49,798 --> 00:17:52,117 god grant that marshal Wade 344 00:17:52,117 --> 00:17:55,057 may by thy mighty aid victory bring. 345 00:17:55,057 --> 00:17:56,824 May he sedition hush, 346 00:17:56,824 --> 00:17:58,430 and like a torrent rush, 347 00:17:58,430 --> 00:18:00,537 rebellious scots to crush. 348 00:18:00,537 --> 00:18:01,984 god save the king! 349 00:18:12,735 --> 00:18:15,239 To a road maker, the road over Corryarack pass 350 00:18:15,239 --> 00:18:17,675 must rank as Wade's greatest triumph. 351 00:18:18,862 --> 00:18:20,089 It's ironic, because he built it 352 00:18:20,089 --> 00:18:21,330 for english soldiers going north; 353 00:18:21,330 --> 00:18:23,541 and in 1745, Bonnie Prince Charlie 354 00:18:23,541 --> 00:18:24,991 used it for scottish soldiers going south, 355 00:18:24,991 --> 00:18:26,879 on the trip that took them to oh well, 356 00:18:26,879 --> 00:18:28,398 130 miles from London. 357 00:18:28,398 --> 00:18:30,403 and the banks collapsed and everybody panicked, 358 00:18:30,403 --> 00:18:31,789 and the king packed his bags. 359 00:18:32,342 --> 00:18:35,003 It was the 1745 rebellion that actually, 360 00:18:35,003 --> 00:18:36,267 finally convinced the english 361 00:18:36,267 --> 00:18:38,286 that they should map Scotland for their generals. 362 00:18:38,636 --> 00:18:40,943 And one of the surveyors on that job 363 00:18:40,943 --> 00:18:41,889 was a fellow called Roy, 364 00:18:41,889 --> 00:18:44,357 and he kept pushing for a national map 365 00:18:44,357 --> 00:18:46,784 of the entire island; and still, nothing was done. 366 00:18:47,221 --> 00:18:49,493 And again, it took war, this time 367 00:18:49,493 --> 00:18:51,340 the fear of invasion from France, 368 00:18:51,340 --> 00:18:52,888 to get the english to move. 369 00:18:53,258 --> 00:18:57,288 Finally, in 1791, the ordinance survey 370 00:18:57,288 --> 00:18:58,827 was set up, and off they went. 371 00:18:59,768 --> 00:19:01,948 In 1820, they decided to map Ireland, 372 00:19:02,808 --> 00:19:06,297 and that decision helped kick off a new kind of illumination, 373 00:19:07,010 --> 00:19:09,181 because the very first mission that they wanted to take, 374 00:19:09,181 --> 00:19:11,821 was from Divis mountain here outside Belfast, 375 00:19:12,673 --> 00:19:15,261 right the way across over to that mountain 376 00:19:15,261 --> 00:19:17,990 in Donegal called Slieve Snaght. 377 00:19:31,852 --> 00:19:33,530 You remember that business that gunners did, 378 00:19:33,530 --> 00:19:35,688 of working out how far away a target was 379 00:19:35,688 --> 00:19:38,707 by drawing a triangle; that's what triangulation is. 380 00:19:39,125 --> 00:19:42,160 Well, Divis and Slieve Snaght were two points of a triangle, 381 00:19:42,160 --> 00:19:44,113 with a third on a mountain in Scotland. 382 00:19:44,751 --> 00:19:47,254 In autumn 1824, the problem was, 383 00:19:47,254 --> 00:19:49,523 you couldn't see from Divis to Slieve Snaght, 384 00:19:49,523 --> 00:19:51,138 because the weather was so bad. 385 00:19:51,138 --> 00:19:53,481 Weeks of fiddling went by, and still, 386 00:19:53,481 --> 00:19:56,581 every time the royal engineers looked through the murk, 387 00:19:56,581 --> 00:19:58,717 all they got was an eyeful of murk. 388 00:19:59,053 --> 00:20:00,593 They lit fire on Slieve Snaught; 389 00:20:00,593 --> 00:20:02,703 they stuck poles on it; nothing. 390 00:20:03,699 --> 00:20:06,840 And you can't be master of all you do not survey, 391 00:20:07,364 --> 00:20:10,584 so the english went rather politely hysterical, 392 00:20:10,584 --> 00:20:14,168 when, at the tower of London, in a patriotic little ceremony, 393 00:20:14,790 --> 00:20:16,481 a young surveyor called William Drummond 394 00:20:16,481 --> 00:20:17,994 came up with the answer. 395 00:20:18,657 --> 00:20:20,850 The show took place in the armory, 396 00:20:20,850 --> 00:20:24,111 and quite literally, dazzled everybody. 397 00:20:36,434 --> 00:20:38,645 William Drummond had invented a light you could stick 398 00:20:38,645 --> 00:20:40,456 on any mountain, and see for miles. 399 00:20:40,456 --> 00:20:42,467 The irish problem solved, 400 00:20:42,467 --> 00:20:45,411 thanks to a shining example of british genius. 401 00:20:45,828 --> 00:20:51,137 [applause] 402 00:20:56,957 --> 00:20:59,949 Inferior foreign lights paled into insignificance 403 00:20:59,949 --> 00:21:01,866 besides the brilliance of Drummond's device, 404 00:21:01,866 --> 00:21:03,735 and english hearts burst with pride 405 00:21:03,735 --> 00:21:05,508 because now, they could measure Ireland, 406 00:21:05,508 --> 00:21:07,277 they could tax it better. 407 00:21:18,645 --> 00:21:20,214 The new light worked like this: 408 00:21:20,214 --> 00:21:24,378 up three tubes came alcohol, hydrogen, and oxygen. 409 00:21:24,378 --> 00:21:26,941 these were sprayed on to a piece of limestone, 410 00:21:26,941 --> 00:21:27,805 and ignited. 411 00:21:28,142 --> 00:21:30,347 Behind the limestone, a curved reflector; 412 00:21:30,574 --> 00:21:32,519 as the flames heated up the limestone, 413 00:21:32,519 --> 00:21:34,160 it would glow brighter and brighter 414 00:21:34,160 --> 00:21:38,004 until in the end, it would become incandescent. 415 00:21:47,981 --> 00:21:50,021 When they put Drummond's limelight on the mountain, 416 00:21:50,021 --> 00:21:51,297 their troubles were over. 417 00:21:55,922 --> 00:21:58,559 By 1829 Drummond was trying to get his limelight 418 00:21:58,559 --> 00:21:59,608 into lighthouses; 419 00:21:59,643 --> 00:22:00,740 the obvious place to put it. 420 00:22:01,138 --> 00:22:02,732 Early tests had shown that at night, 421 00:22:02,732 --> 00:22:04,976 the light was to intense, it cast a shadow 422 00:22:04,976 --> 00:22:07,042 at a distance of 10 miles from the lighthouse. 423 00:22:07,476 --> 00:22:09,354 But, problems with leaking gas, 424 00:22:09,354 --> 00:22:11,899 and not enough gas, and too expensive gas, 425 00:22:11,899 --> 00:22:13,810 finally convinced the authorities 426 00:22:13,810 --> 00:22:15,886 that although limelight was just what they needed, 427 00:22:15,886 --> 00:22:18,326 it was going to cost more than they were prepared to pay. 428 00:22:18,326 --> 00:22:20,269 So, Drummond dropped the idea. 429 00:22:28,022 --> 00:22:29,916 Still, that wasn't the end of limelight, 430 00:22:29,916 --> 00:22:31,110 as I'm sure you've guesses. 431 00:22:37,422 --> 00:22:39,852 Well, I reckon the second you realized where I am now, 432 00:22:39,852 --> 00:22:41,825 you also realized where Drummond 433 00:22:41,825 --> 00:22:44,149 took his limelight next - into the theatre; 434 00:22:44,516 --> 00:22:45,967 where limelight took on the meaning 435 00:22:46,002 --> 00:22:46,894 it has in the modern world. 436 00:22:47,491 --> 00:22:49,216 Of course, theaters at the time, 437 00:22:49,216 --> 00:22:52,902 were already lit - by gas. 438 00:22:53,758 --> 00:22:56,243 Trouble was, it wasn't just the stage that was lit; 439 00:22:56,243 --> 00:22:58,639 many a fairy came to grief when her dress 440 00:22:58,639 --> 00:23:00,735 got a bit to close to one of these open gas footlights, 441 00:23:00,735 --> 00:23:02,846 and whole theaters went up in flames; 442 00:23:03,211 --> 00:23:05,496 carelessness, leaking gas. 443 00:23:05,496 --> 00:23:08,084 But it wasn't just the fires that got Drummond 444 00:23:08,084 --> 00:23:11,181 into the theater, I mean, what actor could resist 445 00:23:11,181 --> 00:23:13,684 stepping into the brilliance of limelight. 446 00:23:14,551 --> 00:23:18,177 And so, from 1877 on, limelight was everywhere; 447 00:23:18,177 --> 00:23:20,381 from pantomime to opera, to Shakespeare, 448 00:23:20,381 --> 00:23:23,828 like Henry Irving's production of Macbeth; 449 00:23:23,828 --> 00:23:25,070 got packed. 450 00:23:25,414 --> 00:23:27,557 Critics didn't think the limelight looked real enough. 451 00:23:29,520 --> 00:23:31,926 And, since we've arrived at a rather theatrical 452 00:23:31,926 --> 00:23:34,198 period of history, let me explain what happened next, 453 00:23:34,198 --> 00:23:35,766 the way they would have told you. 454 00:23:38,037 --> 00:23:39,597 And now, ladies and gentlemen, 455 00:23:39,597 --> 00:23:42,906 for a brief series of morally uplifting vignettes, 456 00:23:42,906 --> 00:23:46,291 illustrating dedicated 19th century genius at work. 457 00:23:46,893 --> 00:23:49,675 Observe the fatal problem of the day. 458 00:23:51,586 --> 00:23:54,151 Rock A, inadequately illuminated; 459 00:23:54,151 --> 00:23:57,521 enter ships B to strike rock A, 460 00:23:57,521 --> 00:24:00,777 sinking into a watery grave at sea. 461 00:24:01,717 --> 00:24:05,209 In 1845, over 1.000 such incident occured. 462 00:24:05,653 --> 00:24:09,505 Solution, rocks A need lighthouses B, 463 00:24:09,505 --> 00:24:13,315 so that ships C may avoid rocks A, 464 00:24:13,315 --> 00:24:15,359 thanks to lighthouses B. 465 00:24:15,724 --> 00:24:19,040 The problem: Drummond's limelight demands too much gas. 466 00:24:19,444 --> 00:24:25,882 Solution: Volta's pile, which as the demonstratory 467 00:24:25,882 --> 00:24:28,993 digit shows, is composed of discs of differing metals 468 00:24:28,993 --> 00:24:33,873 which give off electricity; discharge aforesaid 469 00:24:33,873 --> 00:24:36,962 electricity into indicated water via electrodes, 470 00:24:36,962 --> 00:24:40,584 so that aforesaid water gives off the two gases 471 00:24:40,584 --> 00:24:45,585 neccesary for limelight: hydrogen and oxygen. 472 00:24:46,419 --> 00:24:48,695 Problem: not enough electricity. 473 00:24:48,695 --> 00:24:52,747 Solution: professor Florist Nolet of Belgium's 474 00:24:52,747 --> 00:24:55,531 amazing 1850 machine; spin wheels 475 00:24:55,531 --> 00:24:59,909 carrying copper wire discs b, past magnets a, 476 00:24:59,909 --> 00:25:04,152 so that magnets a induce in copper wire coils b 477 00:25:04,152 --> 00:25:08,346 enough electricity to produce aforementioned gases. 478 00:25:10,444 --> 00:25:13,334 Problem: professor Nolet's company embezzles. 479 00:25:13,652 --> 00:25:18,135 Solution: his british colleague Holmes improves the machine. 480 00:25:18,461 --> 00:25:23,999 This is a giant version of Nolet's idea carrying 96 coils, 481 00:25:23,999 --> 00:25:26,615 56 magnets and weighing a colossal 3 tons. 482 00:25:27,696 --> 00:25:30,609 So, by 1871, thanks to british genius, 483 00:25:30,609 --> 00:25:33,902 the mighty Holmes generator was powering the world's 484 00:25:33,902 --> 00:25:36,244 first fully operational lighthouse, 485 00:25:36,244 --> 00:25:38,362 carrying not the limelight, 486 00:25:38,362 --> 00:25:40,408 but a mysterious new source of light. 487 00:25:40,408 --> 00:25:42,757 so mysterious that, problem: 488 00:25:43,341 --> 00:25:45,433 it demands more power than Holmes can give. 489 00:25:45,798 --> 00:25:50,184 Fortunately, solution: Holmes is already obsolete, 490 00:25:50,184 --> 00:25:51,944 because of this. 491 00:25:52,434 --> 00:25:55,536 One year before, a belgium carpenter Zenebe Graham 492 00:25:55,536 --> 00:25:58,929 had put iron magnets a coiled with copper wire, 493 00:25:58,929 --> 00:26:02,119 below and above an iron wheel, 494 00:26:02,119 --> 00:26:04,018 coiled with copper wire b. 495 00:26:04,583 --> 00:26:07,886 As wheel b spins, magnets a induce it 496 00:26:07,886 --> 00:26:10,223 with electricity, which in turn induce 497 00:26:10,223 --> 00:26:12,707 more magnetic power into magnet a, 498 00:26:12,707 --> 00:26:15,416 which in turn induces more electricity in wheel b, 499 00:26:15,416 --> 00:26:17,574 which etc, etc, etc, etc. 500 00:26:18,024 --> 00:26:21,531 The dynamo produced enough electricity 501 00:26:21,531 --> 00:26:23,671 to power the mysterious light source, 502 00:26:23,671 --> 00:26:27,087 which has defeated Holmes: the arc light. 503 00:26:29,845 --> 00:26:31,839 Well, enough of the theatrical stuff. 504 00:26:31,839 --> 00:26:33,139 Let me tell you about the arc light, 505 00:26:33,139 --> 00:26:35,975 oh, which incidentally, is that thing you've been seeing 506 00:26:35,975 --> 00:26:37,008 at the beginning of every program. 507 00:26:37,471 --> 00:26:39,871 It was the world's first electric light. 508 00:26:50,554 --> 00:26:53,500 You ran electricity into two pointed bits of carbon; 509 00:26:53,500 --> 00:26:56,154 as they almost touched, the current sparked 510 00:26:56,154 --> 00:26:57,877 across the gap, and the carbon burnt. 511 00:27:00,201 --> 00:27:02,881 The arc light made limelight look like a candle flame, 512 00:27:02,881 --> 00:27:04,756 and in no time, it was in lighthouses 513 00:27:04,756 --> 00:27:06,056 all over Europe and America. 514 00:27:06,619 --> 00:27:07,718 And the crafty thing was; 515 00:27:07,718 --> 00:27:10,834 the mechanism to move the carbon rods 516 00:27:10,834 --> 00:27:13,498 was run by the same electricity that produced the light; 517 00:27:13,963 --> 00:27:16,652 a light you could see as far as the horizon. 518 00:27:19,707 --> 00:27:22,260 The arc light was as big a success in the theater 519 00:27:22,260 --> 00:27:23,492 as it was in lighthouses. 520 00:27:23,492 --> 00:27:25,274 It got rid of limelight, for a start. 521 00:27:25,879 --> 00:27:27,138 It also did something else. 522 00:27:28,061 --> 00:27:30,436 You've seen how change comes about in funny ways, 523 00:27:30,436 --> 00:27:32,667 because of war, or accident or climate, 524 00:27:32,667 --> 00:27:33,991 or any number of things. 525 00:27:34,393 --> 00:27:35,979 Well, sometimes it also happenes 526 00:27:35,979 --> 00:27:38,786 because all of the bits necessary for an invention 527 00:27:38,786 --> 00:27:39,658 happen to come together, 528 00:27:39,658 --> 00:27:41,682 in the same place, at the same time. 529 00:27:42,678 --> 00:27:44,584 Well, the arc light turned out to be one of those bits. 530 00:27:44,993 --> 00:27:47,832 And the modern invention it helped to bring into existence, 531 00:27:47,832 --> 00:27:49,712 is sitting in your house right now. 532 00:27:50,161 --> 00:27:52,323 The arc light was only the first bit; 533 00:27:52,323 --> 00:27:54,996 the second nearly didn't happen at all, 534 00:27:54,996 --> 00:27:56,315 because of THAT. 535 00:28:02,022 --> 00:28:04,627 These are the docks at the quiet littlee kentish town 536 00:28:07,133 --> 00:28:07,133 of Faversham, not to remain quiet for long. 537 00:28:07,693 --> 00:28:09,827 Early in 1847, a local factory 538 00:28:09,827 --> 00:28:12,957 had just started production of a new explosive. 539 00:28:21,662 --> 00:28:25,206 It was made by soaking cotton in nitric and sulfuric acid; 540 00:28:25,206 --> 00:28:27,659 a process, which the inventor assured them, 541 00:28:27,659 --> 00:28:29,644 was totally without risk. 542 00:28:34,753 --> 00:28:41,962 [explosions] 543 00:28:53,800 --> 00:28:56,427 Everything within quarter of a mile was destroyed, 544 00:28:56,427 --> 00:28:58,300 and 21 people were killed. 545 00:28:58,300 --> 00:29:00,052 10 of them exploded to bits, 546 00:29:00,052 --> 00:29:01,591 said the illustrated London news. 547 00:29:02,431 --> 00:29:03,708 Can't have been much left to illustrate. 548 00:29:05,777 --> 00:29:08,073 Well, that blew it, if you'll forgive the phrase, 549 00:29:08,073 --> 00:29:09,734 for gun cotton and the search for 550 00:29:09,734 --> 00:29:12,239 a bigger and better bang, for oh, almost 20 years. 551 00:29:13,076 --> 00:29:16,320 And then, one day in 1863, in the United States, 552 00:29:16,320 --> 00:29:19,317 there was a sudden and worrying shortage of teeth, 553 00:29:19,317 --> 00:29:22,431 a particular kind of teeth, this kind. 554 00:29:22,807 --> 00:29:24,812 You see, the great white hunter had been knocking off 555 00:29:24,812 --> 00:29:27,202 african elephants so fast that there was now 556 00:29:27,202 --> 00:29:28,496 a shortage of billiard balls, 557 00:29:28,780 --> 00:29:31,000 because you get four of them from one of these. 558 00:29:32,550 --> 00:29:35,371 So, there was now a $10.000 price being offered 559 00:29:35,371 --> 00:29:36,985 for anybody who could come up with a substitute 560 00:29:36,985 --> 00:29:38,426 for ivory billiard balls, 561 00:29:38,426 --> 00:29:39,638 and yes, you've guesses it. 562 00:29:39,934 --> 00:29:41,469 Gun cotton was involved again. 563 00:29:41,826 --> 00:29:44,526 Mixed with camphor and alcohol, and compressed; 564 00:29:44,526 --> 00:29:47,196 and the fellow who did it, was very good at pressing things, 565 00:29:47,196 --> 00:29:50,039 because he was a printer from Albany, New York. 566 00:29:50,369 --> 00:29:53,550 His name is John Wesley Hyatt, and you could say, 567 00:29:53,550 --> 00:29:55,025 his balls went down with quite a bang. 568 00:30:13,288 --> 00:30:15,066 The scene: a Colorado saloon; 569 00:30:15,066 --> 00:30:17,856 enter a Hyatt billiard ball salesman. 570 00:30:21,596 --> 00:30:23,834 Now, we only know of this curious event, 571 00:30:23,834 --> 00:30:26,531 the only recorded failure of Hyatt's billiard balls, 572 00:30:26,803 --> 00:30:29,556 because the saloon keeper wrote to the company afterwards, 573 00:30:29,828 --> 00:30:31,183 to complain about what happened 574 00:30:31,183 --> 00:30:33,787 the day a mysterious stranger rode into town, 575 00:30:33,787 --> 00:30:37,842 and walked into his bar, carrying a funny looking case. 576 00:30:55,354 --> 00:30:57,964 At first, he and his ball seemed harmless enough; 577 00:30:57,964 --> 00:31:00,066 but remember the shell of the ball 578 00:31:00,066 --> 00:31:03,904 was made with gun cotton, the explosive, get it? 579 00:31:09,035 --> 00:31:11,268 Suddenly, it made the kind of noise you never made 580 00:31:11,268 --> 00:31:14,531 in a western saloon, a noise like gunfire. 581 00:31:18,537 --> 00:31:19,705 [gunfire] 582 00:31:52,408 --> 00:31:55,531 Okay, so far in this final buildup 583 00:31:55,531 --> 00:31:57,531 of the jigsaw of invention, we've got two bits; 584 00:31:57,531 --> 00:32:00,486 the arc light and Hyatt's billiard ball 585 00:32:00,486 --> 00:32:01,892 with its explosive tendencies. 586 00:32:02,743 --> 00:32:03,989 The third bit comes next. 587 00:32:04,833 --> 00:32:06,870 It started life originally in Vienna, 588 00:32:06,870 --> 00:32:10,228 through a very odd relationship between an austrian 589 00:32:10,228 --> 00:32:14,096 artillery officer, and a rather theatrical gent. 590 00:32:20,443 --> 00:32:23,459 The officer was teaching ballistic theory to army cadets 591 00:32:23,459 --> 00:32:27,439 in 1853, here in Vienna, at the new arsenal. 592 00:32:27,642 --> 00:32:29,414 His name was Franz von Uchatius, 593 00:32:29,414 --> 00:32:31,026 and he'd recently invented a thing 594 00:32:31,026 --> 00:32:33,319 to help him teach students about firing guns. 595 00:32:33,759 --> 00:32:35,900 It was a kind of projector using a limelight 596 00:32:35,900 --> 00:32:37,757 to throw pictures of a cannon on the wall. 597 00:32:38,229 --> 00:32:41,035 As he cranked the light around behind the glass disc 598 00:32:41,035 --> 00:32:43,561 with the pictures on it, each successive picture 599 00:32:43,561 --> 00:32:45,305 showed the ball at a different point in flight. 600 00:32:45,677 --> 00:32:49,971 And why captain Uchatius matters is what happened to his projector. 601 00:33:01,111 --> 00:33:02,934 It attracted the attention of one of three 602 00:33:02,934 --> 00:33:04,846 greatest traveling magicians in the world, 603 00:33:04,846 --> 00:33:06,595 a fellow called Ludwig Dobler. 604 00:33:15,955 --> 00:33:17,849 Dobler's audiences were very excited 605 00:33:17,849 --> 00:33:19,302 by his magic lantern shows, 606 00:33:19,302 --> 00:33:22,657 and the new Uchatius machine was just what he needed. 607 00:33:23,079 --> 00:33:25,149 So, he conned Uchatius into thinking 608 00:33:25,149 --> 00:33:26,962 the whole thing was worth practically nothing, 609 00:33:27,270 --> 00:33:29,530 leaving the captain happily clutching a few florins, 610 00:33:29,530 --> 00:33:32,879 and Dobler happily palming a fortune, 611 00:33:33,365 --> 00:33:35,824 which he made from his amazing consecutive picture shows 612 00:33:35,824 --> 00:33:37,807 that soon became the rage of Europe; 613 00:33:38,070 --> 00:33:39,414 and more significantly, 614 00:33:39,414 --> 00:33:41,834 the west coast of the United States. 615 00:33:45,875 --> 00:33:47,154 It was in California 616 00:33:47,154 --> 00:33:48,645 that this guy, Eadweard Muybridge, 617 00:33:48,645 --> 00:33:50,598 took the idea of consecutive pictures 618 00:33:50,598 --> 00:33:52,315 one very important stage further. 619 00:33:52,315 --> 00:33:54,641 See, Muybridge was an english immigrant, 620 00:33:54,641 --> 00:33:56,466 photographer, and close friend 621 00:33:56,466 --> 00:33:59,424 of the governor of California, who in 1872 622 00:33:59,424 --> 00:34:02,525 asked him if he'd use his camera to settle a bet he had. 623 00:34:02,846 --> 00:34:06,065 Muybridge agreed, and, because he was a photographer, 624 00:34:06,065 --> 00:34:08,296 he took a shot of the preparation. 625 00:34:13,891 --> 00:34:16,320 The experiment took place at the Union Park Race course 626 00:34:16,320 --> 00:34:17,189 in Sacramento. 627 00:34:25,797 --> 00:34:28,441 Did all the horses' legs come off to the ground at the gallop? 628 00:34:28,441 --> 00:34:30,730 That was the question Muybridge had to settle. 629 00:34:32,327 --> 00:34:35,182 So, he set up 12 cameras in a row, 630 00:34:35,182 --> 00:34:37,156 pointing straight across the race track, 631 00:34:37,156 --> 00:34:40,262 at interval of 21 inches, and worked by a system 632 00:34:40,262 --> 00:34:42,921 thought out by a railway engineer friend of his. 633 00:34:43,481 --> 00:34:46,273 Each camera was operated by a triggering device 634 00:34:46,273 --> 00:34:48,061 that was activated when a piece of thread 635 00:34:48,061 --> 00:34:49,310 attached to it, was jerked, 636 00:34:49,310 --> 00:34:51,915 opening and closing the shutter. 637 00:34:57,917 --> 00:34:59,613 The thread from each camera shutter 638 00:34:59,613 --> 00:35:01,034 was stretched across the racetrack. 639 00:35:01,034 --> 00:35:04,134 As the galloping horse passed, it would break the thread, 640 00:35:04,134 --> 00:35:05,235 triggering the camera. 641 00:35:05,652 --> 00:35:07,345 They even put numbers across the track, 642 00:35:07,345 --> 00:35:09,086 to process the photographs in the right order. 643 00:35:20,244 --> 00:35:21,950 As it turned out, the governor was wrong; 644 00:35:21,950 --> 00:35:24,592 all four legs of the horse did leave the ground. 645 00:35:38,725 --> 00:35:40,418 But this particular photography session 646 00:35:40,418 --> 00:35:41,917 did something far more exciting 647 00:35:41,917 --> 00:35:43,951 than just settling a bet at the racetrack. 648 00:35:55,463 --> 00:35:58,478 In 1879, Muybridge putt paintings of his photographs 649 00:35:58,478 --> 00:36:01,185 onto a glass disc, shone a light through it, 650 00:36:01,185 --> 00:36:02,607 and then, spun the disc. 651 00:36:05,434 --> 00:36:10,343 And the horse appeared to move; he calles it his zoopraxiscope. 652 00:36:11,613 --> 00:36:12,890 Muybridge's zoopraxiscope 653 00:36:12,890 --> 00:36:15,586 is the third bit of our jigsaw of invention. 654 00:36:15,586 --> 00:36:16,940 You remember, the first two were 655 00:36:16,940 --> 00:36:18,786 the arc light and Hyatt's billiard ball. 656 00:36:19,080 --> 00:36:22,888 It took only one more piece, and to make up all the pieces 657 00:36:22,888 --> 00:36:25,594 necessary for a major invention in the modern world. 658 00:36:25,956 --> 00:36:28,630 And, here's what caused that fourth piece to happen. 659 00:36:31,077 --> 00:36:32,524 If you've got single-track railways, 660 00:36:32,524 --> 00:36:33,801 which they did in America, 661 00:36:33,801 --> 00:36:36,052 you've got yourself a singularly difficult problem. 662 00:36:36,052 --> 00:36:38,528 You have to have trains going in both directions. 663 00:36:38,925 --> 00:36:40,765 That's okay, because you could put one train 664 00:36:40,765 --> 00:36:42,544 on the siding while the other goes by, 665 00:36:42,922 --> 00:36:44,249 if you get your timing well. 666 00:36:44,547 --> 00:36:46,730 If you don't, you get trains 667 00:36:46,730 --> 00:36:49,806 going in both directions, but not for long. 668 00:36:59,846 --> 00:37:05,200 [loud crash] 669 00:37:07,324 --> 00:37:10,454 These sudden stops stopped in 1856, 670 00:37:10,454 --> 00:37:13,268 when a network of signaling stations were set up 671 00:37:13,268 --> 00:37:16,450 using the recently invented morse telegraph system. 672 00:37:16,782 --> 00:37:19,420 The key sent a coded electrical signal down a wire, 673 00:37:20,671 --> 00:37:22,973 and when the on/off electricity got to the other end, 674 00:37:22,973 --> 00:37:25,345 it turned a magnet on and off, 675 00:37:25,345 --> 00:37:27,044 making a metal bar click up and down 676 00:37:27,044 --> 00:37:28,774 sounding out the code. 677 00:37:32,243 --> 00:37:33,961 Now, we come to the part where the jigsaw 678 00:37:33,961 --> 00:37:36,025 gets put together, and that happened here 679 00:37:36,025 --> 00:37:37,325 in this room in New Jersey, 680 00:37:37,325 --> 00:37:39,532 in the last quarter of the 19th century; 681 00:37:39,834 --> 00:37:41,787 and it was done by a man who put together 682 00:37:41,787 --> 00:37:43,498 more jigsaw than anybody ever did. 683 00:37:43,831 --> 00:37:44,924 A fellow called Thomas Edison. 684 00:37:45,444 --> 00:37:48,171 He took the arc light idea of making it glow 685 00:37:48,171 --> 00:37:50,774 by causing a spark to jump across two carbon rods 686 00:37:50,774 --> 00:37:55,483 like this; then, he went through 687 00:37:55,483 --> 00:37:58,081 oh, 6,000 different carbonized materials 688 00:37:58,081 --> 00:38:00,086 before settling on carbonized thread, 689 00:38:00,086 --> 00:38:02,756 put that thread inside a glass bulb, 690 00:38:02,756 --> 00:38:06,078 and succeeded where maybe 20 people before him had failed, 691 00:38:06,078 --> 00:38:07,710 because he had the one thing they didn't have: 692 00:38:07,710 --> 00:38:11,061 this new german vacuum pump, which allowed him 693 00:38:11,061 --> 00:38:13,288 to have an almost perfect vacuum inside his bulb. 694 00:38:13,730 --> 00:38:16,094 He then ran electricity through the thread 695 00:38:16,607 --> 00:38:19,981 and there, in 1879, was the world's 696 00:38:19,981 --> 00:38:23,004 first commercially feasible electric light. 697 00:38:23,650 --> 00:38:25,169 Now, what do you do with that? 698 00:38:25,497 --> 00:38:28,584 Well, you remember Hyatt's billiard ball; 699 00:38:28,584 --> 00:38:31,200 the outer shell of that was made of a material, 700 00:38:31,200 --> 00:38:33,715 which an obscure clergyman called Hannibal Goodwin 701 00:38:33,715 --> 00:38:36,896 turned into sheaths, and a famous businessman 702 00:38:36,896 --> 00:38:41,712 called Eastman put into a camera: celluloid. 703 00:38:42,510 --> 00:38:45,365 In 1886, Muybridge, remember him; 704 00:38:45,365 --> 00:38:48,352 talked to Edison about his moving horse pictures 705 00:38:48,352 --> 00:38:50,869 and Edison then asked Eastman if he would make him 706 00:38:50,869 --> 00:38:53,249 a long strip of this celluloid: and on that, 707 00:38:53,249 --> 00:38:55,475 he put a lot of pictures taken very quickly, 708 00:38:55,475 --> 00:38:57,644 one after the other, just like Muybridge had done. 709 00:38:57,976 --> 00:39:00,130 He also put a lot of holes on the strip, 710 00:39:00,130 --> 00:39:03,025 so that he could move it because the holes 711 00:39:03,025 --> 00:39:06,047 would get caught in a spinning wheel that had teeth in it. 712 00:39:06,938 --> 00:39:09,756 Down there, is one of Edison's kinetoscopes 713 00:39:09,756 --> 00:39:11,316 in which he put the whole thing together: 714 00:39:12,201 --> 00:39:16,574 celluloid, tooth wheel in there; back here, the light source 715 00:39:16,574 --> 00:39:18,779 that would later on become a light bulb, 716 00:39:20,320 --> 00:39:21,392 and i don't have to tell you 717 00:39:21,392 --> 00:39:25,064 what that all came together to become; roll 'em. 718 00:39:26,070 --> 00:39:28,018 The trail has led us to the movies. 719 00:39:31,654 --> 00:39:33,481 You remember how the cannonball changed things 720 00:39:33,481 --> 00:39:34,560 in the 15th century, 721 00:39:34,560 --> 00:39:37,044 causing a new kind of defensive fortification; 722 00:39:40,788 --> 00:39:41,911 and how the gunners used 723 00:39:41,911 --> 00:39:43,574 instruments to line up their guns - 724 00:39:47,541 --> 00:39:49,675 - and when Henry the VIII closed all the monasteries 725 00:39:49,675 --> 00:39:52,498 and sold the land, those same instruments 726 00:39:52,498 --> 00:39:55,660 helped surveyors make maps of everywhere but Scotland. 727 00:39:56,861 --> 00:39:59,871 Until Wade built his road, and they decided to map 728 00:39:59,871 --> 00:40:02,304 the whole of Britain, but got nowhere in Ireland, 729 00:40:02,304 --> 00:40:05,638 until William Drummond produced his new limelight; 730 00:40:05,638 --> 00:40:07,892 surveyors could see from miles away. 731 00:40:10,393 --> 00:40:11,951 And, how he tried it in lighthouses, 732 00:40:11,951 --> 00:40:13,874 because too many ships were going down. 733 00:40:15,454 --> 00:40:17,355 But the limelight needed so much gas, 734 00:40:17,355 --> 00:40:21,088 Nolet and Holmes tried making it with electricity generators 735 00:40:21,088 --> 00:40:22,401 that Graham improved on 736 00:40:22,401 --> 00:40:24,718 enough to be able to power the arc light, 737 00:40:24,718 --> 00:40:26,465 and how this arc light 738 00:40:26,465 --> 00:40:29,081 was the first peice of a four-part jigsaw. 739 00:40:30,926 --> 00:40:33,129 The second piece being Hyatt's billiard ball 740 00:40:33,129 --> 00:40:35,199 that sometimes had explosive tendencies 741 00:40:35,199 --> 00:40:36,353 in unfortunate places. 742 00:40:41,372 --> 00:40:43,516 The third piece was the projector for teaching 743 00:40:43,516 --> 00:40:46,147 artillery students that Dobler made famous. 744 00:40:48,310 --> 00:40:50,924 And Muybridge picked up the idea to make consecutive pictures 745 00:40:50,924 --> 00:40:53,498 that appeared to move when they were on film; 746 00:40:57,065 --> 00:40:58,400 which leaves the fourth piece: 747 00:40:58,400 --> 00:41:00,886 the morse telegraph, which I haven't explained yet. 748 00:41:03,068 --> 00:41:05,812 The moving pictures, rapidly became all the rage, 749 00:41:05,812 --> 00:41:07,903 as the new wonder of science kicked off 750 00:41:07,903 --> 00:41:09,365 Hollywood and all that. 751 00:41:09,845 --> 00:41:12,711 The only trouble with the new moving pictures was - 752 00:41:16,054 --> 00:41:18,457 now, recorded sound was already around, 753 00:41:18,457 --> 00:41:20,206 thanks again to Edison. 754 00:41:20,206 --> 00:41:21,711 You see, early in his life, 755 00:41:21,711 --> 00:41:23,615 he'd worked as a telegraph operator, 756 00:41:23,615 --> 00:41:27,262 using the Morse telegraph; and he'd put together some ideas 757 00:41:27,262 --> 00:41:29,075 that had already been around for sometime, 758 00:41:29,075 --> 00:41:30,840 in order to make this. 759 00:41:31,216 --> 00:41:33,002 It's called a repeating telegraph. 760 00:41:33,395 --> 00:41:35,510 The Morse code signal comes in here; 761 00:41:35,510 --> 00:41:39,247 and as it comes in, like this - 762 00:41:40,513 --> 00:41:42,421 - it makes that needle go up and down, 763 00:41:42,822 --> 00:41:45,401 and make indentations on that piece of paper. 764 00:41:45,722 --> 00:41:47,191 When you've recorded the message, 765 00:41:47,191 --> 00:41:49,041 you take the bit of paper off, 766 00:41:49,041 --> 00:41:51,036 flip it over, put it on this turntable 767 00:41:51,036 --> 00:41:54,257 so that the little indentations have now become little bumps, 768 00:41:54,257 --> 00:41:56,468 and when you rotate this disk, 769 00:41:56,895 --> 00:41:58,907 the reading head goes up and down over the bumps; 770 00:41:58,907 --> 00:42:03,374 and when that happens, the up and down causes 771 00:42:03,374 --> 00:42:04,593 on/off electrical contact, 772 00:42:04,593 --> 00:42:07,088 and that sends the message out down the wire. 773 00:42:08,467 --> 00:42:10,577 The story is, that one day Edison heard this thing 774 00:42:10,577 --> 00:42:12,915 operating at high speed, and he noticed 775 00:42:12,915 --> 00:42:14,747 that it made a sort of musical sound 776 00:42:14,747 --> 00:42:16,527 as the reading head went over the bumps; 777 00:42:16,818 --> 00:42:20,459 and it hit him that that was how Bell's telephone worked. 778 00:42:20,459 --> 00:42:22,935 You spoke into a diaphragm, it vibrated, 779 00:42:22,935 --> 00:42:24,551 and you could reproduce that vibration 780 00:42:24,551 --> 00:42:26,641 on another diaphragm somewhere else, and make speech. 781 00:42:27,146 --> 00:42:30,329 So, Edison reckoned if he could make a diaphragm vibrate, 782 00:42:30,329 --> 00:42:31,802 he could make speech too. 783 00:42:32,094 --> 00:42:35,421 All he had to do was to make speech into bumps first, 784 00:42:35,919 --> 00:42:36,892 and here's how he did it. 785 00:42:37,184 --> 00:42:39,594 He took a diaphragm, put a needle on it, 786 00:42:39,594 --> 00:42:42,899 and rested the diaphragm on a strip of tin foil 787 00:42:42,899 --> 00:42:45,472 wound around a metal cylinder. 788 00:42:45,958 --> 00:42:48,424 As you turn the cylinder it moved along; 789 00:42:48,424 --> 00:42:52,143 so doing so, he shouted at the diaphragm 790 00:42:52,143 --> 00:42:56,311 as loudly as possible: mary had a little lamb, 791 00:42:56,346 --> 00:42:58,622 its fleece was white as snow. 792 00:43:00,218 --> 00:43:04,509 Then, he wound the cylinder back to the start point, 793 00:43:06,349 --> 00:43:09,219 put the needle back in the bumpy grooves he'd just made, 794 00:43:09,622 --> 00:43:12,183 and this time, when he rotated the cylinder, 795 00:43:12,183 --> 00:43:14,466 what had gone in came back out. 796 00:43:16,477 --> 00:43:22,241 "Mary had a little lamb, its fleece was white as snow." 797 00:43:23,302 --> 00:43:26,533 They got that sound onto film, because years before, 798 00:43:26,533 --> 00:43:28,436 somebody had noticed that there was a metal 799 00:43:28,436 --> 00:43:31,613 called selenium that gave of electricity, if you shone a light at it. 800 00:43:31,613 --> 00:43:33,803 And, the more light, the more electricity. 801 00:43:34,168 --> 00:43:37,231 So, in 1923, somebody in Denmark. 802 00:43:37,231 --> 00:43:40,398 got a light to flicker in response to a human voice, 803 00:43:40,717 --> 00:43:44,039 and then, exposed this strip here, 804 00:43:44,039 --> 00:43:45,940 down the side of the bit of film, to that flicker. 805 00:43:45,940 --> 00:43:48,088 So, the light and dark patches 806 00:43:48,088 --> 00:43:50,201 correspond to the changes in the voice. 807 00:43:50,538 --> 00:43:52,513 Now, when you screen this bit of film, 808 00:43:52,513 --> 00:43:56,292 more or less light gets through that strip, 809 00:43:56,292 --> 00:43:57,931 and hits a piece of selenium, 810 00:43:57,931 --> 00:43:59,442 which gives off more or less signals, 811 00:43:59,442 --> 00:44:01,501 and that goes into a loud speaker, 812 00:44:01,501 --> 00:44:04,984 and so, movies become talkies. 813 00:44:04,984 --> 00:44:07,278 And, that takes us to the modern invention 814 00:44:07,278 --> 00:44:08,644 that ends our story. 815 00:44:09,037 --> 00:44:12,717 Because in 1928, a russian immigrant to America 816 00:44:12,717 --> 00:44:14,259 called Vladimir Zvorykin, 817 00:44:14,259 --> 00:44:16,776 took that selenium idea one stage further. 818 00:44:17,278 --> 00:44:19,941 He realized that if you made a square plate, 819 00:44:19,941 --> 00:44:22,238 made up od rows and rows and rows of thousands 820 00:44:22,238 --> 00:44:24,084 of tiny little bits of light sensitive metal, 821 00:44:24,084 --> 00:44:25,993 and pointed the plate at a scene, 822 00:44:25,993 --> 00:44:27,721 each tiny bit of metal 823 00:44:27,721 --> 00:44:30,118 would react to a tiny bit of the scene. 824 00:44:30,118 --> 00:44:32,163 It would be like dividing a scene out, 825 00:44:32,163 --> 00:44:35,993 let's say of my face, into thousands of little squares. 826 00:44:36,307 --> 00:44:39,817 Each tiny bit of light sensitive metal would see 827 00:44:39,817 --> 00:44:43,592 darkness or darkness, or darkness, or half light 828 00:44:43,592 --> 00:44:45,313 or a lot of light or a great deal of light, 829 00:44:45,313 --> 00:44:47,539 and would give off a corresponding signal; 830 00:44:47,880 --> 00:44:50,807 nothing, nothing, nothing, something, 831 00:44:50,807 --> 00:44:52,817 a great deal more, a lot of signal, 832 00:44:52,817 --> 00:44:53,675 and so on. 833 00:44:54,139 --> 00:44:59,248 Now, if you use those signals to reconstruct the picture, 834 00:44:59,248 --> 00:45:03,460 line-by-line, by using a fluorescent screen 835 00:45:03,460 --> 00:45:06,136 that react to the signals by producing a tiny dot of light 836 00:45:06,136 --> 00:45:09,379 that was more or less bright, you'd get this. 837 00:45:09,379 --> 00:45:12,181 Come a great deal closer, you'll see what I mean. 838 00:45:12,181 --> 00:45:15,086 This area here, look, on your television screen; 839 00:45:15,086 --> 00:45:18,735 you see all those lines of dots. 840 00:45:18,735 --> 00:45:22,400 So, television is where this particular chain of events 841 00:45:22,400 --> 00:45:23,935 brings us to, in the end. 842 00:45:24,795 --> 00:45:26,919 Well, not quite the end. 843 00:45:30,607 --> 00:45:33,968 It's ironic that the story of how television happened 844 00:45:33,968 --> 00:45:36,659 should have been told here, in Edison's laboratory. 845 00:45:37,113 --> 00:45:38,997 Television tells us everyday 846 00:45:38,997 --> 00:45:40,614 that we live in a world we don't understand 847 00:45:40,614 --> 00:45:42,054 and yet, in the main, 848 00:45:42,054 --> 00:45:44,056 it does little to explain that world. 849 00:45:44,460 --> 00:45:47,357 It tells us of new products that make the products 850 00:45:47,357 --> 00:45:50,165 we have either old-fashioned or obsolete. 851 00:45:50,874 --> 00:45:54,022 Above all, if today, we're aware of how fast 852 00:45:54,022 --> 00:45:57,370 the world around us is changing, it's because television acts 853 00:45:57,370 --> 00:45:59,820 as a relentless reminder of that fact. 854 00:46:04,846 --> 00:46:06,335 Planned obsolescence; 855 00:46:06,335 --> 00:46:08,479 the reason you buy a new model, 856 00:46:08,479 --> 00:46:09,908 because they don't make last year's any more, 857 00:46:10,247 --> 00:46:12,446 affects the way we get our information too. 858 00:46:12,446 --> 00:46:15,106 I mean, take a look at the newspapers 859 00:46:15,106 --> 00:46:16,984 and the TV programs of 20 years ago. 860 00:46:17,384 --> 00:46:18,827 And, you can see how much more slick, 861 00:46:18,827 --> 00:46:22,735 more brief is today's treatment of the world we see. 862 00:46:23,668 --> 00:46:25,878 Communications technology has made it possible for us 863 00:46:25,878 --> 00:46:28,134 to see very much more, but we still only have 864 00:46:28,134 --> 00:46:29,934 the same amount of time to see it in. 865 00:46:30,846 --> 00:46:33,019 So, does that fact accelerate change; 866 00:46:33,320 --> 00:46:36,799 the fact that we can be more quickly saturated by an idea, 867 00:46:36,799 --> 00:46:38,101 or a product, or an event. 868 00:46:38,829 --> 00:46:42,332 Does this cycle that goes, interest in something, 869 00:46:42,332 --> 00:46:45,635 involvement in it, tiring of it and rejecting it, 870 00:46:45,635 --> 00:46:48,768 looking for something else, get shorter every decade? 871 00:46:49,525 --> 00:46:50,674 That shouldn't surprize you. 872 00:46:51,216 --> 00:46:54,477 Over 90% of the technologists and scientists, 873 00:46:54,477 --> 00:46:57,124 and advertisers and salesmen 874 00:46:57,124 --> 00:46:59,733 that have ever lived, are alive now. 875 00:47:00,660 --> 00:47:02,607 And they've all got a job to do, haven't they? 876 00:47:04,111 --> 00:47:06,081 I said it was ironic that we should be here, 877 00:47:06,081 --> 00:47:08,574 because that overwhelming rate of change 878 00:47:08,574 --> 00:47:11,510 has come dirctly from the work of Edison, 879 00:47:11,510 --> 00:47:12,778 and men like him. 880 00:47:13,106 --> 00:47:15,554 Edison invented inventing, 881 00:47:16,116 --> 00:47:18,967 here at the world's first industrial laboratory; 882 00:47:18,967 --> 00:47:21,007 and he laid down precise rules for it. 883 00:47:21,007 --> 00:47:22,921 Is there a market for the invention? 884 00:47:22,921 --> 00:47:25,145 Get financial backing before you start. 885 00:47:25,145 --> 00:47:27,764 Publicize the whole thing in advance, so when it comes out, 886 00:47:27,764 --> 00:47:29,279 the consumers are ready to pay for it. 887 00:47:29,446 --> 00:47:31,625 And plough every penny and make, 888 00:47:31,625 --> 00:47:33,203 back into making more inventions. 889 00:47:34,198 --> 00:47:36,336 And that is how the modern world works. 890 00:47:36,611 --> 00:47:40,390 So, if you believe that science and technology 891 00:47:40,390 --> 00:47:43,311 have given us the highest standard of living in history, 892 00:47:43,311 --> 00:47:45,703 or, that they have trapped us inside a machine 893 00:47:45,703 --> 00:47:46,559 we can't escape from, 894 00:47:46,559 --> 00:47:49,107 we live in a situation we inherited. 895 00:47:49,431 --> 00:47:51,903 As a result of a long and complex series of events 896 00:47:51,903 --> 00:47:54,197 through history, at no time in the past, 897 00:47:54,197 --> 00:47:56,877 could anybody have known that what they were doing then, 898 00:47:56,877 --> 00:47:58,798 would end up like this now. 899 00:48:00,004 --> 00:48:04,406 So, the next and last program looks at whether or not, 900 00:48:04,406 --> 00:48:06,918 we want to go on into the future like that; 901 00:48:06,918 --> 00:48:10,956 and if not like that, like what? 902 00:48:14,328 --> 00:48:16,874 And, I hope to show that you can only know 903 00:48:16,874 --> 00:48:19,326 where you're going if you know where you've been.