1 00:00:07,440 --> 00:00:09,800 In 1886, a young physician 2 00:00:09,800 --> 00:00:13,280 established a small medical practice in Vienna. 3 00:00:15,680 --> 00:00:18,880 Patients would come to lie on this very couch. 4 00:00:18,880 --> 00:00:24,600 And as he listened, they'd share their innermost fears and anxieties. 5 00:00:24,600 --> 00:00:27,920 Their intimate, very personal stories 6 00:00:27,920 --> 00:00:31,480 would nourish a radical and controversial 7 00:00:31,480 --> 00:00:34,320 new way of understanding our pasts, 8 00:00:34,320 --> 00:00:38,480 our desires, what drives our every action. 9 00:00:38,480 --> 00:00:42,840 Ideas that would take the world by storm. 10 00:00:42,840 --> 00:00:48,040 Because this couch belonged to Dr Sigmund Freud. 11 00:00:53,680 --> 00:00:58,440 The 19th century witnessed unprecedented change. 12 00:00:58,440 --> 00:01:04,440 Transformed by revolutions in industry, science and society. 13 00:01:04,440 --> 00:01:07,560 It was an age that questioned traditional authority 14 00:01:07,560 --> 00:01:11,480 and produced three game-changing thinkers. 15 00:01:11,480 --> 00:01:15,360 Karl Marx attacked the social and economic order. 16 00:01:15,360 --> 00:01:19,560 Friedrich Nietzsche took on Christian morality. 17 00:01:19,560 --> 00:01:23,400 And Freud questioned the very essence of who we are. 18 00:01:25,120 --> 00:01:29,280 Their penetrating, often contentious ways of seeing the world 19 00:01:29,280 --> 00:01:32,520 still shape how we make sense of our lives today. 20 00:02:06,440 --> 00:02:10,760 Sigmund Freud's ideas not only spearheaded a massive leap forward 21 00:02:10,760 --> 00:02:13,640 in how we treat illnesses of the mind, 22 00:02:13,640 --> 00:02:17,800 they also had a pivotal cultural impact. 23 00:02:17,800 --> 00:02:20,440 The freedom we take for granted today to talk openly 24 00:02:20,440 --> 00:02:25,680 about our deepest feelings, from sexual difference to inner demons, 25 00:02:25,680 --> 00:02:29,880 the slogans that power our consumer society, 26 00:02:29,880 --> 00:02:32,720 stem in part from his ideas. 27 00:02:32,720 --> 00:02:36,680 From Freud, we get the notion of the unconscious mind 28 00:02:36,680 --> 00:02:41,240 as a reservoir of irrational, conflicting impulses. 29 00:02:41,240 --> 00:02:44,840 His ideas have become part of our vocabulary. 30 00:02:44,840 --> 00:02:48,240 Penis envy, the pleasure principle, wish fulfilments 31 00:02:48,240 --> 00:02:50,800 and, of course, the Freudian slip. 32 00:03:01,520 --> 00:03:04,000 But Freud's always been controversial. 33 00:03:04,000 --> 00:03:06,080 For some, he's not a genius, 34 00:03:06,080 --> 00:03:08,560 but a charlatan obsessed with sex 35 00:03:08,560 --> 00:03:12,320 whose speculative theories are impossible to prove 36 00:03:12,320 --> 00:03:15,280 and whose methods are positively dangerous. 37 00:03:23,280 --> 00:03:26,760 Freud's ideas still provoke intense debate today. 38 00:03:26,760 --> 00:03:29,800 But what's not in doubt is that his innovative 39 00:03:29,800 --> 00:03:34,440 mapping of the human mind challenged taboos and conventions 40 00:03:34,440 --> 00:03:40,040 in ways that fundamentally changed our conception of self. 41 00:03:51,840 --> 00:03:56,000 To understand how Freud's ideas evolved and how they add up, 42 00:03:56,000 --> 00:04:00,360 it seems appropriate to adopt an approach Freud himself pioneered. 43 00:04:00,360 --> 00:04:02,920 Something that we now take for granted. 44 00:04:02,920 --> 00:04:07,120 To look for the keys for his motivation and character 45 00:04:07,120 --> 00:04:11,240 by exploring his childhood experiences. 46 00:04:22,840 --> 00:04:25,560 When Sigmund Freud was born here in 1856, 47 00:04:25,560 --> 00:04:28,640 the town was called Freiberg, in Moravia. 48 00:04:28,640 --> 00:04:30,520 Part of the Habsburg empire. 49 00:04:33,240 --> 00:04:34,640 Freud was born with a caul. 50 00:04:34,640 --> 00:04:39,240 That's when part of the foetal membrane is still attached to the baby's head. 51 00:04:39,240 --> 00:04:44,440 And in those superstitious times, this was considered a good omen. 52 00:04:44,440 --> 00:04:48,600 Freud's mother certainly interpreted it as a sign that her newborn son 53 00:04:48,600 --> 00:04:52,120 was destined for happiness and fame. 54 00:04:56,520 --> 00:05:00,960 Freud's Jewish parents could only afford to rent a single room in this building. 55 00:05:02,360 --> 00:05:04,520 And family life was complex. 56 00:05:10,040 --> 00:05:13,080 His mother was 20 years younger than his father, 57 00:05:13,080 --> 00:05:16,600 who'd been married before and had two adult sons. 58 00:05:17,960 --> 00:05:20,640 And so one of Sigmund's half-brothers 59 00:05:20,640 --> 00:05:23,000 was even older than his mum. 60 00:05:23,000 --> 00:05:27,320 Sigmund's closest playmate was, in fact, his own nephew. 61 00:05:29,040 --> 00:05:31,440 But they were to be wrenched apart. 62 00:05:34,800 --> 00:05:36,720 Because when Sigmund was three, 63 00:05:36,720 --> 00:05:39,960 his father's small business selling wool collapsed. 64 00:05:39,960 --> 00:05:42,880 Scattering the entire family in search of work. 65 00:05:50,320 --> 00:05:54,080 Life may have been imperfect, but where Freud's family ended up 66 00:05:54,080 --> 00:05:56,440 would prove to be a critical factor 67 00:05:56,440 --> 00:05:59,040 in the future success of the young boy. 68 00:06:10,160 --> 00:06:12,800 Vienna in the 1860s, 69 00:06:12,800 --> 00:06:16,040 imperial capital of the Habsburg empire, 70 00:06:16,040 --> 00:06:19,000 was a city at the forefront of social change. 71 00:06:20,320 --> 00:06:23,880 The Europe-wide revolutions of 1848 had undermined 72 00:06:23,880 --> 00:06:27,440 aristocratic conservative rule here. 73 00:06:27,440 --> 00:06:31,920 Allowing a kind of edgy liberalism to flourish on the streets. 74 00:06:31,920 --> 00:06:34,680 There were also an unusual number of immigrants in the city. 75 00:06:34,680 --> 00:06:38,920 So Freud would have grown up surrounded by a cosmopolitan mix 76 00:06:38,920 --> 00:06:40,800 of voices and cultures. 77 00:06:45,600 --> 00:06:49,200 This is the Jewish district where Freud's family first lived. 78 00:06:49,200 --> 00:06:51,360 It was poor and overcrowded. 79 00:06:51,360 --> 00:06:55,040 But many capitalised on the opportunities that the city offered 80 00:06:55,040 --> 00:06:56,920 and quickly rose from the margins. 81 00:06:56,920 --> 00:07:00,600 They became newspaper magnates and bankers, academics, 82 00:07:00,600 --> 00:07:02,080 doctors and lawyers. 83 00:07:05,040 --> 00:07:07,680 Freud's parents passionately wanted the same 84 00:07:07,680 --> 00:07:09,360 for their clever eldest son. 85 00:07:10,520 --> 00:07:15,400 Of his six siblings, he was the only one given his own room to work in. 86 00:07:15,400 --> 00:07:18,000 And he topped his class for seven years. 87 00:07:19,440 --> 00:07:22,440 The young Freud's intense studies seem to have fed into 88 00:07:22,440 --> 00:07:26,400 his self-image as someone destined for greatness. 89 00:07:26,400 --> 00:07:29,840 He found inspiration in ancient civilisations. 90 00:07:29,840 --> 00:07:33,640 In the glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome. 91 00:07:33,640 --> 00:07:37,280 And he came to identify with powerful, heroic figures 92 00:07:37,280 --> 00:07:39,920 from history and literature, like Moses 93 00:07:39,920 --> 00:07:42,560 and Hannibal and Alexander the Great. 94 00:07:47,200 --> 00:07:49,960 In 1873, at the age of 17, 95 00:07:49,960 --> 00:07:53,440 Sigmund sought his own glory at Vienna University. 96 00:07:54,960 --> 00:07:57,760 Initially dabbling in philosophy and law, he was soon drawn to 97 00:07:57,760 --> 00:08:01,520 the university's celebrated natural scientists, 98 00:08:01,520 --> 00:08:05,720 and their guiding light, the Englishman Charles Darwin. 99 00:08:08,600 --> 00:08:13,280 Darwin's remarkable, epoch-defining Theory of Evolution 100 00:08:13,280 --> 00:08:17,280 chimed with Freud's desire for kudos and celebrity. 101 00:08:20,680 --> 00:08:23,720 But to match up to his hero meant hours of meticulous, 102 00:08:23,720 --> 00:08:28,120 painstaking, not obviously-glamorous laboratory work. 103 00:08:28,120 --> 00:08:31,720 Trying to unravel the mysteries of the nervous system of fish. 104 00:08:35,800 --> 00:08:39,720 Freud himself said that his studies in anatomy, zoology, chemistry 105 00:08:39,720 --> 00:08:44,840 and botany made him a godless medical man and an empiricist. 106 00:08:44,840 --> 00:08:49,200 And certainly his time here nurtured a scientific worldview 107 00:08:49,200 --> 00:08:51,280 that never left him. 108 00:08:53,200 --> 00:08:56,480 If you look at this picture of him from the time, you can just imagine 109 00:08:56,480 --> 00:08:59,120 the precise, clinical fish-dissector. 110 00:08:59,120 --> 00:09:02,080 A man who seems to be both neat and orderly 111 00:09:02,080 --> 00:09:04,240 in appearance and character. 112 00:09:07,640 --> 00:09:13,480 But aged 25, Freud fell wildly in love with a young woman - 113 00:09:13,480 --> 00:09:14,880 Martha Bernays. 114 00:09:15,880 --> 00:09:17,720 Their early correspondence reveals 115 00:09:17,720 --> 00:09:20,520 an altogether different side to Freud. 116 00:09:20,520 --> 00:09:23,720 There's probably 1,600 letters in all. 117 00:09:25,120 --> 00:09:27,960 Huh! They were writing more or less every day. 118 00:09:27,960 --> 00:09:30,640 Sometimes two or even three letters a day. 119 00:09:33,000 --> 00:09:36,480 Bits have been released of his letters alone, 120 00:09:36,480 --> 00:09:39,440 but this is the first time now that we're seeing her letters. 121 00:09:39,440 --> 00:09:43,200 How brilliant! So we've got Martha's voice, what is she saying? 122 00:09:43,200 --> 00:09:44,760 What does she write about here? 123 00:09:44,760 --> 00:09:46,320 Well, anything and everything. 124 00:09:46,320 --> 00:09:51,720 I mean, in this case, she had just sent Freud a lock of her hair 125 00:09:51,720 --> 00:09:55,040 to put in a little brooch, as lovers do. 126 00:09:55,040 --> 00:09:59,720 And Freud had written back, "I hope you didn't tear it out, 127 00:09:59,720 --> 00:10:02,680 "or did it come out when you were combing?" 128 00:10:02,680 --> 00:10:04,440 So here, in this letter here, 129 00:10:04,440 --> 00:10:07,920 she is taking him to task for his ignorance. 130 00:10:07,920 --> 00:10:12,080 She says, "You're a doctor, you have no idea of the code of love. 131 00:10:12,080 --> 00:10:17,040 "One does not send one's lover ripped-out or combed-out hair." 132 00:10:17,040 --> 00:10:20,960 I suppose this is the first time he's had a full-blown love affair. 133 00:10:20,960 --> 00:10:23,000 It's his first and his only. 134 00:10:23,000 --> 00:10:25,800 And this is one of the things about these letters, 135 00:10:25,800 --> 00:10:30,000 you get an insight into Freud you'll get nowhere else. 136 00:10:30,000 --> 00:10:32,840 And he's losing his control sometimes. 137 00:10:32,840 --> 00:10:37,120 He really is almost on the edge of a nervous breakdown 138 00:10:37,120 --> 00:10:39,760 when he feels they can't go on, 139 00:10:39,760 --> 00:10:43,640 when he feels there's an impossible disagreement between her. 140 00:10:43,640 --> 00:10:47,360 She is for sweeping it under the carpet. 141 00:10:47,360 --> 00:10:49,720 She says, "Why do you wallow around 142 00:10:49,720 --> 00:10:52,480 "in this stuff that makes us miserable?" 143 00:10:52,480 --> 00:10:56,240 And he says, "You have to face it, you have to talk through it." 144 00:10:56,240 --> 00:10:57,480 That's fascinating. 145 00:10:57,480 --> 00:11:01,680 So it's almost like we've got Freud, the proto-psychoanalyst here. Yes. 146 00:11:01,680 --> 00:11:06,840 I mean, the psychoanalytic dictum is, say everything that's on your mind. 147 00:11:06,840 --> 00:11:10,720 Don't censor, don't repress. It's there already. 148 00:11:14,880 --> 00:11:20,000 Martha had opened Freud's eyes to a world of demanding human emotion. 149 00:11:20,000 --> 00:11:22,920 And the financial pressures of their engagement saw him 150 00:11:22,920 --> 00:11:26,920 casting around for opportunities beyond the lab. 151 00:11:26,920 --> 00:11:31,240 Eventually, he abandoned his research career to study medicine. 152 00:11:31,240 --> 00:11:34,040 And one day, when he was reading a medical journal, 153 00:11:34,040 --> 00:11:38,560 he came across something that he was convinced would make his name. 154 00:11:50,440 --> 00:11:54,680 In 1884, he wrote to Martha about a magical drug 155 00:11:54,680 --> 00:11:57,760 little known at the time, cocaine. 156 00:11:58,760 --> 00:12:00,880 In this pretty sober analysis, he says, 157 00:12:00,880 --> 00:12:04,680 "I take very small doses of it regularly 158 00:12:04,680 --> 00:12:07,360 "against depression and against indigestion. 159 00:12:07,360 --> 00:12:10,240 "And with the most brilliant success." 160 00:12:10,240 --> 00:12:14,120 But, then, just listen to this, when he's also writing to Martha, 161 00:12:14,120 --> 00:12:17,680 where he sounds suspiciously like he's under the influence. 162 00:12:17,680 --> 00:12:21,560 "Woe to you, my princess, when I come. 163 00:12:21,560 --> 00:12:24,000 "You shall see who is the stronger. 164 00:12:24,000 --> 00:12:26,960 "A gentle little girl who does not eat enough, 165 00:12:26,960 --> 00:12:30,920 "or a big, wild man who has cocaine in his body." 166 00:12:33,360 --> 00:12:37,080 At first, Freud denied that cocaine was harmful. 167 00:12:37,080 --> 00:12:41,640 But his rash endorsement would damage his reputation. 168 00:12:41,640 --> 00:12:44,640 When he gave it to a friend suffering from morphine addiction 169 00:12:44,640 --> 00:12:46,880 in the hope that cocaine would cure him, 170 00:12:46,880 --> 00:12:49,920 the consequences were disastrous. 171 00:12:49,920 --> 00:12:55,200 His friend became as addicted to the new drug as he had been to the old. 172 00:12:58,440 --> 00:13:00,560 Freud did manage to give up cocaine, 173 00:13:00,560 --> 00:13:05,360 but his appetite for experimentation would not be stilled. 174 00:13:06,480 --> 00:13:11,360 He had a new interest - neurology, the study of nervous diseases. 175 00:13:11,360 --> 00:13:13,880 And he made a very canny move, 176 00:13:13,880 --> 00:13:16,400 travelling to the centre of this burgeoning science, 177 00:13:16,400 --> 00:13:19,440 an intellectual hotspot. 178 00:13:32,160 --> 00:13:33,880 This is Salpetriere. 179 00:13:33,880 --> 00:13:37,080 In Freud's day, a kind of medical poorhouse. 180 00:13:37,080 --> 00:13:41,360 A bleak dumping ground for some 5,000 women. 181 00:13:41,360 --> 00:13:45,000 Many of whom were diagnosed as hysterical. 182 00:13:46,200 --> 00:13:51,200 Hysteria, from the Greek word for womb, was a mysterious condition 183 00:13:51,200 --> 00:13:55,760 that was thought to afflict women from the ancient world onwards. 184 00:13:55,760 --> 00:13:58,320 Really, it was just a catchall diagnosis 185 00:13:58,320 --> 00:14:00,960 for all kinds of nervous symptoms. 186 00:14:00,960 --> 00:14:05,480 From fits and paralysis to anxiety and headaches. 187 00:14:05,480 --> 00:14:07,080 And for centuries, 188 00:14:07,080 --> 00:14:10,080 it was a dangerous tool in the hands of male doctors 189 00:14:10,080 --> 00:14:14,560 who were trigger-happy in diagnosing women as hysterical, 190 00:14:14,560 --> 00:14:18,880 to the point where they incarcerated perfectly sane individuals 191 00:14:18,880 --> 00:14:20,960 in hospitals and asylums. 192 00:14:26,080 --> 00:14:28,440 Freud came here to Salpetriere to study with 193 00:14:28,440 --> 00:14:34,600 the pre-eminent pioneer of neurology, Jean-Martin Charcot. 194 00:14:34,600 --> 00:14:37,880 Having discovered that some nervous conditions, like multiple sclerosis, 195 00:14:37,880 --> 00:14:40,160 were the result of lesions on the brain, 196 00:14:40,160 --> 00:14:45,480 Charcot turned his attention to the mysteries of hysteria. 197 00:14:45,480 --> 00:14:49,160 Charcot approaches hysteria more scientifically and more seriously 198 00:14:49,160 --> 00:14:52,000 and doesn't think of it as simply a woman's ailment. 199 00:14:52,000 --> 00:14:54,400 And he sees distinct phases. 200 00:14:54,400 --> 00:14:59,240 He talks about the epileptoid phase, atonic phase, a fit. 201 00:14:59,240 --> 00:15:02,240 And the fit was epileptic rigidity. 202 00:15:02,240 --> 00:15:05,400 He then talks about clonic phase, or the clown phase, 203 00:15:05,400 --> 00:15:08,520 where these huge thrashing movements take place. 204 00:15:08,520 --> 00:15:12,560 So, he's identified these different phases, what kinds of methods 205 00:15:12,560 --> 00:15:15,880 is he using to further his scientific inquiry? 206 00:15:15,880 --> 00:15:20,960 Well, Charcot uses hypnosis to diagnose hysteria. He thinks that if 207 00:15:20,960 --> 00:15:24,400 women are susceptible, men are susceptible to hypnosis, 208 00:15:24,400 --> 00:15:27,280 that's probably a sign that they do have hysteria. 209 00:15:27,280 --> 00:15:31,520 But he also uses hypnosis in his great public lectures, to 210 00:15:31,520 --> 00:15:35,840 which, you know, all of Paris comes. Getting a ticket to go to one 211 00:15:35,840 --> 00:15:39,960 of Charcot's public lectures is like going to the best play in London. 212 00:15:39,960 --> 00:15:43,320 So, the patients were on display in these public lectures? 213 00:15:43,320 --> 00:15:46,600 The patients were on display, and, under hypnosis, they will 214 00:15:46,600 --> 00:15:51,640 begin to walk and they will talk, and they will effectively do 215 00:15:51,640 --> 00:15:54,160 what the medic asks of them. 216 00:15:54,160 --> 00:15:57,080 So, we know that Freud's there, he's in the audience, he's one of 217 00:15:57,080 --> 00:16:01,400 Charcot's pupils. Do we know what kind of an impact this had on Freud? 218 00:16:01,400 --> 00:16:04,880 Well, I think it has an immense impact. He begins to see that 219 00:16:04,880 --> 00:16:09,520 there are different forms of thinking and activity going 220 00:16:09,520 --> 00:16:12,120 on in the human mind simultaneously. 221 00:16:12,120 --> 00:16:16,600 And that there are whole areas of the human mind that are there, 222 00:16:16,600 --> 00:16:18,760 ready to be plumbed. 223 00:16:22,800 --> 00:16:28,600 Freud returned to Vienna, aged 29, full of new ideas and career plans. 224 00:16:31,880 --> 00:16:35,640 But things certainly weren't easy for Freud. When he first 225 00:16:35,640 --> 00:16:39,120 opened his practice in this apartment block in 1886, 226 00:16:39,120 --> 00:16:41,840 business was depressingly slow. 227 00:16:41,840 --> 00:16:45,720 Sometimes he couldn't even afford a cab to make house calls, and 228 00:16:45,720 --> 00:16:49,520 he could only marry Martha in the same year thanks to gifts and 229 00:16:49,520 --> 00:16:50,920 loans from friends. 230 00:16:54,360 --> 00:16:57,280 One of Freud's principal benefactors was the eminent physician 231 00:16:57,280 --> 00:16:58,920 Joseph Breuer. 232 00:17:00,000 --> 00:17:02,040 Like Freud, Breuer was curious 233 00:17:02,040 --> 00:17:05,080 about the scientific mysteries of hysteria. 234 00:17:07,240 --> 00:17:09,680 One of his old patients stood out. 235 00:17:12,880 --> 00:17:15,880 Breuer had treated a highly intelligent young woman from 236 00:17:15,880 --> 00:17:19,880 an affluent Jewish family, called Bertha Pappenheim, giving her 237 00:17:19,880 --> 00:17:22,320 the pseudonym "Anna O". 238 00:17:22,320 --> 00:17:27,000 She experienced hallucinations and suffered from partial paralysis. 239 00:17:29,520 --> 00:17:33,240 At times, she could only speak English. She appeared to have 240 00:17:33,240 --> 00:17:34,960 a split personality. 241 00:17:36,440 --> 00:17:40,920 Now, Anna's case really fascinated Freud, partly because of her 242 00:17:40,920 --> 00:17:44,600 extreme symptoms, but also because of the innovative way that 243 00:17:44,600 --> 00:17:46,080 Breuer treated her. 244 00:17:51,760 --> 00:17:55,520 During Breuer's consultations, Anna fell into a state of 245 00:17:55,520 --> 00:18:00,520 hypnosis, and revealed melancholic details of her personal history. 246 00:18:03,240 --> 00:18:07,600 The talking revived significant or painful memories of past events 247 00:18:07,600 --> 00:18:12,280 that had been forgotten or somehow blocked up and suppressed. 248 00:18:15,160 --> 00:18:18,760 Breuer found that he could trace Anna's numerous symptoms back to 249 00:18:18,760 --> 00:18:20,080 original traumas. 250 00:18:21,160 --> 00:18:24,200 When Anna showed an aversion to drinking water, 251 00:18:24,200 --> 00:18:27,280 Breuer linked it back to her seeing a dog being allowed to 252 00:18:27,280 --> 00:18:31,760 drink out of the glass of its owner, but once she expressed her 253 00:18:31,760 --> 00:18:36,360 submerged disgust, her hydrophobia vanished. 254 00:18:42,760 --> 00:18:46,600 Freud realised that Breuer might have stumbled upon, not just 255 00:18:46,600 --> 00:18:50,040 an explanation, but a cure for hysteria. 256 00:18:51,400 --> 00:18:56,360 Working from new larger premises at number 19 Berggasse, he began to 257 00:18:56,360 --> 00:19:00,200 apply Breuer's cathartic treatment to his own neurotic patients. 258 00:19:01,720 --> 00:19:05,920 But Freud had a problem - he just couldn't hypnotise all of his 259 00:19:05,920 --> 00:19:10,680 patients, so he smartly turned a failing into a virtue and 260 00:19:10,680 --> 00:19:14,160 developed his own version of a talking therapy. 261 00:19:23,040 --> 00:19:27,160 Freud asked his patients to lie on this couch while he sat here 262 00:19:27,160 --> 00:19:31,360 behind them, out of sight. He encouraged them to say whatever 263 00:19:31,360 --> 00:19:35,280 came into their minds, almost as if they were talking to themselves. 264 00:19:37,200 --> 00:19:41,600 He proved to be an alert listener, systematically sifting 265 00:19:41,600 --> 00:19:44,680 through and probing his patients' memories. 266 00:19:44,680 --> 00:19:48,240 Interpreting their confessions rapidly, intuitively, he 267 00:19:48,240 --> 00:19:51,720 attempted to unlock what was being suppressed. 268 00:19:54,200 --> 00:20:00,120 Freud gave his new free-association method a new name. He took 269 00:20:00,120 --> 00:20:05,280 the ancient Greek word for mind or life-breath, psyche, and 270 00:20:05,280 --> 00:20:10,200 added to it a robust scientific term - analyse. 271 00:20:10,200 --> 00:20:13,760 Psychoanalysis was born. 272 00:20:16,800 --> 00:20:20,480 In 1895, Breuer and Freud published their findings 273 00:20:20,480 --> 00:20:24,360 in a landmark book - Studies On Hysteria. 274 00:20:25,600 --> 00:20:30,160 Freud was keen to find a single unifying reason for hysteria 275 00:20:30,160 --> 00:20:35,440 and neurosis, to offer their theory a kind of breakthrough moment, 276 00:20:35,440 --> 00:20:39,680 and he started to see sex as a central issue. 277 00:20:43,640 --> 00:20:46,960 The more cautious Breuer disagreed. 278 00:20:46,960 --> 00:20:50,560 But another friend proved far more receptive - 279 00:20:50,560 --> 00:20:53,040 the physician Wilhelm Fliess. 280 00:20:54,200 --> 00:20:58,920 Sexual morality had long been framed by religion, and by and large 281 00:20:58,920 --> 00:21:02,240 had been unremittingly repressive for centuries. 282 00:21:02,240 --> 00:21:05,560 But Fliess was one of a growing number of medical researchers 283 00:21:05,560 --> 00:21:09,760 who embarked on a scientific study of sexual identity and 284 00:21:09,760 --> 00:21:14,600 behaviour, unconstrained by orthodox moral judgments and what was 285 00:21:14,600 --> 00:21:17,520 generally considered to be perversion. 286 00:21:19,680 --> 00:21:23,520 Encouraged by the open-minded Fliess, Freud began to hone 287 00:21:23,520 --> 00:21:26,440 his ideas about hysteria and sexual issues. 288 00:21:34,440 --> 00:21:38,040 In April 1896, he went to read a paper to the 289 00:21:38,040 --> 00:21:41,400 Viennese Society For Psychiatry and Neurology. 290 00:21:48,880 --> 00:21:52,040 He described the job of treating patients with hysteria in 291 00:21:52,040 --> 00:21:56,280 epic terms, as if he were an explorer archaeologist 292 00:21:56,280 --> 00:21:59,880 sifting through the remains of an ancient ruined city, trying 293 00:21:59,880 --> 00:22:02,320 to find clues and evidence. 294 00:22:06,280 --> 00:22:09,680 "Imagine that an explorer arrives in a little-known region 295 00:22:09,680 --> 00:22:13,920 "where his interest is aroused by an expansive ruins, with remains 296 00:22:13,920 --> 00:22:16,240 "of walls, fragments of columns..." 297 00:22:16,240 --> 00:22:19,440 'Freud claimed to have found a singular cause in all his 298 00:22:19,440 --> 00:22:22,880 'neurotic cases, something he likened to discovering 299 00:22:22,880 --> 00:22:25,120 'the source of the Nile.' 300 00:22:32,000 --> 00:22:35,640 His daring theory - the seduction theory - was that all 301 00:22:35,640 --> 00:22:39,720 neuroses were the result of some kind of sexual abuse in childhood, 302 00:22:39,720 --> 00:22:42,280 typically by the father. 303 00:22:42,280 --> 00:22:46,240 But, rather than the glory that he was expecting, the paper was 304 00:22:46,240 --> 00:22:49,480 met with bewilderment and scepticism. 305 00:22:49,480 --> 00:22:52,920 One eminent neurologist in the audience dismissed it 306 00:22:52,920 --> 00:22:55,560 as "a scientific fairy tale". 307 00:23:00,520 --> 00:23:04,560 This frosty reception just enhanced Freud's view that he was an 308 00:23:04,560 --> 00:23:08,320 embattled pioneer, tackling taboo subjects. 309 00:23:09,360 --> 00:23:13,400 However, in little more than a year, even he would concede that 310 00:23:13,400 --> 00:23:16,640 his seduction theory was fatally flawed. 311 00:23:16,640 --> 00:23:21,200 Hysteria was so widespread that to imagine so many men were 312 00:23:21,200 --> 00:23:26,040 paedophilic abusers was highly implausible. With hysteria 313 00:23:26,040 --> 00:23:29,760 afflicting Freud's own family, the idea that his father Jacob 314 00:23:29,760 --> 00:23:32,720 could also be guilty was the final straw. 315 00:23:39,760 --> 00:23:44,040 Other speculations, however, would prove far more enduring. 316 00:23:46,320 --> 00:23:51,040 At the heart of Freud's thinking was how and why discomforting 317 00:23:51,040 --> 00:23:54,960 past thoughts could become repressed, only to be woven into the 318 00:23:54,960 --> 00:23:57,840 symptoms and psychic knots of everyday life. 319 00:24:02,400 --> 00:24:06,920 Freud believed that the unconscious mind held the key. 320 00:24:09,920 --> 00:24:13,520 The unconscious mind had been imagined and debated right 321 00:24:13,520 --> 00:24:17,800 across the human experience for many centuries, but Freud was one 322 00:24:17,800 --> 00:24:22,400 of the first to take a really systematic approach, to try 323 00:24:22,400 --> 00:24:26,760 to add precision to the perceptions of the unconscious mind. 324 00:24:32,040 --> 00:24:36,240 A painful personal tragedy would trigger his big breakthrough. 325 00:24:39,000 --> 00:24:43,760 In 1896, Freud was devastated by the death of his father. 326 00:24:48,320 --> 00:24:53,480 Freud wrote to Fliess, "My inner self, my whole past has been 327 00:24:53,480 --> 00:24:58,080 "re-awakened by this death. I now feel completely uprooted." 328 00:25:01,480 --> 00:25:06,160 But, in fact, these complex, intense thoughts would have 329 00:25:06,160 --> 00:25:07,960 a catalysing effect on him. 330 00:25:13,160 --> 00:25:17,840 Freud had been experimenting with self-analysis, scrutinising 331 00:25:17,840 --> 00:25:22,480 his fragmentary childhood memories and deep-seated terrors. 332 00:25:25,480 --> 00:25:29,440 The loss of his father intensified that exploration. And the 333 00:25:29,440 --> 00:25:31,760 secret of his self-analysis? 334 00:25:31,760 --> 00:25:34,760 He started to analyse his own dreams. 335 00:25:45,720 --> 00:25:49,600 Few saw dreams as having any scientific substance. 336 00:25:51,760 --> 00:25:54,520 But Freud chose to think differently. 337 00:25:56,880 --> 00:25:59,920 He looks at dreams as something 338 00:25:59,920 --> 00:26:01,680 that is multi-layered. 339 00:26:01,680 --> 00:26:04,360 There is the story that people 340 00:26:04,360 --> 00:26:06,440 remember when they wake up, 341 00:26:06,440 --> 00:26:12,440 but, for Freud, that story is only the surface of our dream. 342 00:26:12,440 --> 00:26:16,440 What lies underneath is what he calls the "latent dream thoughts". 343 00:26:16,440 --> 00:26:21,000 But those latent thoughts become distorted, they become censored. 344 00:26:21,000 --> 00:26:23,120 Why does this censorship need to happen? 345 00:26:23,120 --> 00:26:25,880 Well, you see, these dream thoughts, they contain all the 346 00:26:25,880 --> 00:26:30,600 repressed wishes and thoughts and fantasies that consciousness 347 00:26:30,600 --> 00:26:33,800 considers to be disturbing and troubling. 348 00:26:33,800 --> 00:26:37,280 Were they not to be censored, then they would manifest 349 00:26:37,280 --> 00:26:39,920 themselves in all their disruptive force. 350 00:26:39,920 --> 00:26:44,440 For Freud, a dream is essentially a fulfilment of an unconscious wish. 351 00:26:44,440 --> 00:26:48,440 How are Freud's ideas about the unconscious evolving at this time? 352 00:26:48,440 --> 00:26:52,080 For Freud, the unconscious is no longer just a set of traumatic 353 00:26:52,080 --> 00:26:57,880 memories, it's a container of wishes and thoughts and fantasies 354 00:26:57,880 --> 00:27:02,720 that have been self-generated by the mental life of every human being. 355 00:27:02,720 --> 00:27:05,160 What's the value of these for Freud? 356 00:27:05,160 --> 00:27:07,800 What's he doing with this raw material? 357 00:27:07,800 --> 00:27:11,600 Within his clinical practice, he would piece together the 358 00:27:11,600 --> 00:27:16,080 various associations that people bring to the story that they 359 00:27:16,080 --> 00:27:20,640 remember, and, with those bits and pieces, he would try to 360 00:27:20,640 --> 00:27:24,800 arrive at a certain understanding of those unconscious repressed 361 00:27:24,800 --> 00:27:28,600 wishes that sit underneath. 362 00:27:28,600 --> 00:27:32,760 With Freud's theory, we as human beings can look and think about our 363 00:27:32,760 --> 00:27:36,680 dreams as productions of our minds that actually reveal 364 00:27:36,680 --> 00:27:41,200 something about who we are, and that is extraordinarily valuable. 365 00:27:45,000 --> 00:27:49,080 Freud's book, The Interpretation Of Dreams, offered a radical new 366 00:27:49,080 --> 00:27:53,520 understanding of human nature, with the unconscious, a reservoir 367 00:27:53,520 --> 00:27:57,520 of repressed inner desires and irrational impulses, 368 00:27:57,520 --> 00:28:03,120 the hidden source of what motivates and makes us. 369 00:28:03,120 --> 00:28:05,920 There's an interesting detail in the story of the publication of 370 00:28:05,920 --> 00:28:07,800 The Interpretation Of Dreams. 371 00:28:07,800 --> 00:28:11,160 Although this book was actually published 1n 1899, it was 372 00:28:11,160 --> 00:28:13,320 branded with the date 1900. 373 00:28:14,320 --> 00:28:18,240 Freud was telling the world that the theories in here would define 374 00:28:18,240 --> 00:28:21,720 the 20th century, and that they'd herald the birth of a daring, 375 00:28:21,720 --> 00:28:23,400 brave new world. 376 00:28:29,200 --> 00:28:33,480 But this brave new world was riddled with anxiety. 377 00:28:34,480 --> 00:28:40,040 It was said that to be Viennese was to be a question mark. 378 00:28:40,040 --> 00:28:44,480 Liberalism had failed to deliver real power to the middle classes, 379 00:28:44,480 --> 00:28:49,240 who felt threatened by a rising urban population. 380 00:28:49,240 --> 00:28:53,880 In this climate, an appetite grew for new experimental art that 381 00:28:53,880 --> 00:28:57,520 explored beneath the rational surface of human existence. 382 00:28:59,240 --> 00:29:03,480 Freud's theories perfectly matched the zeitgeist. 383 00:29:09,800 --> 00:29:13,800 In his next book, The Psychopathology Of Everyday Life, 384 00:29:13,800 --> 00:29:16,160 he continued to dig deep. 385 00:29:16,160 --> 00:29:20,080 In this, he argued that our repressed desires emerged not 386 00:29:20,080 --> 00:29:24,680 just in our dreams, but infiltrate our waking lives, too. 387 00:29:28,000 --> 00:29:31,520 One interesting case he cites was when a high-ranking Austrian 388 00:29:31,520 --> 00:29:34,240 politician opened an important debate in Parliament 389 00:29:34,240 --> 00:29:36,640 with these words, 390 00:29:36,640 --> 00:29:40,200 "I announce the presence of so many honoured gentlemen, and 391 00:29:40,200 --> 00:29:42,800 "therefore declare the session as closed." 392 00:29:43,840 --> 00:29:48,080 This very public slip revealed his repressed frustration that the 393 00:29:48,080 --> 00:29:52,240 session would be a complete waste of time. And, of course, we still use 394 00:29:52,240 --> 00:29:55,120 the phrase "Freudian slip" in everyday life today, 395 00:29:55,120 --> 00:29:59,960 usually to refer to a revealing or embarrassing verbal faux pas. 396 00:30:02,840 --> 00:30:06,400 Although Freud believed that our unconscious desires broke 397 00:30:06,400 --> 00:30:10,320 through due to triggers in our current lives, it was how 398 00:30:10,320 --> 00:30:14,200 those mysterious impulses were shaped by our past experiences 399 00:30:14,200 --> 00:30:16,520 that really preoccupied him, 400 00:30:16,520 --> 00:30:19,960 something that finds echo in his consulting room. 401 00:30:22,800 --> 00:30:26,560 When Freud enthusiastically gathered together all these fabulous 402 00:30:26,560 --> 00:30:30,800 ancient artefacts, he didn't think of them as dead objects. 403 00:30:30,800 --> 00:30:34,480 For him, the past wasn't a kind of museum that you could choose 404 00:30:34,480 --> 00:30:36,480 whether or not to visit. 405 00:30:36,480 --> 00:30:43,400 It was a live dynamic present in our day-to-day lives. He thought that 406 00:30:43,400 --> 00:30:48,000 past experiences had something vital to tell us. In fact, it was a 407 00:30:48,000 --> 00:30:52,760 story from classical Greece that would inspire his next big idea. 408 00:30:57,280 --> 00:31:00,920 HE SPEAKS GERMAN 409 00:31:03,400 --> 00:31:07,320 Freud attended a performance of a Greek tragedy by Sophocles. 410 00:31:24,760 --> 00:31:28,880 Oedipus Rex tells the story of a young man who inadvertently 411 00:31:28,880 --> 00:31:34,040 kills his father and then marries and has children with his mother. 412 00:31:49,000 --> 00:31:53,600 When he first discovers the terrible truth, he stabs out his own eyes. 413 00:31:55,880 --> 00:31:58,720 HE SCREAMS 414 00:32:01,120 --> 00:32:05,120 Freud saw this story as a paradigm to explain his own repressed 415 00:32:05,120 --> 00:32:06,680 sexual feelings. 416 00:32:13,560 --> 00:32:15,800 This is what he wrote to Fliess, 417 00:32:15,800 --> 00:32:20,640 "A single idea dawned on me. I found in my own case, too, the 418 00:32:20,640 --> 00:32:24,160 "phenomena of being in love with my mother and jealous of my 419 00:32:24,160 --> 00:32:30,040 "father, and I now consider it a universal event in early childhood." 420 00:32:33,560 --> 00:32:38,600 Freud named this psychosexual drama the Oedipus complex. 421 00:32:40,080 --> 00:32:43,400 He came to believe that little boys had to work through hidden 422 00:32:43,400 --> 00:32:47,400 fears of castration by their fathers, punishment for 423 00:32:47,400 --> 00:32:50,760 desiring and seeking possession of their mothers, 424 00:32:50,760 --> 00:32:54,320 and that little girls were infatuated by their fathers 425 00:32:54,320 --> 00:32:58,080 but had to deal with complex feelings of inferiority 426 00:32:58,080 --> 00:33:01,080 because they themselves didn't have a penis - 427 00:33:01,080 --> 00:33:03,440 what Freud calls "penis envy". 428 00:33:08,040 --> 00:33:09,560 Freud believed that if these 429 00:33:09,560 --> 00:33:11,800 complicated feelings weren't resolved, 430 00:33:11,800 --> 00:33:16,280 internal conflicts would be stored up, only to cause adult 431 00:33:16,280 --> 00:33:18,200 neuroses later in life. 432 00:33:21,760 --> 00:33:25,280 Freud was keen to test out his theories about repressed 433 00:33:25,280 --> 00:33:27,600 sexual issues. 434 00:33:27,600 --> 00:33:32,400 And in October 1900, the opportunity arose to do just that. 435 00:33:32,400 --> 00:33:36,400 A new patient walked into his office, a 17-year-old girl 436 00:33:36,400 --> 00:33:39,440 who he'd give the pseudonym Dora. 437 00:33:39,440 --> 00:33:43,360 She was his first and his most famous case study. 438 00:33:44,480 --> 00:33:49,040 Dora was exhibiting hysterical symptoms, a nervous cough and 439 00:33:49,040 --> 00:33:51,120 suicidal thoughts. 440 00:33:52,760 --> 00:33:55,920 One of the most shocking things in the story is that, 441 00:33:55,920 --> 00:33:58,400 when she was 13 or 14, 442 00:33:58,400 --> 00:34:00,960 her father's best friend, Herr K, 443 00:34:00,960 --> 00:34:03,720 manipulated the situation to 444 00:34:03,720 --> 00:34:05,560 get her alone in his office 445 00:34:05,560 --> 00:34:11,480 and kissed her. And Freud says, well, this was thoroughly hysterical 446 00:34:11,480 --> 00:34:14,880 that she was disgusted by the kiss. 447 00:34:14,880 --> 00:34:19,480 And then he goes on to say that she must have felt his erect penis 448 00:34:19,480 --> 00:34:23,800 against her body, and that this must have sexually aroused her. 449 00:34:23,800 --> 00:34:28,320 And he makes it his business, really, to show her that she 450 00:34:28,320 --> 00:34:31,920 really does sexually desire Herr K, and that she's repressed that 451 00:34:31,920 --> 00:34:33,520 desire from consciousness. 452 00:34:33,520 --> 00:34:36,000 I have to say, when you look at Dora's case, there does seem 453 00:34:36,000 --> 00:34:38,760 to be a trope developing here, that you have these young women 454 00:34:38,760 --> 00:34:43,000 who are very troubled, and men like Freud kind of pounce on them, 455 00:34:43,000 --> 00:34:45,320 to use them for medical material. 456 00:34:45,320 --> 00:34:49,200 Yes. It has the sort of arrogance of the man of science, and that 457 00:34:49,200 --> 00:34:53,720 he uses Dora and other patients as simply guinea pigs for his 458 00:34:53,720 --> 00:34:57,920 confident scientific position. 459 00:34:57,920 --> 00:35:00,760 How does it end? I mean, how does Dora take all of this? 460 00:35:00,760 --> 00:35:05,560 Not well, not well. Dora walks out on Freud. 461 00:35:05,560 --> 00:35:09,200 And what he learns from that, though, is that he should 462 00:35:09,200 --> 00:35:14,320 have paid attention to the way in which she had transferred on 463 00:35:14,320 --> 00:35:19,800 to him all her feelings of hostility to Herr K, and in fact, after 464 00:35:19,800 --> 00:35:23,880 this case, he introduced the theory that psychoanalysis must pay 465 00:35:23,880 --> 00:35:27,240 attention to the ways in which patients transfer their 466 00:35:27,240 --> 00:35:30,440 unconscious and conscious feelings about significant people 467 00:35:30,440 --> 00:35:34,640 in their lives on to the psychoanalyst or the therapist. 468 00:35:37,480 --> 00:35:40,920 Freud learnt valuable lessons from the Dora case. 469 00:35:40,920 --> 00:35:45,640 Yet his seemingly scientific method relied on subjective, 470 00:35:45,640 --> 00:35:48,720 some would argue, self-fulfilling judgments. 471 00:35:50,440 --> 00:35:53,720 It was a fundamental problem, articulated by his once loyal 472 00:35:53,720 --> 00:35:57,760 confidant, Fliess, during a heated argument. 473 00:35:57,760 --> 00:36:01,720 "The reader of thoughts is merely reading his own thoughts into 474 00:36:01,720 --> 00:36:05,360 "other people," was Fliess's damning assessment. 475 00:36:19,440 --> 00:36:23,520 In 1902, Freud sent out a written invitation to four Jewish 476 00:36:23,520 --> 00:36:28,240 doctors, inviting them to come and meet here in his apartments. 477 00:36:28,240 --> 00:36:31,960 What would come to be known as the Wednesday Psychological Society 478 00:36:31,960 --> 00:36:35,920 gathered every week in his waiting room, and their first topic 479 00:36:35,920 --> 00:36:40,880 was a subject very close to Freud's own heart - the psychological 480 00:36:40,880 --> 00:36:42,680 function of smoking. 481 00:36:49,280 --> 00:36:52,480 A good cigar after a meal was part of bourgeois Viennese 482 00:36:52,480 --> 00:36:56,720 culture, but Freud took cigar indulgence to a whole new 483 00:36:56,720 --> 00:37:02,160 level. He smoked 20 cigars a day and considered the pleasures of 484 00:37:02,160 --> 00:37:05,000 the cigar a substitute for what he called 485 00:37:05,000 --> 00:37:07,280 "the single greatest habit" - 486 00:37:07,280 --> 00:37:09,200 masturbation. 487 00:37:12,080 --> 00:37:15,160 The Wednesday Group discussions helped Freud to advance his 488 00:37:15,160 --> 00:37:17,240 ideas on sexuality, 489 00:37:17,240 --> 00:37:20,600 resulting in a ground-breaking publication - 490 00:37:20,600 --> 00:37:23,680 Three Essays On The Theory Of Sexuality. 491 00:37:25,120 --> 00:37:26,840 So, what he does in this book, 492 00:37:26,840 --> 00:37:29,240 he introduces a concept of 493 00:37:29,240 --> 00:37:31,200 enlarged sexuality. 494 00:37:31,200 --> 00:37:32,600 Because, at the time, 495 00:37:32,600 --> 00:37:34,040 sexuality was very much 496 00:37:34,040 --> 00:37:37,440 restricted to people having sex, 497 00:37:37,440 --> 00:37:40,560 whereas, for Freud, it's about eroticism, it's about 498 00:37:40,560 --> 00:37:44,640 attraction, it's about excitement, and everything in between. 499 00:37:44,640 --> 00:37:47,840 He also sees it being at work in children. 500 00:37:47,840 --> 00:37:50,600 I mean, that's very controversial, isn't it? 501 00:37:50,600 --> 00:37:55,240 So, how does he see this sex drive, this libido, developing in children? 502 00:37:55,240 --> 00:38:00,200 Shortly after a child is born, it goes through an oral phase. 503 00:38:00,200 --> 00:38:04,480 Freud observes that when a child is being fed, that it can 504 00:38:04,480 --> 00:38:08,120 derive some satisfaction or gratification from that 505 00:38:08,120 --> 00:38:13,080 which allows us to look at that experience as something that 506 00:38:13,080 --> 00:38:15,440 can be deservedly called erotic. 507 00:38:15,440 --> 00:38:18,840 So, he thinks he's identified this sex drive in children, 508 00:38:18,840 --> 00:38:22,520 in what way does he see this playing out in adult life? 509 00:38:22,520 --> 00:38:29,280 It plays out insofar as it informs our sexual identity, 510 00:38:29,280 --> 00:38:33,440 our sexual fantasies, our sexual orientation. 511 00:38:33,440 --> 00:38:37,040 It informs who we are as human beings. 512 00:38:37,040 --> 00:38:41,160 But it's not a formula. Each and every individual has to find 513 00:38:41,160 --> 00:38:44,680 his or her way through this process. 514 00:38:44,680 --> 00:38:47,760 As result of which, in a sense, one could say that we are all 515 00:38:47,760 --> 00:38:49,520 equally abnormal. 516 00:38:49,520 --> 00:38:52,240 There is a possibility, though, isn't there, that that he's 517 00:38:52,240 --> 00:38:55,560 got this all wrong, that it's not all about sex? Yes. 518 00:38:55,560 --> 00:38:59,080 People have said Freud's got it all wrong, but I think if we use 519 00:38:59,080 --> 00:39:02,280 an enlarged concept of sexuality, we actually do come to the 520 00:39:02,280 --> 00:39:09,360 conclusion that a lot of our mental world is conditioned by this drive. 521 00:39:11,680 --> 00:39:15,360 Freud's progressive theories of sexuality spoke to a generation 522 00:39:15,360 --> 00:39:20,440 of young Viennese, cynical about the Church and repressive morality. 523 00:39:20,440 --> 00:39:23,720 But his growing popularity had its dangers. 524 00:39:26,640 --> 00:39:30,360 Freud feared, not without reason, that, because his circle was 525 00:39:30,360 --> 00:39:34,000 mainly Jewish, anti-Semitism would mean that his ideas would 526 00:39:34,000 --> 00:39:36,120 never be fully accepted. 527 00:39:36,120 --> 00:39:38,880 He was anxious that psychoanalysis would be labelled 528 00:39:38,880 --> 00:39:40,920 a "Jewish science". 529 00:39:44,560 --> 00:39:48,440 A solution came in the form of a Swiss gentile from Zurich who 530 00:39:48,440 --> 00:39:51,040 visited him in 1907. 531 00:40:03,680 --> 00:40:07,960 Carl Jung was one of the brightest young psychiatrists of the day. 532 00:40:09,200 --> 00:40:12,920 Freud bestowed rapturous praise on him and, in return, 533 00:40:12,920 --> 00:40:15,160 Jung came to revere Freud. 534 00:40:16,440 --> 00:40:19,680 Given Freud's antipathy to religion, it's rather ironic 535 00:40:19,680 --> 00:40:22,320 that his movement was beginning to look a bit like a religious 536 00:40:22,320 --> 00:40:28,120 cult with psychosexuality its key doctrine, Freud its high priest 537 00:40:28,120 --> 00:40:32,160 and Jung the evangelist who'd promote Freud's message. 538 00:40:33,840 --> 00:40:36,960 But the evangelist soon became a heretic. 539 00:40:39,120 --> 00:40:43,440 Jung reinterpreted one of Freud's key terms, libido, which 540 00:40:43,440 --> 00:40:48,560 Freud understood as sexual drive, to mean all mental energy. 541 00:40:48,560 --> 00:40:52,760 He also took issue with what he saw as Freud's obsessive focus on 542 00:40:52,760 --> 00:40:55,000 the Oedipus complex. 543 00:40:55,000 --> 00:40:58,720 JUNG: When he had thoughts on a thing, then it was settled. 544 00:40:58,720 --> 00:41:01,040 While I was doubting all along the line. 545 00:41:02,280 --> 00:41:05,360 Their friendship ended acrimoniously, with Freud 546 00:41:05,360 --> 00:41:10,040 calling Jung "crazy" and "out of his wits", while Jung's parting shot 547 00:41:10,040 --> 00:41:12,960 was no less provocative. 548 00:41:12,960 --> 00:41:16,840 "Your technique of treating your pupils like patients is a 549 00:41:16,840 --> 00:41:21,880 "blunder. In that way, you produce either slavish sons or impudent 550 00:41:21,880 --> 00:41:28,120 "puppies. I am objective enough to see through your little trick." 551 00:41:32,200 --> 00:41:36,720 But whilst Freud faced dissent and a splintering of his movement, 552 00:41:36,720 --> 00:41:41,520 his name and his ideas were to reach global prominence due to a 553 00:41:41,520 --> 00:41:43,080 pivotal event. 554 00:41:53,240 --> 00:41:57,800 In 1914, the heir to the Habsburg throne was assassinated, 555 00:41:57,800 --> 00:41:59,680 triggering a war with Serbia. 556 00:42:01,640 --> 00:42:05,320 Freud's sons left for the front line of a conflict that would 557 00:42:05,320 --> 00:42:07,480 become World War I. 558 00:42:09,560 --> 00:42:13,800 The war threw up new challenges for physicians - the mysterious 559 00:42:13,800 --> 00:42:16,440 breakdowns suffered by soldiers. 560 00:42:20,480 --> 00:42:24,400 Their disconnected speech and nightmares were diagnosed as 561 00:42:24,400 --> 00:42:29,080 symptoms of physical shocks to the brain - shellshock. 562 00:42:29,080 --> 00:42:32,480 But it quickly became apparent that soldiers who weren't 563 00:42:32,480 --> 00:42:35,680 operating on the front line, who weren't exposed to exploding 564 00:42:35,680 --> 00:42:38,200 shells, were also suffering. 565 00:42:38,200 --> 00:42:42,440 So, the physiological explanations just didn't stand up. 566 00:42:44,760 --> 00:42:48,520 Often written off as cowardly or weak, many of these soldiers 567 00:42:48,520 --> 00:42:51,960 were forced back into action within a few days. 568 00:42:53,920 --> 00:42:57,520 But Freud started a debate which would lead to today's 569 00:42:57,520 --> 00:43:02,080 widely accepted condition of post-traumatic stress disorder. 570 00:43:03,520 --> 00:43:07,600 Freud believed that war neurosis was a psychological rather than a 571 00:43:07,600 --> 00:43:09,760 physical problem. 572 00:43:09,760 --> 00:43:13,920 He thought that shellshock must be an emotional trauma triggered 573 00:43:13,920 --> 00:43:16,360 by the horrors of conflict. 574 00:43:16,360 --> 00:43:20,080 And by the end of the war, others were starting to believe him. 575 00:43:24,640 --> 00:43:27,080 World War I was a breakthrough moment 576 00:43:27,080 --> 00:43:29,280 for the psychoanalytical movement. 577 00:43:29,280 --> 00:43:32,520 But, for Freud personally, it cast a long shadow. 578 00:43:36,640 --> 00:43:40,560 Post-war inflation wiped out most of his savings, undermining his 579 00:43:40,560 --> 00:43:42,520 comfortable life in Vienna. 580 00:43:46,280 --> 00:43:50,800 Spanish flu swept through the city, killing his beloved daughter Sophie. 581 00:43:52,560 --> 00:43:54,880 And even though all his sons returned, 582 00:43:54,880 --> 00:43:57,200 they were scarred by the experience. 583 00:44:03,920 --> 00:44:07,720 Freud began to question some of his core theories. 584 00:44:07,720 --> 00:44:13,480 For him, sexuality had been singularly responsible for neuroses, 585 00:44:13,480 --> 00:44:18,920 but, in 1920, he published Beyond The Pleasure Principle, 586 00:44:18,920 --> 00:44:22,840 and posited a second basic force in the mind - 587 00:44:22,840 --> 00:44:25,040 a death drive. 588 00:44:28,240 --> 00:44:32,280 Before, he'd seen aggression as a sadistic aspect of the sexual 589 00:44:32,280 --> 00:44:38,960 instinct - the urge for mastery, the drive to dominate the sexual object. 590 00:44:38,960 --> 00:44:43,680 But now, with the raw experience of humanity's dreadful capacity 591 00:44:43,680 --> 00:44:48,400 for self-destruction, he started to focus instead on the fatal 592 00:44:48,400 --> 00:44:51,400 psychological impulses within us. 593 00:44:56,400 --> 00:45:00,360 Freud wanted us to face up to inward as well as outward 594 00:45:00,360 --> 00:45:05,040 aggression. He suggested that the death drive was part of the human 595 00:45:05,040 --> 00:45:11,920 condition, a powerful deep-seated wish to undo the bonds of life. 596 00:45:16,400 --> 00:45:19,160 But Freud's revisions didn't end here. 597 00:45:29,800 --> 00:45:34,880 Freud proposed that the mind was made up of three elements. 598 00:45:36,360 --> 00:45:40,200 There was the id - an entirely unconscious part, the 599 00:45:40,200 --> 00:45:44,760 cauldron of our passions, where our death drive and our urge for sex 600 00:45:44,760 --> 00:45:46,680 could be found. 601 00:45:50,480 --> 00:45:56,080 Then there was what he called the superego - an internal conscience 602 00:45:56,080 --> 00:46:02,240 which could impose impossible ideals and inflict merciless criticism. 603 00:46:03,520 --> 00:46:08,960 The superego was a kind of strict moral guardian, in conflict 604 00:46:08,960 --> 00:46:12,720 with the pleasure and death-seeking urges of the id. 605 00:46:12,720 --> 00:46:17,160 Navigating between the warring mind and external reality was what 606 00:46:17,160 --> 00:46:19,320 Freud called the ego. 607 00:46:21,480 --> 00:46:26,640 Freud thought that psychoanalysis could help to strengthen the ego. 608 00:46:26,640 --> 00:46:28,920 Although he never imagined that we'd be free of these 609 00:46:28,920 --> 00:46:33,800 internal conflicts, the best we can do is simply to live with them. 610 00:46:35,920 --> 00:46:39,240 1920S JAZZ MUSIC PLAYS 611 00:46:42,280 --> 00:46:46,160 Freud's ideas were eagerly taken up by a post-war generation 612 00:46:46,160 --> 00:46:48,800 in revolt against traditional values. 613 00:46:51,880 --> 00:46:55,960 In Europe and the US, a new egocentric permissiveness 614 00:46:55,960 --> 00:46:58,800 embodied in the glamour-driven world of dance music 615 00:46:58,800 --> 00:47:01,720 and moving pictures was taking hold. 616 00:47:04,160 --> 00:47:08,480 In 1925, the head of MGM, Samuel Goldwyn, called Freud 617 00:47:08,480 --> 00:47:12,600 "the greatest love specialist in the world", and reportedly 618 00:47:12,600 --> 00:47:18,200 offered him 100,000 to advise on the making of Antony and Cleopatra. 619 00:47:18,200 --> 00:47:20,200 Freud curtly declined. 620 00:47:23,960 --> 00:47:27,200 Yet, as Freud's cultural influence soared, 621 00:47:27,200 --> 00:47:31,440 other more insidious forces were gathering, 622 00:47:31,440 --> 00:47:34,800 forces which would threaten his very existence. 623 00:47:38,920 --> 00:47:43,440 In neighbouring Germany, Adolf Hitler rose to power. 624 00:47:45,240 --> 00:47:47,600 Jews were immediately targeted, 625 00:47:47,600 --> 00:47:50,920 and Freud's books were burned in the streets. 626 00:47:52,960 --> 00:47:56,240 In 1938, troops marched into Vienna. 627 00:47:59,960 --> 00:48:02,360 It's me. 628 00:48:02,360 --> 00:48:04,960 There is a crowd cheering Hitler. 629 00:48:06,640 --> 00:48:09,360 Look at the crowd. 630 00:48:09,360 --> 00:48:12,480 That's our house with those swastikas on it. 631 00:48:14,360 --> 00:48:18,640 Just days later, the Gestapo knocked at his door. 632 00:48:20,520 --> 00:48:24,240 Martha, ever the good host, asked them to leave their rifles in 633 00:48:24,240 --> 00:48:26,160 the umbrella stand. 634 00:48:26,160 --> 00:48:29,480 They behaved appallingly, throwing their weight around and 635 00:48:29,480 --> 00:48:31,440 breaking into the safe. 636 00:48:31,440 --> 00:48:35,560 But a line was crossed when they ransacked Martha's kitchen 637 00:48:35,560 --> 00:48:38,200 and tossed her table linen onto the floor. 638 00:48:38,200 --> 00:48:40,880 She gave them a thorough tongue-lashing 639 00:48:40,880 --> 00:48:42,560 and they left. 640 00:48:45,520 --> 00:48:48,960 Freud now realised that he had to escape. 641 00:48:48,960 --> 00:48:52,280 But it's here we can start to get a measure of the broad appeal 642 00:48:52,280 --> 00:48:54,960 that Freud was starting to enjoy. 643 00:48:54,960 --> 00:48:57,520 Wildly disparate players collaborated 644 00:48:57,520 --> 00:48:59,640 to secure his safe passage, 645 00:48:59,640 --> 00:49:03,680 from the American President to a descendant of Napoleon, and 646 00:49:03,680 --> 00:49:08,200 even a Nazi bureaucrat who'd been blown away by his work 647 00:49:08,200 --> 00:49:10,120 when he was a student. 648 00:49:11,440 --> 00:49:15,440 For the second time in his life, Freud would be displaced. 649 00:49:16,560 --> 00:49:20,920 After 78 years in Vienna, his belongings were hastily packed up. 650 00:49:24,080 --> 00:49:28,160 This trunk, in the Freud Museum in Vienna, has revealed poignant 651 00:49:28,160 --> 00:49:31,920 new evidence of Freud's traumatic break with the past. 652 00:49:31,920 --> 00:49:34,960 We kind of rediscovered it after it had 653 00:49:34,960 --> 00:49:37,120 been sitting right in this 654 00:49:37,120 --> 00:49:39,440 corner for, like, two decades. 655 00:49:39,440 --> 00:49:40,960 Yeah. 656 00:49:40,960 --> 00:49:43,080 And when we moved it, 657 00:49:43,080 --> 00:49:45,320 we discovered this. 658 00:49:45,320 --> 00:49:48,480 A label, "Wien Westbahnhof to London." 659 00:49:48,480 --> 00:49:51,760 Ah! So, we know that this is physically one of the bits of 660 00:49:51,760 --> 00:49:54,520 luggage that Freud would have taken with his family 661 00:49:54,520 --> 00:49:56,640 on the day that he left. 662 00:49:56,640 --> 00:49:58,520 And you can still open it, can you? 663 00:49:58,520 --> 00:50:01,880 Yes, we can open it and see what's inside now. 664 00:50:01,880 --> 00:50:07,880 Because one thing that we discovered was very exciting to us, 665 00:50:07,880 --> 00:50:13,480 a squashed little box bearing Freud's handwriting, stating, 666 00:50:13,480 --> 00:50:18,000 "Martha, for your 21st birthday, from a poor happy man." 667 00:50:18,000 --> 00:50:20,040 Wow! 668 00:50:20,040 --> 00:50:24,480 It's a tiny little thing, isn't it? But that is freighted with 669 00:50:24,480 --> 00:50:30,080 history and memory. Yes. Absolutely. Even without the jewellery inside, 670 00:50:30,080 --> 00:50:34,000 but still keeping the box with this personal little message. Yeah. 671 00:50:34,000 --> 00:50:37,800 What Freud encouraged us to do was to face up to our own pasts 672 00:50:37,800 --> 00:50:41,360 so that we could live better lives, and here is Freud and 673 00:50:41,360 --> 00:50:44,520 Martha's past incarnate. 674 00:50:44,520 --> 00:50:46,280 That's very moving. 675 00:50:51,040 --> 00:50:56,360 VOICE OF FREUD: 676 00:51:20,880 --> 00:51:24,560 VOICE OF ANNA FREUD: This is when three men of the Royal Society 677 00:51:24,560 --> 00:51:30,400 came to present the book of the Royal Society for signature to my 678 00:51:30,400 --> 00:51:35,480 father, and I think on the same picture is a signature of Darwin. 679 00:51:35,480 --> 00:51:37,640 That was a very nice moment. 680 00:51:38,720 --> 00:51:41,760 But Freud was frail and severely ill. 681 00:51:42,840 --> 00:51:47,400 We had this couch put up for my father to rest. 682 00:51:47,400 --> 00:51:50,000 It's in his last year already. 683 00:51:54,640 --> 00:51:59,600 For around 15 years, his jawbone was riddled with cancer. 684 00:51:59,600 --> 00:52:04,560 Despite over 30 operations that affected his hearing and his heart, 685 00:52:04,560 --> 00:52:08,000 he refused to surrender the oral pleasure 686 00:52:08,000 --> 00:52:10,880 that was almost certainly killing him. 687 00:52:10,880 --> 00:52:15,040 When his mouth was too painful to open, he'd wedge it with a 688 00:52:15,040 --> 00:52:19,000 clothes peg, just wide enough so he could smoke a cigar. 689 00:52:22,400 --> 00:52:26,400 He set up his study, just as it had been arranged in Vienna, 690 00:52:26,400 --> 00:52:28,600 and continued to see patients. 691 00:52:30,280 --> 00:52:34,080 When Freud sensed that death was near, he asked for his bed to 692 00:52:34,080 --> 00:52:37,240 be brought down here, so he could be close to his desk, 693 00:52:37,240 --> 00:52:41,280 his books and his beloved collection of ancient artefacts. 694 00:52:46,080 --> 00:52:52,000 In September 1939, Freud arranged to be given a fatal dose of morphine. 695 00:53:06,000 --> 00:53:11,080 But even after death, Freud's ideas continued to gain momentum. 696 00:53:12,200 --> 00:53:15,880 One of the impetuses that Freud gave to the 20th century was 697 00:53:15,880 --> 00:53:17,040 giving people permission 698 00:53:17,040 --> 00:53:20,200 to be different from other people, to recognise that there is 699 00:53:20,200 --> 00:53:23,880 very little that is abnormal, because the abnormal is so normal. 700 00:53:23,880 --> 00:53:27,240 And perhaps most important of all, really making it possible to 701 00:53:27,240 --> 00:53:30,640 talk about sex. That really, I think, helped hugely. 702 00:53:30,640 --> 00:53:34,920 In the century after Freud's time, homosexuality, sexual 703 00:53:34,920 --> 00:53:38,280 variety, much more sympathetic understandings about things 704 00:53:38,280 --> 00:53:41,720 that just used to be thought of as perverse... That was a big, big 705 00:53:41,720 --> 00:53:46,000 change in our sensibility, certainly in the western world, anyway, 706 00:53:46,000 --> 00:53:48,240 and something for which we should thank him. 707 00:53:48,240 --> 00:53:50,800 There is an issue, though, isn't there? Because some of his 708 00:53:50,800 --> 00:53:52,920 ideas, they're... It's not just pop science, 709 00:53:52,920 --> 00:53:54,920 it's positively bad science. 710 00:53:54,920 --> 00:53:58,160 It may even not be science at all, really, because the empirical 711 00:53:58,160 --> 00:54:03,360 basis for Freud's work is incredibly slender. I mean, he self-analysed, 712 00:54:03,360 --> 00:54:08,360 he analysed his wife and daughter, and a few neurotic Viennese ladies, 713 00:54:08,360 --> 00:54:13,080 and this is a very poor starting point for any well of theory. 714 00:54:13,080 --> 00:54:16,960 He looked a lot at the unconscious, how far does that stand up against 715 00:54:16,960 --> 00:54:20,320 what we now know from science, from neuroscience, for example? 716 00:54:20,320 --> 00:54:23,680 Well, of course, neuroscience is making enormous strides now 717 00:54:23,680 --> 00:54:27,640 that there are instruments, like the MRI scanner, 718 00:54:27,640 --> 00:54:29,920 the Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner, 719 00:54:29,920 --> 00:54:32,080 and we've learned quite a lot. 720 00:54:32,080 --> 00:54:35,040 One thing we've learned is that most mental computation takes 721 00:54:35,040 --> 00:54:38,280 place in a non-conscious way, below the level of consciousness, 722 00:54:38,280 --> 00:54:42,200 and so memory is stored, physically stored, in the brain, and 723 00:54:42,200 --> 00:54:46,520 this must mean that many of the layers of, as it were, 724 00:54:46,520 --> 00:54:51,120 psychic deposits of all our lives are in there and could be recovered, 725 00:54:51,120 --> 00:54:54,920 and so it's not a million miles away from what Freud was groping for. 726 00:54:54,920 --> 00:54:58,400 He had the kind of strength to imagine what we're now 727 00:54:58,400 --> 00:55:00,680 understanding to be true. 728 00:55:00,680 --> 00:55:04,400 That's exactly, exactly right. He was an imaginative genius, a 729 00:55:04,400 --> 00:55:07,440 wonderful storyteller, and, you know, even if you do a 730 00:55:07,440 --> 00:55:10,880 destructive job, which is you tear down a conventional fabric of 731 00:55:10,880 --> 00:55:14,600 ideas, that gives us an opportunity to see things differently, 732 00:55:14,600 --> 00:55:18,960 and I think he had enough wonderful insight to have struck the 733 00:55:18,960 --> 00:55:22,680 bell, just very occasionally, in ways that make us think, 734 00:55:22,680 --> 00:55:24,800 "This is an interesting aspect, 735 00:55:24,800 --> 00:55:27,840 "an interesting perspective on human experience." 736 00:55:31,520 --> 00:55:34,760 While theories like the Oedipus complex and death drive have 737 00:55:34,760 --> 00:55:38,800 been widely questioned, there's no doubting Freud's huge 738 00:55:38,800 --> 00:55:40,600 cultural influence. 739 00:55:43,240 --> 00:55:47,920 His ideas have become so embedded, they're buried so deep within 740 00:55:47,920 --> 00:55:51,800 our day-to-day experiences that we take them for granted. 741 00:55:51,800 --> 00:55:56,520 So, when advertisers scrutinise consumers to create brands 742 00:55:56,520 --> 00:55:59,880 that appeal to our irrational desires, they are drawing on 743 00:55:59,880 --> 00:56:03,560 Freud's psychoanalytical techniques. 744 00:56:06,320 --> 00:56:09,440 It's one of the reasons that products are packaged in ways that 745 00:56:09,440 --> 00:56:14,160 promise youthful freedom, prestige, and, of course, sex appeal. 746 00:56:15,240 --> 00:56:19,960 And Freud's influence is also there in how we make sense of who we are, 747 00:56:19,960 --> 00:56:24,080 the importance that we place on childhood experiences, 748 00:56:24,080 --> 00:56:28,400 our openness to talk about the emotional complexity of our lives. 749 00:56:30,320 --> 00:56:33,760 Some people even see his focus on looking inwards as promoting 750 00:56:33,760 --> 00:56:38,560 our narcissistic, individualistic culture, making us 751 00:56:38,560 --> 00:56:41,560 self-absorbed, self-obsessed. 752 00:57:02,960 --> 00:57:07,360 What really mattered to Freud, I'd argue, is right here. 753 00:57:07,360 --> 00:57:11,920 His ashes are still in this ancient urn, one of his favourites, which 754 00:57:11,920 --> 00:57:14,720 celebrates the Greek god Dionysius, 755 00:57:14,720 --> 00:57:18,360 the god of wild, irrational impulses. 756 00:57:18,360 --> 00:57:23,760 So, here in his final resting place, you have sex and lust and 757 00:57:23,760 --> 00:57:30,320 death and mania and the power of the past, all mixed up together. 758 00:57:30,320 --> 00:57:35,080 For a man who told the world he was a scientist, this is a madly, 759 00:57:35,080 --> 00:57:38,160 wonderfully romantic last gesture. 760 00:57:41,480 --> 00:57:45,840 And a reminder too, perhaps, that Freud believed, no matter how 761 00:57:45,840 --> 00:57:50,560 deeply we interrogate ourselves, there is an irrational part 762 00:57:50,560 --> 00:57:54,320 of our mind destined to stay in the dark. 763 00:57:58,360 --> 00:58:01,840 It's true that many of Freud's theories have been dismissed 764 00:58:01,840 --> 00:58:07,640 as wildly speculative, criticised for being unscientific. 765 00:58:07,640 --> 00:58:12,240 But the questions that he left us with are as cogent now as 766 00:58:12,240 --> 00:58:14,040 they were back then. 767 00:58:14,040 --> 00:58:19,000 Are we hostages to our pasts and to our hidden anxieties, 768 00:58:19,000 --> 00:58:24,440 or can we ever learn to understand our psyches, to be truly 769 00:58:24,440 --> 00:58:26,680 masters of our own minds? 770 00:58:31,160 --> 00:58:35,560 VOICE OF FREUD: 771 00:58:46,240 --> 00:58:49,440 If the mind of Freud has made you think, then why not explore 772 00:58:49,440 --> 00:58:52,960 further with the Open University to discover how other great 773 00:58:52,960 --> 00:58:55,400 minds have shaped our world today? 774 00:58:55,400 --> 00:58:58,440 Go to the address on the bottom of the screen and follow the 775 00:58:58,440 --> 00:59:00,600 links to the Open University.