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MICHAEL EMERSON:
Previously on
The Mystery of Matter...
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He realizes that something
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fundamentally different's
happened.
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This air is some
kind of super air.
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How could I explain this?
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LAVOISIER:
This subject is destined
to bring about a revolution
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in physics and chemistry.
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ALAN ROCKE:
The discovery of oxygen
really served as a starting gun
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for a worldwide race
for new elements.
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EMERSON:
Davy had found
a powerful new tool
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for the discovery
of elements: the battery.
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HUMPHRY DAVY:
Nothing promotes the
advancement of knowledge so much
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as a new instrument.
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¶ ¶
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Major funding
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for The Mystery of Matter:
Search for the Elements
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was provided by...
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The National Science
Foundation,
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where discoveries begin.
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Additional funding
provided by...
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The Arthur Vining Davis
Foundations,
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dedicated to strengthening
America's future
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through education.
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And by the following:
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One of the oldest tricks
in the chemist's tool box
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is called the flame test.
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More than a thousand years ago,
Arab alchemists discovered
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that every substance gave off
a telltale color as it burned.
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But as the number
of elements grew,
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this test became less
and less useful,
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because some elements
gave off such similar colors
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it was hard to tell them apart.
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One day in 1859,
a German chemist
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named Robert Bunsen
described this problem
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to his good friend
physicist Gustav Kirchhoff.
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A few days later, Kirchhoff
came to Bunsen's laboratory
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with an instrument made
from two telescopes,
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a wooden box and a prism.
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They used Bunsen's latest
invention-- the Bunsen burner--
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to heat their samples.
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Light from the burning
element passed down the barrel
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of this telescope to the prism,
which split the light
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into a spectrum of colors.
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What they saw when they looked
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into the eyepiece
was a revelation.
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You see a whole collection
of sharp bright lines
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at very particular wavelengths.
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And that map of lines is
distinctive for every element.
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DAVID KAISER:
It's almost like each
element has its own barcode.
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It's a unique way of saying this
is that element, not some other.
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EMERSON:
Like Humphry Davy's battery,
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the "spectroscope" kicked off
a whole new round
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in the discovery of elements
starting with cesium
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and rubidium, discovered by
Bunsen and Kirchhoff themselves,
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quickly followed
by thallium and indium,
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discovered by other chemists
who seized on their new tool.
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Astronomers, too,
embraced the new technology,
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turning the spectroscope
to the heavens.
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In fact, there's one
element that we found
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by first looking at the sun.
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We didn't even know
it was here on earth.
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It was helium.
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KAISER:
By the middle
of the 19th century,
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there had been an explosion
in the numbers of new elements
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that had been found.
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And this was exciting, but it
also led to a kind of muddle
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that seemed to have no order,
no reason behind it.
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ROCKE:
Chemistry looked
like an unruly garden,
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a jungle of bewildering details.
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Human beings like
to make things simple.
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And part of the whole,
scientific enterprise is
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to bring order out of
what appears to be chaos,
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to bring simplicity
out of complexity.
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EMERSON:
But the ever-rising number
of elements, now up to 63,
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promised chemists just the
opposite of simplicity:
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more and more variety,
with no end in sight.
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How many elements were there?
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Was this going
to continue forever?
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EMERSON:
The man who would finally
bring order to the elements
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was a young Russian
chemistry professor
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named Dmitri Mendeleev.
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He didn't set out
to be a savior.
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He was simply trying to organize
the textbook he was writing.
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But as he grappled with this
challenge over one weekend
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in 1869, Mendeleev would make
a discovery for the ages:
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the periodic table
of the elements.
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Today it hangs in every
chemistry classroom
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in the world, one of
the most familiar images
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in all of science.
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But behind the table is a
fascinating untold story.
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Who was this man
and how did he do it?
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Mendeleev had recently
been named a professor
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at the University
of St. Petersburg,
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the leading institution
in Russia's capital.
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But getting there had been
a long, improbable journey
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from humble beginnings.
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Mendeleev was born in Tobolsk,
Siberia,
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which is basically smack
in the middle of Russia
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if you look at it on a map.
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It's very much the boonies
of imperial Russia.
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EMERSON:
His father, the headmaster
of the local high school,
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went blind during the year
of Dmitri's birth,
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leaving Mendeleev's mother
to support and raise
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about a dozen children.
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Maria Mendeleeva sensed
something special
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in her youngest child.
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So in 1849, she set out
with her 15-year-old son
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on a 1,500-mile trip
by horse-drawn sleigh
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in search of a school
that would accept him.
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Like most students
from the provinces,
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Dmitri was turned
away in Moscow.
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But in St. Petersburg,
he landed a spot
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in the teacher training school
his father had attended.
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Exhausted by the journey,
Maria died a few months later.
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She took me out of Siberia
and sacrificed what remained
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of her money... her life...
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so that I could get
an education.
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From her I learned that
it is through work not words
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that we must seek divine
and scientific truth.
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EMERSON:
Scientific truth was elusive
for any young chemistry student
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in the mid-1800s.
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There were deep divisions
in the field
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over even the
most basic concepts,
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particularly the atomic
weights of the elements.
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Most chemists
believed each element
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had its own unique kind of atom,
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and ever since the early 1800s,
they'd been working
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to determine how much an atom
of each element weighed.
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ROCKE:
That's how one distinguished
on element from another.
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So it was crucial to understand
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what were the
correct atomic weights
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for each of the elements.
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EMERSON:
Everyone agreed that hydrogen,
the lightest element,
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should be assigned a weight of
one, and that heavier elements
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should have proportionally
higher weights.
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But that's where
the agreement ended.
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GORDIN:
Did carbon weigh six
or did it weigh 12?
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Did it weigh four?
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That depended on who you talked
to and when you talked to them.
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By the late 1850s people
were incredibly confused.
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This was an
unsupportable situation.
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Something had to be done.
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EMERSON:
Hoping to sort out the mess,
chemists organized
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their first-ever
international meeting held
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in Karlsruhe, Germany, in 1860.
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GORDIN:
Mendeleev, being a young,
enterprising student,
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goes to this meeting, and he
hears a very important speech
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by an Italian chemist,
Stanislao Cannizzaro.
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EMERSON:
Cannizzaro laid
out a persuasive case
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for a new, uniform system
of atomic weights.
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MENDELEEV:
I still remember the powerful
impression Cannizzaro made.
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He seemed to advocate
truth itself.
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GORDIN:
After Karlsruhe, something
astonishing starts to happen.
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Within a few years
of the congress,
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you start seeing lots
of different attempts
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to organize the elements
that are all based
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on these new,
post-Karlsruhe weights.
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EMERSON:
A French geologist
arranged the known elements
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in a spiral along
the outside of a cylinder--
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like the stripes
on a barber pole--
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and found that elements
with similar properties tended
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to fall into columns.
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An English chemist
arranged the elements
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by atomic weight
in rows of seven
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and found that their
properties repeated
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like musical notes
one octave apart.
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By the end of the 1860s, five
different European scientists
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had detected glimmers of a
hidden order among the elements.
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But no one could quite
put the puzzle together.
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That's where things stood
when Mendeleev finally
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landed a professorship at the
University of St. Petersburg.
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One of the duties
of his new post was
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to teach introductory chemistry.
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He has to teach this class,
hundreds of students,
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and he has to give
them a textbook.
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There are no up-to-date
Russian language
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college-level
textbooks available.
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EMERSON:
So Mendeleev set out
to write his own:
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Principles of Chemistry,
in two volumes.
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He completed
the first volume in 1868
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and on Friday,
February 14, 1869,
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he sent the first
two chapters of volume two
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off to his publisher.
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MENDELEEV:
Marina.
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He was in a hurry to finish it
because he was struggling
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to make ends meet.
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(Speaking Russian)
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GORDIN:
He hasn't yet
gotten any royalties
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from the textbook, because it
hasn't been written yet.
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He's got to keep his
family fed and clothed.
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He has at this point
two children and a wife,
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so he was always looking
for more funds.
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EMERSON:
To make a little extra money,
Mendeleev planned
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to take a short break on Monday
to do some consulting
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for a cheese-makers cooperative.
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But he had
something on his mind.
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His publisher was
expecting the next chapter
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of his textbook in two weeks,
and he still hadn't settled
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on a way to organize
the rest of his book.
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Mendeleev had spent most
of the first volume
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covering a few common
elements like hydrogen
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and oxygen in great detail.
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GORDIN:
You learn a huge amount
of chemistry, but it's slow.
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Volume one contains
just eight elements
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out of the 63
that were then known.
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When it came to writing
the second volume
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of his textbook,
Mendeleev realized
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that he had better find
an organizing principle
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fairly quickly, because he had
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to cover the
remaining 55 elements.
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MENDELEEV:
Since I'd set out
to write a book
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called Principles of Chemistry,
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I felt I had to
establish a system
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for classifying the elements.
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A system based not on chance,
or guesswork,
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but on some sort of principle.
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(speaking Russian)
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EMERSON:
The problem gnawed
at him all weekend.
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GORDIN:
He's trying
to come up with a way
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of packing more elements
in the same amount of space.
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He couldn't ramble the way he
did in volume one,
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however useful that was.
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EMERSON:
Mendeleev had already
hit on the idea
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of focusing on whole
families of elements
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rather than treating
one at a time.
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Chemists had long known that
certain elements resemble
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each other in much the way
family members do.
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You can often tell
people are related
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because they have
the same sort of face.
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They have the same nose, they
have the same color eyes.
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There's something in common, and
that's something very similar
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in these chemical families.
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They tend to react similarly to
the same kinds of substances.
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EMERSON:
Mendeleev had ended volume one
with two chapters
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on a well-known
family, the halogens:
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chlorine, fluorine,
bromine and iodine.
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00:12:27,581 --> 00:12:29,814
He began volume two
in the same way,
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with chapters on sodium,
potassium and lithium,
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a family called
the alkali metals.
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GORDIN:
He realized that a family
of elements is a good way
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of organizing so you
can do more with less space.
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EMERSON:
The problem was, there was no
obvious family to turn to next.
243
00:12:46,500 --> 00:12:48,666
For insight into
what other elements
244
00:12:48,735 --> 00:12:52,403
might be grouped together,
Mendeleev looked more closely
245
00:12:52,472 --> 00:12:54,806
at the two families
he already had.
246
00:12:54,875 --> 00:12:56,775
GORDIN:
And in that process,
he figures out
247
00:12:56,843 --> 00:13:01,045
something rather extraordinary
about the elements.
248
00:13:01,114 --> 00:13:03,248
He looks to the atomic weights
of sodium and lithium
249
00:13:03,316 --> 00:13:05,150
and looks at the
difference between them.
250
00:13:05,218 --> 00:13:09,053
And then he does the same thing
for fluorine to chlorine,
251
00:13:09,122 --> 00:13:11,456
and notices that those
two differences
252
00:13:11,525 --> 00:13:12,957
are very close to each other.
253
00:13:14,728 --> 00:13:17,428
EMERSON:
Was this just a coincidence...
or a clue?
254
00:13:20,433 --> 00:13:23,268
Excited, Mendeleev wrote
down the lightest elements
255
00:13:23,336 --> 00:13:24,969
and their atomic weights.
256
00:13:26,573 --> 00:13:28,106
After seven elements, he broke
off and started a new row,
257
00:13:28,175 --> 00:13:31,676
keeping elements with similar
chemical properties
258
00:13:31,745 --> 00:13:34,112
in the same column.
259
00:13:34,181 --> 00:13:37,782
The numerical
pattern continued to hold.
260
00:13:37,851 --> 00:13:41,085
MENDELEEV:
The eye is immediately
struck by a pattern,
261
00:13:41,154 --> 00:13:44,322
a regular change in the atomic
weights of the elements
262
00:13:44,391 --> 00:13:48,159
within the horizontal rows
and the vertical columns.
263
00:13:48,228 --> 00:13:52,263
GORDIN:
He notices that there's a
regularity in the differences.
264
00:13:52,332 --> 00:13:54,365
That is, the changes
that happen within a family
265
00:13:54,434 --> 00:13:57,368
happen regularly
across families.
266
00:13:57,437 --> 00:13:58,937
And that's the
fundamental insight
267
00:13:59,005 --> 00:14:00,138
that gets him thinking about
268
00:14:00,207 --> 00:14:03,241
how to organize all
the other elements.
269
00:14:03,310 --> 00:14:06,244
SCERRI:
Mendeleev had begun the weekend
trying to solve the problem
270
00:14:06,313 --> 00:14:08,346
of what to do next
in his textbook.
271
00:14:08,415 --> 00:14:10,281
But having reached
this a-ha moment,
272
00:14:10,350 --> 00:14:14,886
he dropped everything else
and he poured all his energy
273
00:14:14,955 --> 00:14:20,258
into revealing an absolutely
fundamental principle of nature.
274
00:14:20,327 --> 00:14:21,893
When he was taken by an idea,
he was really taken by it.
275
00:14:21,962 --> 00:14:24,996
He starts putting
together this system.
276
00:14:25,065 --> 00:14:27,031
And he's trying to figure
out the hard spots,
277
00:14:27,100 --> 00:14:29,033
the things that don't
quite make sense.
278
00:14:29,102 --> 00:14:30,168
Maybe I can scratch
out this element here
279
00:14:30,237 --> 00:14:32,804
and put this element
in its place.
280
00:14:32,873 --> 00:14:35,006
Should I change
the atomic weights?
281
00:14:35,075 --> 00:14:36,774
Do I have to
rethink their properties?
282
00:14:36,843 --> 00:14:39,344
And the problems of it, the
intellectual puzzle,
283
00:14:39,412 --> 00:14:41,145
just grabs him.
284
00:14:41,214 --> 00:14:44,449
EMERSON:
The challenge
Mendeleev faced was similar
285
00:14:44,517 --> 00:14:45,917
to one of his favorite
diversions,
286
00:14:45,986 --> 00:14:49,420
the card game called Patience,
in which the object is
287
00:14:49,489 --> 00:14:53,691
to arrange playing cards
by both suit and number.
288
00:14:53,760 --> 00:14:56,761
That process of keeping several
different variables in mind
289
00:14:56,830 --> 00:15:00,598
is kind of analogous
to how Mendeleev was thinking.
290
00:15:00,667 --> 00:15:04,168
He started using both the
regular increasing order
291
00:15:04,237 --> 00:15:06,471
of atomic weights
and the relationships
292
00:15:06,539 --> 00:15:10,575
of chemical properties with each
other to build two dimensions.
293
00:15:10,644 --> 00:15:13,311
EMERSON:
Mendeleev didn't just lay out
the known elements
294
00:15:13,380 --> 00:15:15,980
in order of rising
atomic weight.
295
00:15:16,049 --> 00:15:17,649
GORDIN:
When it looks like
the next element
296
00:15:17,717 --> 00:15:20,084
doesn't have the properties
it is supposed to have,
297
00:15:20,153 --> 00:15:23,121
he scooches it over
and leaves a blank spot.
298
00:15:23,189 --> 00:15:27,759
And has the audacity,
has the daring to suggest
299
00:15:27,827 --> 00:15:30,228
that there might one day
exist an element
300
00:15:30,297 --> 00:15:31,529
that would fill that space.
301
00:15:31,598 --> 00:15:33,865
EMERSON:
The few scraps of paper left
302
00:15:33,934 --> 00:15:36,100
from Mendeleev's struggle
that weekend reveal
303
00:15:36,169 --> 00:15:38,369
that he sometimes arranged
the chemical families
304
00:15:38,438 --> 00:15:42,373
in rows instead of columns.
305
00:15:42,442 --> 00:15:45,343
Unhappy with this early
attempt at a table,
306
00:15:45,412 --> 00:15:48,179
he moved the alkali metals
to a new position
307
00:15:48,248 --> 00:15:52,350
in the next draft below,
but kept them together.
308
00:15:52,419 --> 00:15:55,787
SCERRI:
Mendeleev is not moving
elements individually.
309
00:15:55,855 --> 00:15:58,089
But he is moving
them as a block.
310
00:15:58,158 --> 00:16:01,826
It's as if it's a composite
piece of a jigsaw puzzle
311
00:16:01,895 --> 00:16:03,027
that he's moving all together.
312
00:16:06,466 --> 00:16:09,200
EMERSON:
On Monday morning, a driver
arrived to take Mendeleev
313
00:16:09,269 --> 00:16:12,937
to the train station for his
trip to the cheese cooperative.
314
00:16:13,006 --> 00:16:16,507
He was well into his task
but still struggling
315
00:16:16,576 --> 00:16:19,777
to make all the pieces fit.
316
00:16:19,846 --> 00:16:22,981
We know this because one of the
surviving fragments is a letter,
317
00:16:23,049 --> 00:16:25,450
delivered that morning,
concerning arrangements
318
00:16:25,518 --> 00:16:28,653
for his trip to
the cheese cooperative.
319
00:16:28,722 --> 00:16:32,123
SCERRI:
And on the back of the letter,
which still bears the stain
320
00:16:32,192 --> 00:16:35,126
of a cup, Mendeleev
has sketched a few symbols
321
00:16:35,195 --> 00:16:37,595
and has carried out some
very simple calculations.
322
00:16:37,664 --> 00:16:40,531
He's looking at differences
in atomic weights.
323
00:16:40,600 --> 00:16:42,934
EMERSON:
So he was still working
on the problem,
324
00:16:43,003 --> 00:16:44,969
even after wrestling
with it all weekend.
325
00:16:53,913 --> 00:16:57,181
The drafts of Mendeleev's
table show plainly
326
00:16:57,250 --> 00:16:59,650
the struggle he went through.
327
00:16:59,719 --> 00:17:03,654
HOFFMANN:
The bottom of the page he lists
the elements to be classified.
328
00:17:03,723 --> 00:17:05,723
As he fits them into
the table on that page,
329
00:17:05,792 --> 00:17:06,858
he crosses out the elements.
330
00:17:06,926 --> 00:17:09,560
It's just what you
and I would do.
331
00:17:09,629 --> 00:17:12,263
We can see the effort
in that page.
332
00:17:12,332 --> 00:17:13,631
He's making mistakes.
333
00:17:13,700 --> 00:17:15,166
He's correcting them.
334
00:17:15,235 --> 00:17:17,368
It's full of crossings out.
335
00:17:17,437 --> 00:17:19,670
There are things
that don't quite fit.
336
00:17:19,739 --> 00:17:24,208
This is a human being trying
to understand this world.
337
00:17:28,648 --> 00:17:31,616
EMERSON:
Hour after hour, Mendeleev
worked on the table,
338
00:17:31,684 --> 00:17:33,551
missing one train after another.
339
00:17:35,355 --> 00:17:37,055
Finally,
he dismissed the coachman.
340
00:17:39,793 --> 00:17:41,793
The cheese makers
would have to wait.
341
00:17:42,695 --> 00:17:44,595
(knocking on door)
342
00:17:44,664 --> 00:17:45,596
(speaking Russian)
343
00:17:48,635 --> 00:17:50,601
(speaking Russian)
344
00:17:54,908 --> 00:17:57,942
EMERSON:
That afternoon, a visitor
found him distraught,
345
00:17:58,011 --> 00:18:00,378
unable to capture the order
he knew was there,
346
00:18:00,447 --> 00:18:02,046
just out of reach.
347
00:18:07,253 --> 00:18:10,021
Later that day,
Mendeleev came to a choice
348
00:18:10,090 --> 00:18:12,757
that would crystallize
his thinking.
349
00:18:12,826 --> 00:18:16,060
The elements involved were
iodine and tellurium.
350
00:18:16,129 --> 00:18:18,963
GORDIN:
Iodine's a little lighter
than tellurium
351
00:18:19,032 --> 00:18:20,131
so it should come first.
352
00:18:20,200 --> 00:18:22,133
But Mendeleev looks
at that and says,
353
00:18:22,202 --> 00:18:25,703
"Well, if I put iodine first,
it's in the wrong family.
354
00:18:25,772 --> 00:18:29,407
It is actually a halogen,
which is the next row down."
355
00:18:29,476 --> 00:18:34,045
If he stuck to that weight rule,
it would put an element outside
356
00:18:34,114 --> 00:18:36,314
of the family
it obviously belonged in.
357
00:18:36,382 --> 00:18:39,684
GORDIN:
So he decides tellurium,
the heavier element,
358
00:18:39,752 --> 00:18:42,120
should go first.
359
00:18:42,188 --> 00:18:44,956
It always bothered him
that iodine was lighter
360
00:18:45,024 --> 00:18:47,091
than tellurium but came after.
361
00:18:47,160 --> 00:18:48,993
That breaks the order
of atomic weights,
362
00:18:49,062 --> 00:18:51,929
but it preserves the
family resemblances,
363
00:18:51,998 --> 00:18:53,598
which are more important
than just the increase
364
00:18:53,666 --> 00:18:54,599
of atomic weights.
365
00:18:55,935 --> 00:18:57,902
EMERSON:
With that principle established,
366
00:18:57,971 --> 00:19:00,905
Mendeleev hurried
toward the end.
367
00:19:00,974 --> 00:19:03,508
GORDIN:
And the more he worked on it,
the better it looked.
368
00:19:13,553 --> 00:19:17,788
EMERSON:
Finally, that evening,
Mendeleev completed his table.
369
00:19:22,262 --> 00:19:25,796
Before leaving the next day,
he ordered 200 copies printed
370
00:19:25,865 --> 00:19:30,234
and sent to
leading European chemists.
371
00:19:30,303 --> 00:19:32,270
By the time he left
for the cheese factory,
372
00:19:32,338 --> 00:19:36,841
Mendeleev knew that he was onto
something extremely important.
373
00:19:36,910 --> 00:19:39,310
I think he realized that day
that he had cracked it.
374
00:19:41,181 --> 00:19:45,716
EMERSON:
With a few modifications,
soon made by Mendeleev himself,
375
00:19:45,785 --> 00:19:48,753
his 1869 draft
is easily recognized
376
00:19:48,821 --> 00:19:51,556
as the periodic table
of the elements--
377
00:19:51,624 --> 00:19:55,359
incomplete but unmistakable.
378
00:19:55,428 --> 00:19:58,563
In his published table,
Mendeleev left blanks
379
00:19:58,631 --> 00:20:00,731
for some of the elements
he thought were missing.
380
00:20:00,800 --> 00:20:03,267
ROCKE:
Not only did he
leave a blank space,
381
00:20:03,336 --> 00:20:05,203
but he suggested
an approximate atomic weight
382
00:20:05,271 --> 00:20:07,638
for that future element.
383
00:20:07,707 --> 00:20:09,640
And the fact that Mendeleev
on that first weekend
384
00:20:09,709 --> 00:20:12,276
is already thinking this way,
that's a sign
385
00:20:12,345 --> 00:20:15,413
that he believed that there's
something deeper going on here.
386
00:20:15,481 --> 00:20:18,783
EMERSON:
Mendeleev believed his table was
more than a convenient way
387
00:20:18,851 --> 00:20:21,152
to arrange the elements.
388
00:20:21,221 --> 00:20:25,323
He was convinced he had
discovered a law of nature:
389
00:20:25,391 --> 00:20:27,758
that the properties of
the elements are determined
390
00:20:27,827 --> 00:20:31,862
by their atomic weights
and vary in a regular,
391
00:20:31,931 --> 00:20:34,498
periodic way, across the table.
392
00:20:34,567 --> 00:20:36,234
PETSKO:
It's periodic
because the properties
393
00:20:36,302 --> 00:20:39,203
of the elements repeat
in a regular fashion.
394
00:20:39,272 --> 00:20:41,739
When you wrap around
from one row to the next
395
00:20:41,808 --> 00:20:44,175
and come back to where you were,
the elements that are
396
00:20:44,244 --> 00:20:47,812
in the same column
have similar properties.
397
00:20:47,880 --> 00:20:50,214
He had an almost mystical
feeling
398
00:20:50,283 --> 00:20:52,383
that this was there in nature
399
00:20:52,452 --> 00:20:56,954
and not so much a human
invention as a discovery.
400
00:20:57,023 --> 00:21:00,858
EMERSON:
Given the remarkable
regularity of his table,
401
00:21:00,927 --> 00:21:02,326
Mendeleev couldn't
believe nature
402
00:21:02,395 --> 00:21:06,430
would have just left
some spaces empty.
403
00:21:06,499 --> 00:21:09,867
Laws of nature
do not permit exceptions.
404
00:21:09,936 --> 00:21:13,704
There must be an element which
we have not yet discovered.
405
00:21:13,773 --> 00:21:15,172
Go look for that element.
406
00:21:15,241 --> 00:21:21,145
And he was bold enough not only
to say an element is missing
407
00:21:21,214 --> 00:21:22,380
but to predict.
408
00:21:22,448 --> 00:21:25,483
The periodic law allows
us not only to predict
409
00:21:25,551 --> 00:21:28,119
what new elements will be found,
but also to determine
410
00:21:28,187 --> 00:21:32,923
in advance their chemical
and physical properties.
411
00:21:32,992 --> 00:21:38,229
EMERSON:
In 1871, Mendeleev published an
article making predictions
412
00:21:38,298 --> 00:21:40,698
about three of
the missing elements
413
00:21:40,767 --> 00:21:45,269
based on the properties of their
neighbors in the table.
414
00:21:45,338 --> 00:21:48,039
Chemists really weren't used to
making predictions of any kind,
415
00:21:48,107 --> 00:21:50,941
let alone ones to this
degree of specificity.
416
00:21:51,010 --> 00:21:55,012
They are remarkably precise
and quite daring
417
00:21:55,081 --> 00:21:56,213
for Mendeleev to print them.
418
00:21:57,784 --> 00:21:59,850
EMERSON:
Four years later,
a French chemist
419
00:21:59,919 --> 00:22:03,487
found a new metal so soft
it melted in his hand.
420
00:22:03,556 --> 00:22:05,723
He called it gallium.
421
00:22:05,792 --> 00:22:09,226
It seemed to be a good fit for
the empty spot below aluminum,
422
00:22:09,295 --> 00:22:11,862
but the density didn't match
Mendeleev's prediction.
423
00:22:14,434 --> 00:22:15,766
He wrote the
Frenchman suggesting
424
00:22:15,835 --> 00:22:18,469
that he check his data.
425
00:22:18,538 --> 00:22:19,970
SCERRI:
So you can just
imagine this Frenchman
426
00:22:20,039 --> 00:22:22,606
who actually has the element
in his hands hearing
427
00:22:22,675 --> 00:22:27,211
from this Siberian who has
never seen the element,
428
00:22:27,280 --> 00:22:30,581
daring to say to him
that he's made a mistake.
429
00:22:30,650 --> 00:22:32,550
But sure enough, when the
French scientist rechecked
430
00:22:32,618 --> 00:22:34,719
his measurements,
Mendeleev was correct.
431
00:22:37,390 --> 00:22:40,658
So not only had Mendeleev
predicted the element,
432
00:22:40,727 --> 00:22:42,793
but he knew the properties
of the element better
433
00:22:42,862 --> 00:22:44,962
than the discoverer
of the element knew them.
434
00:22:45,031 --> 00:22:47,798
Within 15 years all three
of the detailed predictions
435
00:22:47,867 --> 00:22:50,601
are discovered and that
catapults Mendeleev
436
00:22:50,670 --> 00:22:53,170
to chemical superstardom.
437
00:22:53,239 --> 00:22:55,673
I never thought I would live
to see my ideas verified.
438
00:22:57,543 --> 00:22:58,542
I was wrong.
439
00:23:00,680 --> 00:23:04,382
EMERSON:
But in 1894, two British
scientists made a discovery
440
00:23:04,450 --> 00:23:06,217
that threatened
to bring Mendeleev's
441
00:23:06,285 --> 00:23:10,154
carefully crafted
edifice crashing down.
442
00:23:10,223 --> 00:23:12,757
They found a new gas
they called argon
443
00:23:12,825 --> 00:23:15,693
that didn't seem
to fit into the table.
444
00:23:15,762 --> 00:23:19,096
When Lord Rayleigh and William
Ramsay discovered argon,
445
00:23:19,165 --> 00:23:21,799
it looked like a problem,
a very serious challenge
446
00:23:21,868 --> 00:23:24,702
to the periodic table itself.
447
00:23:24,771 --> 00:23:26,637
Mendeleev's first reaction
to almost anything
448
00:23:26,706 --> 00:23:29,807
that was contradictory
to the system was to be
449
00:23:29,876 --> 00:23:32,209
hostile to it and suspicious.
450
00:23:32,278 --> 00:23:35,312
And Mendeleev therefore
decides it's not an element.
451
00:23:35,381 --> 00:23:37,014
There are lots of reasons
to think that.
452
00:23:37,083 --> 00:23:39,850
First, it doesn't react
with anything.
453
00:23:39,919 --> 00:23:41,218
PETSKO:
Chemists couldn't get it
to do anything.
454
00:23:41,287 --> 00:23:42,920
It was inert.
455
00:23:42,989 --> 00:23:44,488
It behaved like no other gas
456
00:23:44,557 --> 00:23:46,590
that anybody had
ever encountered.
457
00:23:46,659 --> 00:23:48,826
GORDIN:
And secondly, it has
no place on the table,
458
00:23:48,895 --> 00:23:50,461
so how can it exist?
459
00:23:50,530 --> 00:23:51,996
Matters got worse
when Ramsay announced
460
00:23:52,064 --> 00:23:55,065
he'd also isolated
helium 30 years
461
00:23:55,134 --> 00:23:57,668
after it was first
detected in the sun.
462
00:23:57,737 --> 00:23:59,837
It was definitely an element,
463
00:23:59,906 --> 00:24:01,806
and it too had no
place in the table.
464
00:24:04,811 --> 00:24:06,410
And then just
three years after that,
465
00:24:06,479 --> 00:24:10,114
William Ramsay's research group
discovered three new rare gases,
466
00:24:10,183 --> 00:24:13,517
krypton, xenon and neon.
467
00:24:13,586 --> 00:24:15,786
GORDIN:
They display the same
kind of properties.
468
00:24:15,855 --> 00:24:17,788
They are all inert gases.
469
00:24:17,857 --> 00:24:20,758
And they display the same
increase of atomic weights
470
00:24:20,827 --> 00:24:22,760
as the other
natural families do.
471
00:24:22,829 --> 00:24:25,262
And that changed
the situation dramatically.
472
00:24:25,331 --> 00:24:28,632
What began as a single
anomaly, a single puzzle,
473
00:24:28,701 --> 00:24:31,135
now looked like
a group of elements.
474
00:24:31,204 --> 00:24:36,640
MENDELEEV:
Now we can see that helium,
neon, argon, krypton and xenon
475
00:24:36,709 --> 00:24:39,844
are as closely united
as any other group.
476
00:24:39,912 --> 00:24:42,379
And so Mendeleev makes
the single biggest revision
477
00:24:42,448 --> 00:24:43,848
to the system he ever did.
478
00:24:43,916 --> 00:24:45,783
He puts in a new column.
479
00:24:45,852 --> 00:24:48,986
And that is the family
of noble gases.
480
00:24:49,055 --> 00:24:51,922
MENDELEEV:
My periodic system
is in no way injured
481
00:24:51,991 --> 00:24:53,290
by these discoveries.
482
00:24:53,359 --> 00:24:56,026
In fact, they
confirm and strengthen it.
483
00:24:56,095 --> 00:24:57,261
It turned out
to be a vindication
484
00:24:57,330 --> 00:24:58,729
of the periodic system.
485
00:24:58,798 --> 00:25:03,234
And, if anything, made it even
more profound a discovery.
486
00:25:03,302 --> 00:25:06,070
EMERSON:
Mendeleev's table
had finally brought order
487
00:25:06,138 --> 00:25:09,173
to chemistry's unruly garden.
488
00:25:09,242 --> 00:25:13,577
ROCKE:
After Mendeleev, one could see
that each element had a place.
489
00:25:13,646 --> 00:25:16,514
It was a grand
design that worked.
490
00:25:16,582 --> 00:25:20,584
Chemistry wasn't just
one thing after another,
491
00:25:20,653 --> 00:25:22,353
random substances we've
dug up from the earth.
492
00:25:22,421 --> 00:25:27,057
They are interlinked in a
complicated and rich way.
493
00:25:27,126 --> 00:25:31,395
MENDELEEV:
We are at the dawn of a new era
in chemical science,
494
00:25:31,464 --> 00:25:35,332
approaching a new understanding
of the still-mysterious nature
495
00:25:35,401 --> 00:25:37,201
of the elements.
496
00:25:39,672 --> 00:25:42,540
As the 19th century
drew to a close,
497
00:25:42,608 --> 00:25:45,809
the periodic table's ability to
corral the elements contributed
498
00:25:45,878 --> 00:25:47,878
to a growing sense that the work
499
00:25:47,947 --> 00:25:50,981
of science was
just about complete.
500
00:25:51,050 --> 00:25:53,484
Most of nature's building
blocks had been found,
501
00:25:53,553 --> 00:25:55,352
measured and cataloged.
502
00:25:55,421 --> 00:25:57,121
Chemists agreed these
elements had been,
503
00:25:57,189 --> 00:26:01,859
and always would be, the same--
forever fixed, unchanging.
504
00:26:01,928 --> 00:26:06,497
All that remained was to fill
in the few remaining blanks.
505
00:26:06,566 --> 00:26:08,465
Or so it seemed.
506
00:26:08,534 --> 00:26:12,069
In fact, this smug sense
of satisfaction was about
507
00:26:12,138 --> 00:26:17,675
to be shattered by something and
someone completely unexpected.
508
00:26:17,743 --> 00:26:22,546
She was the unlikeliest
of revolutionaries,
509
00:26:22,615 --> 00:26:26,450
a graduate student--
a woman-- from Poland
510
00:26:26,519 --> 00:26:28,752
who had left her homeland
to pursue her passion
511
00:26:28,821 --> 00:26:30,287
for science in Paris.
512
00:26:32,658 --> 00:26:34,858
Yet in four short years,
her discoveries
513
00:26:34,927 --> 00:26:36,827
would transform
our understanding
514
00:26:36,896 --> 00:26:39,797
of matter and make her one
of the most famous women
515
00:26:39,865 --> 00:26:41,265
in the world.
516
00:26:41,334 --> 00:26:45,436
She worked on something
that was relatively obscure
517
00:26:45,504 --> 00:26:48,072
and turned it into
a blockbuster.
518
00:26:48,140 --> 00:26:52,076
New elements, new properties
and a whole new way
519
00:26:52,144 --> 00:26:53,410
to look at the world.
520
00:26:54,647 --> 00:26:57,114
EMERSON:
The world would know
her as Marie Curie,
521
00:26:57,183 --> 00:27:00,551
but she was
born Maria Sklodowska,
522
00:27:00,620 --> 00:27:03,120
into a family
of Polish patriots,
523
00:27:03,189 --> 00:27:05,322
at a time when Warsaw
was under Russian rule.
524
00:27:07,893 --> 00:27:11,695
Poland had been literally
wiped off the map,
525
00:27:11,764 --> 00:27:13,864
its residents forbidden
to speak their own language
526
00:27:13,933 --> 00:27:16,333
or teach their own history.
527
00:27:16,402 --> 00:27:19,970
But Maria's family
secretly defied the czar,
528
00:27:20,039 --> 00:27:23,107
speaking Polish at home and
reciting patriotic poetry
529
00:27:23,175 --> 00:27:26,543
to preserve
their Polish heritage.
530
00:27:26,612 --> 00:27:28,812
QUINN:
She used to go by
an obelisk erected in honor
531
00:27:28,881 --> 00:27:30,848
of the Russian people
532
00:27:30,916 --> 00:27:33,684
and spit on the obelisk
on the way to school.
533
00:27:33,753 --> 00:27:36,353
So you can see
Maria learned early
534
00:27:36,422 --> 00:27:37,755
to be a fighter and resister.
535
00:27:39,492 --> 00:27:42,326
EMERSON:
The daughter of two teachers,
Maria excelled
536
00:27:42,395 --> 00:27:44,628
in science and math.
537
00:27:44,697 --> 00:27:47,564
But in Russian-ruled Poland,
women were not allowed
538
00:27:47,633 --> 00:27:51,869
to attend university
let alone become scientists.
539
00:27:51,937 --> 00:27:55,239
Very, very few places in Europe
or elsewhere had opportunities
540
00:27:55,307 --> 00:27:57,875
for young women
to study science.
541
00:27:57,943 --> 00:28:00,778
So one of the few places she
could was, in fact, in Paris.
542
00:28:00,846 --> 00:28:04,915
EMERSON:
But because her family
was too poor to send her,
543
00:28:04,984 --> 00:28:07,618
Maria would first have
to work for six long years
544
00:28:07,687 --> 00:28:11,689
as a governess to support
her older sister's studies.
545
00:28:11,757 --> 00:28:16,627
Only at age 24 did
she finally get her chance.
546
00:28:16,696 --> 00:28:19,263
QUINN:
She waited her turn
and she didn't give up.
547
00:28:19,331 --> 00:28:20,864
And when the turn
came she took it.
548
00:28:26,338 --> 00:28:29,707
CURIE:
I was lost in the great city.
549
00:28:29,775 --> 00:28:33,143
But the feeling
of living there alone,
550
00:28:33,212 --> 00:28:35,345
taking care of myself
without any help,
551
00:28:35,414 --> 00:28:38,348
didn't depress me at all.
552
00:28:38,417 --> 00:28:41,785
I had been waiting for this
opportunity for a long time.
553
00:28:43,522 --> 00:28:47,891
EMERSON:
Paris in the 1890s was like
no other place on earth--
554
00:28:47,960 --> 00:28:49,693
a living showcase
for the wonders
555
00:28:49,762 --> 00:28:52,262
of science and technology.
556
00:28:52,331 --> 00:28:53,731
The city boasted
such modern marvels
557
00:28:53,799 --> 00:28:56,934
as electric streetcars
and telephone exchanges.
558
00:28:57,002 --> 00:28:59,770
At the laboratories
of Louis Pasteur,
559
00:28:59,839 --> 00:29:01,939
scientists were
conquering diseases
560
00:29:02,007 --> 00:29:04,274
that had plagued humanity
for centuries.
561
00:29:04,343 --> 00:29:07,111
The Lumière brothers
were thrilling crowds
562
00:29:07,179 --> 00:29:11,014
with their new invention:
pictures that actually moved.
563
00:29:11,083 --> 00:29:15,486
And rising above it all was the
brand new Eiffel Tower,
564
00:29:15,554 --> 00:29:17,621
which would remain the
world's tallest structure
565
00:29:17,690 --> 00:29:20,057
for nearly half a century.
566
00:29:20,126 --> 00:29:22,059
Here was Paris, the kind
of intellectual, artistic,
567
00:29:22,128 --> 00:29:24,294
technological capital
of the universe.
568
00:29:24,363 --> 00:29:26,663
This was where
the modern age was born.
569
00:29:28,768 --> 00:29:31,034
QUINN:
She felt this precious
sense of liberty.
570
00:29:31,103 --> 00:29:32,870
She could say
whatever she wanted,
571
00:29:32,938 --> 00:29:34,037
go wherever she wanted.
572
00:29:34,106 --> 00:29:36,206
And she took it all
in and loved it.
573
00:29:37,777 --> 00:29:43,147
Everything I saw and learned
was a new delight to me.
574
00:29:43,215 --> 00:29:45,315
I had only one regret.
575
00:29:45,384 --> 00:29:48,252
The days were too short
and went by too quickly.
576
00:29:49,989 --> 00:29:53,490
EMERSON:
Adopting the French form
of her name, Marie,
577
00:29:53,559 --> 00:29:55,993
she enrolled at Paris'
pre-eminent university,
578
00:29:56,061 --> 00:29:57,928
the Sorbonne,
where she could study
579
00:29:57,997 --> 00:30:01,665
under the leading lights
of French science.
580
00:30:01,734 --> 00:30:03,734
One of them was
Gabriel Lippmann,
581
00:30:03,803 --> 00:30:06,170
a future Nobel Prize winner.
582
00:30:06,238 --> 00:30:07,671
QUINN:
Another was Henri Poincare,
583
00:30:07,740 --> 00:30:09,206
who was one of the leading
mathematicians
584
00:30:09,275 --> 00:30:10,974
of the 19th century.
585
00:30:11,043 --> 00:30:13,177
One of her math instructors
was a mountain climber.
586
00:30:13,245 --> 00:30:14,912
Another was an aviator.
587
00:30:14,980 --> 00:30:16,647
These were exciting people,
588
00:30:16,715 --> 00:30:19,016
scientists who had
exciting lives.
589
00:30:19,084 --> 00:30:21,752
CURIE:
It was like a new
world open to me,
590
00:30:21,821 --> 00:30:25,389
the world of science which
I was at last permitted
591
00:30:25,457 --> 00:30:27,491
to know in all liberty.
592
00:30:29,895 --> 00:30:33,130
EMERSON:
Marie graduated first in her
class in physics and,
593
00:30:33,199 --> 00:30:35,599
with Professor Lippmann's help,
received a grant
594
00:30:35,668 --> 00:30:38,535
to do research on magnetism.
595
00:30:38,604 --> 00:30:41,438
A friend suggested she seek
out a French physicist
596
00:30:41,507 --> 00:30:42,806
who had studied the subject
597
00:30:42,875 --> 00:30:45,742
and might have some
lab space for her.
598
00:30:45,811 --> 00:30:47,311
The meeting would
change her life.
599
00:30:49,915 --> 00:30:52,216
CURIE:
Pierre Curie seemed
to me very young,
600
00:30:52,284 --> 00:30:54,852
though he was 35 at the time.
601
00:30:54,920 --> 00:30:58,622
I think it was pretty much
electric from the beginning.
602
00:30:58,691 --> 00:31:01,792
With all my heart I thank you
for your photograph.
603
00:31:01,861 --> 00:31:04,628
I showed it to my brother
Jacques-- was I wrong?
604
00:31:04,697 --> 00:31:07,497
He finds you very fine
but he also said,
605
00:31:07,566 --> 00:31:12,436
"She has a very decisive look,
maybe even stubborn."
606
00:31:12,504 --> 00:31:15,706
EMERSON:
Pierre Curie was
a first-rate researcher,
607
00:31:15,774 --> 00:31:17,841
but he had never bothered
to complete his dissertation
608
00:31:17,910 --> 00:31:21,879
and was content teaching
at an industrial college.
609
00:31:21,947 --> 00:31:23,714
He was diffident,
modest, and shy.
610
00:31:23,782 --> 00:31:25,883
He was very much an outsider.
611
00:31:25,951 --> 00:31:28,452
He had been homeschooled by his
politically radical father
612
00:31:28,520 --> 00:31:30,420
along with his brother Jacques.
613
00:31:30,489 --> 00:31:33,991
CURIE:
In a family photograph you
see him with his brother.
614
00:31:34,059 --> 00:31:36,660
His head is resting on his hand.
615
00:31:36,729 --> 00:31:40,731
It's a pose of dreaming,
as if he is looking
616
00:31:40,799 --> 00:31:44,401
at some inner vision.
617
00:31:44,470 --> 00:31:46,703
EMERSON:
Pierre was a man of ideas,
not action.
618
00:31:46,772 --> 00:31:49,973
But he was galvanized
by this young woman
619
00:31:50,042 --> 00:31:54,077
and pursued her as he had
nothing else in his life.
620
00:31:54,146 --> 00:31:56,346
PIERRE CURIE:
It would be a beautiful thing
621
00:31:56,415 --> 00:31:58,949
if we could spend our lives
near each other,
622
00:31:59,018 --> 00:32:03,020
true to our dreams, in science,
where every discovery,
623
00:32:03,088 --> 00:32:05,255
no matter how small, lives on.
624
00:32:06,926 --> 00:32:10,193
EMERSON:
Pierre's proposal posed
a dilemma for Marie.
625
00:32:10,262 --> 00:32:12,896
She had planned to get a
first-rate scientific education
626
00:32:12,965 --> 00:32:15,365
in Paris and then return
to her beloved Poland
627
00:32:15,434 --> 00:32:19,703
to teach and care
for her aging father.
628
00:32:19,772 --> 00:32:22,572
QUINN:
Her mother had died
of TB early on
629
00:32:22,641 --> 00:32:24,741
and he was counting
on Marie coming back.
630
00:32:24,810 --> 00:32:29,479
EMERSON:
Now this ardent young man was
offering her an exciting life
631
00:32:29,548 --> 00:32:32,149
as a working scientist.
632
00:32:32,217 --> 00:32:36,019
It was a decision that would
mean abandoning my family
633
00:32:36,088 --> 00:32:38,188
and my country.
634
00:32:38,257 --> 00:32:41,325
Marie had all those feelings of
responsibility for her father,
635
00:32:41,393 --> 00:32:44,027
for her family, and then
for Poland on top of that.
636
00:32:45,531 --> 00:32:47,998
EMERSON:
In the end,
their mutual devotion
637
00:32:48,067 --> 00:32:52,302
to each other and to science
overcame Marie's resistance.
638
00:32:52,371 --> 00:32:56,440
QUINN:
She wrote one of her friends:
"Fate has brought us together,
639
00:32:56,508 --> 00:32:58,709
and we simply can't bear
to be apart."
640
00:32:58,777 --> 00:33:02,112
EMERSON: The newlyweds left
on a cycling honeymoon
641
00:33:02,181 --> 00:33:05,382
after a simple ceremony in 1895.
642
00:33:05,451 --> 00:33:09,720
By 1897, even with
a toddler to care for,
643
00:33:09,788 --> 00:33:11,321
Marie had set
her sights on getting
644
00:33:11,390 --> 00:33:14,992
what no other woman had
ever received in France:
645
00:33:15,060 --> 00:33:16,326
a doctorate in physics.
646
00:33:20,833 --> 00:33:23,600
At the time, the world
was abuzz with excitement
647
00:33:23,669 --> 00:33:25,969
over a new discovery:
648
00:33:26,038 --> 00:33:28,472
mysterious rays
that had the power
649
00:33:28,540 --> 00:33:31,408
to see through solid objects.
650
00:33:31,477 --> 00:33:34,144
You could, by this
process, look at the bones
651
00:33:34,213 --> 00:33:35,879
inside of your living hand.
652
00:33:35,948 --> 00:33:37,881
It's as if you had a
magical set of glasses
653
00:33:37,950 --> 00:33:41,351
that lets you see
inside of living creatures.
654
00:33:41,420 --> 00:33:45,188
And that sparks
the public imagination.
655
00:33:45,257 --> 00:33:47,424
EMERSON:
Doctors instantly
recognized X-rays
656
00:33:47,493 --> 00:33:50,961
as an invaluable
diagnostic tool.
657
00:33:51,030 --> 00:33:52,329
KAISER:
There was a great
rush of excitement
658
00:33:52,398 --> 00:33:53,897
from working scientists
as well.
659
00:33:53,966 --> 00:33:55,932
In that first year,
660
00:33:56,001 --> 00:33:57,334
there were about 1,000
scientific articles published,
661
00:33:57,403 --> 00:33:59,002
at a time when the entire
physics community
662
00:33:59,071 --> 00:34:01,405
in the world was only
about a thousand members.
663
00:34:01,473 --> 00:34:04,141
EMERSON:
But with so many others
doing research on X-rays,
664
00:34:04,209 --> 00:34:07,677
Marie felt it would be hard to
make an original contribution.
665
00:34:09,982 --> 00:34:11,782
And so she picked something that
she could work on
666
00:34:11,850 --> 00:34:14,217
where there was
less competition.
667
00:34:14,286 --> 00:34:16,319
In fact, no competition.
668
00:34:16,388 --> 00:34:21,324
EMERSON:
Just a year earlier, a French
physicist named Henri Becquerel
669
00:34:21,393 --> 00:34:24,528
had discovered a different kind
of ray given off
670
00:34:24,596 --> 00:34:26,229
by the element uranium.
671
00:34:26,298 --> 00:34:29,132
These "uranic rays"
were powerful enough
672
00:34:29,201 --> 00:34:32,402
to penetrate thick black paper
and create an image
673
00:34:32,471 --> 00:34:35,138
on a photographic plate.
674
00:34:35,207 --> 00:34:37,174
But the images were
not nearly as striking
675
00:34:37,242 --> 00:34:39,543
as those created by X-rays,
and they seemed
676
00:34:39,611 --> 00:34:42,345
to have no practical value.
677
00:34:42,414 --> 00:34:47,084
So after writing a few papers
about this scientific curiosity,
678
00:34:47,152 --> 00:34:48,885
Becquerel dropped the subject,
679
00:34:48,954 --> 00:34:53,090
thinking it had
been squeezed dry.
680
00:34:53,158 --> 00:34:55,125
Marie just thought that this was
a tremendous thing to work on,
681
00:34:55,194 --> 00:34:56,593
particularly
as a graduate student.
682
00:34:56,662 --> 00:35:00,730
The subject was attractive to me
because it was entirely new.
683
00:35:00,799 --> 00:35:02,999
Little had been
written about it.
684
00:35:03,068 --> 00:35:05,902
There was another reason
Becquerel's uranic rays appealed
685
00:35:05,971 --> 00:35:07,404
to Marie.
686
00:35:07,473 --> 00:35:12,442
She had spotted a clue that
might reveal more about them.
687
00:35:12,511 --> 00:35:17,514
As you can see, air is normally
a poor conductor of electricity.
688
00:35:17,583 --> 00:35:21,284
The current can't jump this gap,
so the bulb doesn't light.
689
00:35:21,353 --> 00:35:23,687
But Becquerel had
noticed his uranic rays
690
00:35:23,755 --> 00:35:26,823
had the mysterious power
to charge the air around them,
691
00:35:26,892 --> 00:35:29,860
allowing electricity
to leak across.
692
00:35:29,928 --> 00:35:32,596
The amount of electricity
was incredibly small,
693
00:35:32,664 --> 00:35:34,331
about a trillionth
the amount needed
694
00:35:34,399 --> 00:35:36,199
to light this little bulb.
695
00:35:36,268 --> 00:35:38,635
No meter of the
day could measure it.
696
00:35:38,704 --> 00:35:42,906
But Marie had a secret
weapon Becquerel didn't.
697
00:35:42,975 --> 00:35:46,510
Right in Marie's own household
was perhaps the world expert
698
00:35:46,578 --> 00:35:48,845
in how to measure tiny
little electrical effects.
699
00:35:48,914 --> 00:35:50,914
The two of them,
Pierre and Marie Curie,
700
00:35:50,983 --> 00:35:53,650
designed this really quite
ingenious instrument
701
00:35:53,719 --> 00:35:55,051
to measure these very subtle
electrical effects
702
00:35:55,120 --> 00:35:56,119
from her samples.
703
00:35:59,658 --> 00:36:02,692
EMERSON:
They placed a layer
of uranium on a metal plate,
704
00:36:02,761 --> 00:36:05,896
then charged the plate
with a battery.
705
00:36:05,964 --> 00:36:09,299
As expected, electricity
leaked across the gap
706
00:36:09,368 --> 00:36:11,535
to the plate above.
707
00:36:11,603 --> 00:36:13,436
To measure this tiny current,
708
00:36:13,505 --> 00:36:15,505
the Curies would use
this second device
709
00:36:15,574 --> 00:36:17,774
to create a matching amount
of electricity.
710
00:36:20,012 --> 00:36:22,312
Inside was a special crystal
711
00:36:22,381 --> 00:36:25,215
that could generate its
own tiny charge thanks
712
00:36:25,284 --> 00:36:28,852
to a phenomenon called
piezoelectricity.
713
00:36:28,921 --> 00:36:31,021
More than 20 years earlier,
714
00:36:31,089 --> 00:36:32,923
Pierre and his brother
Jacques had discovered
715
00:36:32,991 --> 00:36:35,158
that certain crystals
give out electricity
716
00:36:35,227 --> 00:36:36,660
in response to pressure.
717
00:36:38,597 --> 00:36:40,330
The amount of electricity
generated when you squeeze
718
00:36:40,399 --> 00:36:42,499
or stretch that
crystal depends precisely
719
00:36:42,568 --> 00:36:45,068
on how hard you press
on that crystal.
720
00:36:45,137 --> 00:36:46,236
And that means you have a way
721
00:36:46,305 --> 00:36:48,772
to make a very,
very sensitive measurement
722
00:36:48,840 --> 00:36:50,974
of minute little
electrical currents.
723
00:36:52,945 --> 00:36:55,779
EMERSON:
By placing a weight
on the pan below,
724
00:36:55,847 --> 00:36:57,948
Marie stretched the
piezoelectric crystal
725
00:36:58,016 --> 00:37:00,550
inside the device.
726
00:37:00,619 --> 00:37:03,019
Then, by slowly
relieving the tension--
727
00:37:03,088 --> 00:37:05,021
unstretching the crystal--
728
00:37:05,090 --> 00:37:08,725
she could generate a charge
exactly offsetting the one
729
00:37:08,794 --> 00:37:10,493
coming from her uranium sample.
730
00:37:15,667 --> 00:37:18,235
She could tell the
two charges were equal
731
00:37:18,303 --> 00:37:21,071
when the spot of light
from this third instrument was
732
00:37:21,139 --> 00:37:23,340
at zero on the scale.
733
00:37:23,408 --> 00:37:24,874
KAISER:
Though it didn't
look very pretty,
734
00:37:24,943 --> 00:37:26,776
this sort of pulled together
little contraption
735
00:37:26,845 --> 00:37:29,846
was exquisitely accurate
and could allow them
736
00:37:29,915 --> 00:37:31,615
to make measurements like
no one else in the world.
737
00:37:33,285 --> 00:37:36,253
EMERSON:
But using these instruments
required extraordinary
738
00:37:36,321 --> 00:37:38,955
concentration and dexterity.
739
00:37:39,024 --> 00:37:42,759
Ever so gradually,
Marie relieved the tension
740
00:37:42,828 --> 00:37:47,264
on the crystal while carefully
watching the spot of light
741
00:37:47,332 --> 00:37:49,833
to keep the two
charges in balance
742
00:37:49,901 --> 00:37:52,435
and timing how long it
took to lift the weight
743
00:37:52,504 --> 00:37:54,604
entirely off the pan.
744
00:37:56,241 --> 00:37:58,808
The faster she had
to remove the weight,
745
00:37:58,877 --> 00:38:01,645
the stronger the activity
of her test sample.
746
00:38:01,713 --> 00:38:03,413
And that's why,
when you see pictures
747
00:38:03,482 --> 00:38:04,948
of Marie Curie
in this experiment,
748
00:38:05,017 --> 00:38:07,350
she's sitting there
with a stopwatch.
749
00:38:15,327 --> 00:38:17,427
Termina.
750
00:38:17,496 --> 00:38:19,629
Ma petite étudiante.
751
00:38:19,698 --> 00:38:21,231
C'est très bien.
752
00:38:22,934 --> 00:38:25,902
CURIE:
I never dreamt that I was
about to embark on a new science
753
00:38:25,971 --> 00:38:30,307
that Pierre and I would follow
for the rest of our days.
754
00:38:35,314 --> 00:38:39,649
Day after day, working in
a cramped, unheated storeroom,
755
00:38:39,718 --> 00:38:42,118
Marie painstakingly carried
out her measurements.
756
00:38:44,156 --> 00:38:45,789
She compiled data on uranium,
757
00:38:45,857 --> 00:38:48,725
then went to test
the other known elements
758
00:38:48,794 --> 00:38:51,895
to see if any of them
could also electrify the air.
759
00:38:51,963 --> 00:38:54,698
She was not expecting
to make any sort
760
00:38:54,766 --> 00:38:56,733
of earth-shattering discoveries.
761
00:38:56,802 --> 00:38:58,201
QUINN:
She thought she would do
762
00:38:58,270 --> 00:38:59,769
some sort of diligent work
763
00:38:59,838 --> 00:39:03,573
on a whole lot of elements, and
she would measure their power.
764
00:39:03,642 --> 00:39:05,075
KAISER:
It's exactly what you'd expect
765
00:39:05,143 --> 00:39:07,844
for a perfectly legitimate
PhD dissertation.
766
00:39:07,913 --> 00:39:11,514
EMERSON:
And for a while, the results
were predictably dull.
767
00:39:11,583 --> 00:39:15,518
No other elements showed
this strange property.
768
00:39:15,587 --> 00:39:18,788
QUINN:
Things were going
along pretty routinely
769
00:39:18,857 --> 00:39:20,924
until one day
in February of 1898.
770
00:39:20,992 --> 00:39:22,859
And that was the day
that everything changed.
771
00:39:22,928 --> 00:39:24,160
CURIE:
Pierre?
772
00:39:26,565 --> 00:39:29,199
EMERSON:
In the course of a single week,
773
00:39:29,267 --> 00:39:32,936
Marie made two startling
discoveries.
774
00:39:33,004 --> 00:39:35,372
She found that
the element thorium
775
00:39:35,440 --> 00:39:38,575
could also make air
a better conductor.
776
00:39:38,643 --> 00:39:41,378
KAISER:
That was the first
real solid indication
777
00:39:41,446 --> 00:39:43,380
that this was
not unique to uranium.
778
00:39:43,448 --> 00:39:44,714
This might be
a property of matter,
779
00:39:44,783 --> 00:39:46,983
not a curiosity of one
particular element.
780
00:39:47,052 --> 00:39:49,552
It was necessary
to find a new term
781
00:39:49,621 --> 00:39:53,256
to define this new property
of matter.
782
00:39:53,325 --> 00:39:56,192
I proposed the word
"radioactivity."
783
00:39:56,261 --> 00:40:00,897
EMERSON: The next surprise came
when Marie tested pitchblende--
784
00:40:00,966 --> 00:40:03,133
the raw ore from
which uranium is taken.
785
00:40:03,201 --> 00:40:04,234
Something was very wrong.
786
00:40:04,302 --> 00:40:07,871
(speaking French)
787
00:40:07,939 --> 00:40:10,407
EMERSON:
Pitchblende seemed be four times
788
00:40:10,475 --> 00:40:13,443
as radioactive
as uranium itself.
789
00:40:13,512 --> 00:40:15,178
When I find a result like that,
790
00:40:15,247 --> 00:40:18,114
as a scientist,
my first reaction is,
791
00:40:18,183 --> 00:40:20,917
"I made a mistake" or
"The machine isn't working."
792
00:40:20,986 --> 00:40:24,220
KAISER:
She did what every good
scientist should do,
793
00:40:24,289 --> 00:40:27,023
which was doubt it,
be extremely skeptical,
794
00:40:27,092 --> 00:40:29,692
and check every last
step of that chain.
795
00:40:29,761 --> 00:40:32,061
EVE CURIE:
So my mother made her
measurements over again.
796
00:40:32,130 --> 00:40:35,198
Ten times, 20 times,
until she was forced
797
00:40:35,267 --> 00:40:36,499
to accept the results.
798
00:40:46,111 --> 00:40:49,646
EMERSON:
In time, the Curies
realized this was no mistake.
799
00:40:49,714 --> 00:40:53,650
The readings
from pitchblende were real.
800
00:40:53,718 --> 00:40:55,118
RAMIREZ:
A light bulb went
off and they said,
801
00:40:55,187 --> 00:40:57,220
"Well, maybe there is
something else in there."
802
00:40:57,289 --> 00:41:01,724
Very soon they began to suspect
that there was another element
803
00:41:01,793 --> 00:41:03,460
in pitchblende
which was producing
804
00:41:03,528 --> 00:41:05,428
this enormous radioactivity.
805
00:41:05,497 --> 00:41:06,796
KAISER:
There must be some
new thing under the sun,
806
00:41:06,865 --> 00:41:09,632
some new element that
had never been seen before.
807
00:41:09,701 --> 00:41:13,102
And it must
be intensely radioactive,
808
00:41:13,171 --> 00:41:15,438
since it was present
in amounts so small
809
00:41:15,507 --> 00:41:17,207
that no one had
ever detected it.
810
00:41:18,877 --> 00:41:21,311
EMERSON:
Since neither Marie
nor Pierre was a member
811
00:41:21,379 --> 00:41:24,981
of the Academy of Sciences,
they asked Marie's mentor,
812
00:41:25,050 --> 00:41:28,985
Gabriel Lippmann, to deliver the
paper announcing this discovery.
813
00:41:29,054 --> 00:41:31,287
PETSKO:
This was one of
the most important papers
814
00:41:31,356 --> 00:41:34,224
in the history of chemistry.
815
00:41:34,292 --> 00:41:36,359
And yet it was almost
universally ignored.
816
00:41:36,428 --> 00:41:38,928
ROCKE:
Who was this Marie Curie?
817
00:41:38,997 --> 00:41:41,164
She was a graduate student.
818
00:41:41,233 --> 00:41:43,700
She spoke French
with a Polish accent.
819
00:41:43,768 --> 00:41:46,469
She was married to a teacher
in an industrial school.
820
00:41:46,538 --> 00:41:48,371
And she was a woman.
821
00:41:48,440 --> 00:41:51,307
RAMIREZ:
These are strikes that
are definitely against you.
822
00:41:51,376 --> 00:41:53,977
And so her ideas
just weren't embraced
823
00:41:54,045 --> 00:41:55,678
because she was so different.
824
00:41:55,747 --> 00:41:59,649
EMERSON:
But Marie knew she was
onto something important.
825
00:41:59,718 --> 00:42:02,352
QUINN:
She had lit upon,
almost by accident,
826
00:42:02,420 --> 00:42:04,521
an extremely exciting discovery.
827
00:42:04,589 --> 00:42:06,689
And as soon
as he figured that out,
828
00:42:06,758 --> 00:42:10,226
Pierre abandoned his work
on crystals and joined her.
829
00:42:10,295 --> 00:42:12,495
EMERSON:
To track down
their mystery element,
830
00:42:12,564 --> 00:42:14,364
Marie and Pierre
subjected pitchblende
831
00:42:14,432 --> 00:42:17,000
to a battery
of chemical procedures.
832
00:42:17,068 --> 00:42:18,468
RINGE:
You break up your rock.
833
00:42:18,537 --> 00:42:19,802
You try to dissolve it.
834
00:42:19,871 --> 00:42:21,971
You treat it with all kinds
of other chemicals.
835
00:42:23,708 --> 00:42:26,576
EMERSON:
The goal is to separate
the ore into portions
836
00:42:26,645 --> 00:42:28,678
with different
chemical properties
837
00:42:28,747 --> 00:42:32,282
all the while tracking
the radioactive signal.
838
00:42:32,350 --> 00:42:35,919
She then throws away everything
that isn't radioactive.
839
00:42:35,987 --> 00:42:37,654
It's getting more
and more concentrated
840
00:42:37,722 --> 00:42:40,390
as she goes through these steps.
841
00:42:40,458 --> 00:42:43,359
EMERSON:
The Curies soon discovered
that two distinct parts
842
00:42:43,428 --> 00:42:46,930
of the pitchblende with
different chemical properties
843
00:42:46,998 --> 00:42:49,198
were both radioactive.
844
00:42:49,267 --> 00:42:51,234
That meant not one
but two new elements
845
00:42:51,303 --> 00:42:54,771
might be hidden in the ore.
846
00:42:54,839 --> 00:42:58,808
By July 1898, they were able
to announce the discovery
847
00:42:58,877 --> 00:43:00,810
of one of those
substances with certainty.
848
00:43:00,879 --> 00:43:05,782
Marie, you will have to name it.
849
00:43:05,850 --> 00:43:08,384
EVE CURIE:
The former Mademoiselle
Sklodowska thought
850
00:43:08,453 --> 00:43:11,321
of her occupied native country
851
00:43:11,389 --> 00:43:15,391
whose very name had been erased
from the map of the world.
852
00:43:15,460 --> 00:43:19,329
Could we call it polonium?
853
00:43:19,397 --> 00:43:22,065
QUINN:
Poland, remember,
was still not a country.
854
00:43:22,133 --> 00:43:23,566
This was one way
of putting it on the map.
855
00:43:23,635 --> 00:43:25,134
Et bien, voila.
856
00:43:25,937 --> 00:43:26,769
Polonium it is.
857
00:43:29,040 --> 00:43:32,375
EMERSON:
Marie next turned her attention
to the second mystery element.
858
00:43:35,680 --> 00:43:36,846
KAISER:
She finds the
activity is through the roof.
859
00:43:36,915 --> 00:43:39,482
It's nearly a
thousand times more active
860
00:43:39,551 --> 00:43:41,217
than even her uranium
sample had been.
861
00:43:43,254 --> 00:43:45,321
EMERSON:
Marie's polonium sample
had not been pure enough
862
00:43:45,390 --> 00:43:48,558
to yield a unique spectral line.
863
00:43:48,627 --> 00:43:52,962
Would this new, more powerful
element pass the test?
864
00:43:53,031 --> 00:43:55,632
KAISER:
By 1900 spectroscopy was often
seen as the gold standard
865
00:43:55,700 --> 00:43:58,201
for identifying the
materials you're working with.
866
00:43:59,638 --> 00:44:03,172
And if Marie Curie wanted
to make some claim
867
00:44:03,241 --> 00:44:05,208
that she found in
fact a whole new element,
868
00:44:05,276 --> 00:44:07,510
she was going to have to meet
the chemists on their own terms.
869
00:44:07,579 --> 00:44:09,078
She'd need
spectroscopic evidence.
870
00:44:12,984 --> 00:44:14,083
Regarde ici.
871
00:44:14,152 --> 00:44:16,085
Il ya une ligne...
872
00:44:16,154 --> 00:44:17,553
EMERSON:
Marie's sample
showed the presence
873
00:44:17,622 --> 00:44:20,189
of the well-known
element barium.
874
00:44:20,258 --> 00:44:22,258
But it also revealed a pattern
875
00:44:22,327 --> 00:44:24,694
of spectral lines
never seen before,
876
00:44:24,763 --> 00:44:27,664
strong evidence
that she and Pierre
877
00:44:27,732 --> 00:44:30,099
had tracked down
their mystery element.
878
00:44:30,168 --> 00:44:31,668
RINGE:
She could tell that
she had an element
879
00:44:31,736 --> 00:44:33,736
that hadn't been seen before
880
00:44:33,805 --> 00:44:36,172
because the spectral
lines she got were different.
881
00:44:36,241 --> 00:44:38,474
QUINN:
And in the notebook
Pierre writes
882
00:44:38,543 --> 00:44:41,744
in very bold ink
the name they decided
883
00:44:41,813 --> 00:44:45,348
to give the new element: radium.
884
00:44:45,417 --> 00:44:47,350
ROCKE:
But in the 19th century
there had been scores
885
00:44:47,419 --> 00:44:49,318
of claims of elements
that later proved
886
00:44:49,387 --> 00:44:51,554
not to be elements at all.
887
00:44:51,623 --> 00:44:53,356
You needed to do more.
888
00:44:53,425 --> 00:44:55,792
SACKS:
To satisfy
the chemical community,
889
00:44:55,860 --> 00:44:58,261
a spectral line wasn't enough.
890
00:44:58,329 --> 00:45:02,832
They had to see the real stuff
which could be weighed,
891
00:45:02,901 --> 00:45:04,200
which could be measured.
892
00:45:04,269 --> 00:45:07,537
It was important, as you would
with any other element,
893
00:45:07,605 --> 00:45:09,639
to isolate this element,
to weigh it
894
00:45:09,708 --> 00:45:12,041
and to place it
on the periodic table.
895
00:45:12,110 --> 00:45:14,777
RINGE:
So in order
to be absolutely certain,
896
00:45:14,846 --> 00:45:16,546
she had to have pure material
897
00:45:16,614 --> 00:45:18,381
and that's what
she set out to do.
898
00:45:18,450 --> 00:45:21,884
It was my mother who had no
fear of throwing herself
899
00:45:21,953 --> 00:45:24,187
into that daunting task.
900
00:45:24,255 --> 00:45:25,722
Without personnel, without
money, without supplies.
901
00:45:28,393 --> 00:45:31,127
EMERSON:
To isolate even
a speck of radium,
902
00:45:31,196 --> 00:45:34,263
Marie would need to process
huge quantities of pitchblende,
903
00:45:34,332 --> 00:45:36,933
a job too big
for her tiny laboratory.
904
00:45:39,304 --> 00:45:41,404
The only space
available for this work
905
00:45:41,473 --> 00:45:44,907
was a drafty old shed once
used as a dissecting room
906
00:45:44,976 --> 00:45:46,709
for the school's
medical students.
907
00:45:48,213 --> 00:45:50,580
As Greer Garson
and Walter Pidgeon showed
908
00:45:50,648 --> 00:45:55,718
in the 1943 film Madame Curie,
the Curies worked tirelessly
909
00:45:55,787 --> 00:45:58,821
to separate the radium from tons
of pitchblende residue
910
00:45:58,890 --> 00:46:02,325
they had shipped
from a mine in Bohemia.
911
00:46:02,393 --> 00:46:06,662
CURIE:
Sometimes I had to spend the
whole day mixing a boiling mass
912
00:46:06,731 --> 00:46:10,366
with a heavy iron rod
nearly as big as I was.
913
00:46:10,435 --> 00:46:13,603
I would be broken with
fatigue by the end of the day.
914
00:46:15,874 --> 00:46:19,275
And yet we spent the
happiest days of our lives
915
00:46:19,344 --> 00:46:21,410
in this miserable old shed.
916
00:46:21,479 --> 00:46:25,381
An entirely new field
was opening before us.
917
00:46:25,450 --> 00:46:29,619
EMERSON:
Marie soon realized
that radium was a smaller part
918
00:46:29,687 --> 00:46:32,388
of the pitchblende
than she ever imagined--
919
00:46:32,457 --> 00:46:35,158
less than a millionth
of one percent.
920
00:46:35,226 --> 00:46:38,261
Isolating it was going
to be an enormous job.
921
00:46:40,431 --> 00:46:41,731
QUINN:
Marie's daughter said that,
922
00:46:41,800 --> 00:46:43,366
had it been up to Pierre,
923
00:46:43,434 --> 00:46:45,768
he might not have
taken the next step.
924
00:46:45,837 --> 00:46:47,703
The world has done
without radium up to now.
925
00:46:47,772 --> 00:46:49,672
What does it matter
if it isn't isolated
926
00:46:49,741 --> 00:46:51,374
for another hundred years?
927
00:46:51,442 --> 00:46:53,075
I can't give it up.
928
00:46:53,144 --> 00:46:55,912
There is a special
passion which goes
929
00:46:55,980 --> 00:46:58,514
with the discovery of elements,
930
00:46:58,583 --> 00:47:01,384
and a line in the
spectrum is not enough.
931
00:47:01,452 --> 00:47:04,420
She was after an
understanding of nature.
932
00:47:04,489 --> 00:47:06,455
And there was very, very little
that would stand in her way.
933
00:47:09,427 --> 00:47:13,663
EMERSON:
In 1902, after four years
of arduous work,
934
00:47:13,731 --> 00:47:16,032
Marie finally succeeded
in isolating one-tenth
935
00:47:16,100 --> 00:47:19,902
of a gram of radium
chloride from ten tons
936
00:47:19,971 --> 00:47:21,838
of pitchblende residue.
937
00:47:21,906 --> 00:47:25,341
Four years to produce
the kind of evidence
938
00:47:25,410 --> 00:47:28,744
that chemical science demands.
939
00:47:28,813 --> 00:47:30,213
All of this effort so
that she could actually
940
00:47:30,281 --> 00:47:32,215
convince the remaining chemists
that this was a real,
941
00:47:32,283 --> 00:47:33,749
honest-to-goodness element.
942
00:47:33,818 --> 00:47:38,921
EMERSON:
She measured radium's
atomic weight at 225.9--
943
00:47:38,990 --> 00:47:42,725
very close to the
current value of 226.
944
00:47:42,794 --> 00:47:45,261
And she placed it correctly
in the periodic table.
945
00:47:47,899 --> 00:47:50,366
EVE CURIE:
Radium officially existed.
946
00:47:50,435 --> 00:47:54,437
The incredulous chemists--
and there were still a few--
947
00:47:54,505 --> 00:47:56,973
could now only bow
before the facts,
948
00:47:57,041 --> 00:47:58,941
before the superhuman
obstinacy of a woman.
949
00:48:00,545 --> 00:48:02,678
KAISER:
Here she was still
basically a graduate student
950
00:48:02,747 --> 00:48:03,980
and the whole world was
beginning to talk
951
00:48:04,048 --> 00:48:05,615
about her discoveries.
952
00:48:05,683 --> 00:48:07,650
In just these four
years she's now discovered
953
00:48:07,719 --> 00:48:09,285
two brand new elements.
954
00:48:09,354 --> 00:48:12,688
Even more important, she's shown
that this strange emanation,
955
00:48:12,757 --> 00:48:15,291
this radioactivity,
is a feature of matter,
956
00:48:15,360 --> 00:48:18,527
not specific to one
quirky little substance.
957
00:48:18,596 --> 00:48:21,230
And she's also developed
a quite impressive technique
958
00:48:21,299 --> 00:48:22,465
for finding more.
959
00:48:22,533 --> 00:48:25,301
This was the beginning
of identifying elements
960
00:48:25,370 --> 00:48:27,470
by their radioactive power.
961
00:48:27,538 --> 00:48:30,840
EMERSON:
The same technique would soon be
used by others
962
00:48:30,909 --> 00:48:34,076
to identify more
new radioactive elements.
963
00:48:38,283 --> 00:48:41,817
In 1903, Marie Sklodowska Curie
964
00:48:41,886 --> 00:48:44,353
became the
first female scientist
965
00:48:44,422 --> 00:48:45,988
ever awarded
a doctorate in France.
966
00:48:48,660 --> 00:48:50,159
By then it was clear
radioactivity
967
00:48:50,228 --> 00:48:52,828
was a pivotal scientific
discovery,
968
00:48:52,897 --> 00:48:55,264
deserving of recognition.
969
00:48:55,333 --> 00:48:56,599
KAISER:
There's no doubt
that Marie Curie
970
00:48:56,668 --> 00:48:58,834
had done the lion's
share of this work.
971
00:48:58,903 --> 00:49:02,004
And yet, when the time came
to recognize this work,
972
00:49:02,073 --> 00:49:04,674
it very nearly went
to other people.
973
00:49:04,742 --> 00:49:07,710
A number of prominent
French scientists
974
00:49:07,779 --> 00:49:10,179
nominated Pierre Curie
and Henri Becquerel
975
00:49:10,248 --> 00:49:12,448
for the Nobel Prize in 1903.
976
00:49:12,517 --> 00:49:15,985
And in this letter, they didn't
mention Marie Curie at all.
977
00:49:17,689 --> 00:49:20,523
EMERSON:
One of the nominators
was Gabriel Lippmann.
978
00:49:20,591 --> 00:49:22,224
QUINN:
It's quite remarkable
since Gabriel Lippmann
979
00:49:22,293 --> 00:49:23,726
was her teacher, her mentor.
980
00:49:23,795 --> 00:49:27,463
He actually presented her very
first paper to the Academy.
981
00:49:27,532 --> 00:49:30,232
So he knew about
her importance in this work
982
00:49:30,301 --> 00:49:32,335
and how central she was
to these discoveries.
983
00:49:32,403 --> 00:49:37,106
And yet his cabal of Frenchmen
just left her off the list.
984
00:49:37,175 --> 00:49:39,041
And the idea that she could be
an important scientist
985
00:49:39,110 --> 00:49:41,310
just didn't occur to them.
986
00:49:41,379 --> 00:49:43,479
She was totally invisible.
987
00:49:43,548 --> 00:49:47,216
Pierre-- and we have to give
him total credit for this--
988
00:49:47,285 --> 00:49:52,655
turned around and said, "I did
not conceive of this idea.
989
00:49:52,724 --> 00:49:56,359
"I helped with the work,
but it was someone else's idea
990
00:49:56,427 --> 00:49:58,995
that made it possible,
and that's Marie Curie."
991
00:49:59,063 --> 00:50:03,766
QUINN:
Pierre was adamant that Marie
needed to be included.
992
00:50:03,835 --> 00:50:06,068
He immediately
wrote back and said,
993
00:50:06,137 --> 00:50:10,339
"Wouldn't it be better, from
an artistic point of view,
994
00:50:10,408 --> 00:50:14,910
to award the prize
to Marie Curie and to me?"
995
00:50:14,979 --> 00:50:18,214
EMERSON:
In the end,
Marie did share in the Nobel
996
00:50:18,282 --> 00:50:20,683
with Pierre and Henri Becquerel.
997
00:50:20,752 --> 00:50:23,419
She would go on
to win a second all her own.
998
00:50:25,556 --> 00:50:27,990
But the real prize was
the magical substance
999
00:50:28,059 --> 00:50:30,860
for which she would
always be known.
1000
00:50:30,928 --> 00:50:33,629
Some nights the Curies would
stop by the laboratory
1001
00:50:33,698 --> 00:50:36,899
to admire the element Marie
called "my child."
1002
00:50:38,669 --> 00:50:40,536
EVE CURIE:
They arrived in the Rue Lhomond.
1003
00:50:40,605 --> 00:50:43,039
Pierre put the key in the lock.
1004
00:50:43,107 --> 00:50:46,842
The door squeaked and
admitted them to their world.
1005
00:50:46,911 --> 00:50:48,944
SACKS:
Eve Curie in her
biography of her mother...
1006
00:50:49,013 --> 00:50:50,413
Don't light the lamps.
1007
00:50:50,481 --> 00:50:52,815
SACKS:
...describes the wonder
of the Curies
1008
00:50:52,884 --> 00:50:56,152
as they went into their lab
and saw these glowing vials.
1009
00:50:58,056 --> 00:51:03,759
MARIE CURIE:
From all sides, we could see
gleamings suspended in darkness,
1010
00:51:03,828 --> 00:51:05,995
like faint fairy lights.
1011
00:51:06,064 --> 00:51:08,764
Do you remember the day
you said to me,
1012
00:51:08,833 --> 00:51:11,267
"I would like radium
to be a beautiful color"?
1013
00:51:11,335 --> 00:51:13,836
EVE CURIE:
Radium had something better
than a beautiful color.
1014
00:51:13,905 --> 00:51:17,606
It was spontaneously luminous.
1015
00:51:17,675 --> 00:51:20,810
The fact that radium glowed
in the dark seemed magical.
1016
00:51:20,878 --> 00:51:24,246
But it was also troubling,
because it almost seemed
1017
00:51:24,315 --> 00:51:27,550
to violate some kind of
fundamental physical law.
1018
00:51:27,618 --> 00:51:30,219
GATES:
Scientists had known for some
time that light is a form
1019
00:51:30,288 --> 00:51:32,354
of energy,
so if you distill something
1020
00:51:32,423 --> 00:51:34,290
and it suddenly glows
in the dark,
1021
00:51:34,358 --> 00:51:35,925
you have to ask the question:
1022
00:51:35,993 --> 00:51:37,359
Where does that
energy come from?
1023
00:51:37,428 --> 00:51:39,695
It's not changing shape,
it's not interacting
1024
00:51:39,764 --> 00:51:41,997
with the environment
to get this energy.
1025
00:51:42,066 --> 00:51:43,999
But it is just glowing,
infinitely,
1026
00:51:44,068 --> 00:51:46,102
and we had no idea
why it did that.
1027
00:51:46,170 --> 00:51:49,805
It was Marie who had
the flash of insight:
1028
00:51:49,874 --> 00:51:53,042
perhaps some types
of matter were changing
1029
00:51:53,111 --> 00:51:57,379
from one kind to another,
their atoms splitting apart
1030
00:51:57,448 --> 00:51:59,748
and releasing energy
in the process.
1031
00:51:59,817 --> 00:52:04,253
This theory of the source
of the energy is very seductive;
1032
00:52:04,322 --> 00:52:06,555
it explains
radioactivity very well.
1033
00:52:06,624 --> 00:52:11,160
EMERSON:
But it was an idea many
chemists refused to accept.
1034
00:52:11,229 --> 00:52:16,198
MENDELEEV:
Tell me, please,
how much radium salt is there
1035
00:52:16,267 --> 00:52:18,534
in the entire earth?
1036
00:52:18,603 --> 00:52:20,336
A few grams!
1037
00:52:20,404 --> 00:52:22,872
On this shaky
foundation they want
1038
00:52:22,940 --> 00:52:27,143
to overturn our understanding
of the nature of matter.
1039
00:52:27,211 --> 00:52:30,279
EMERSON:
Even the Curies
were reluctant to accept it.
1040
00:52:30,348 --> 00:52:31,680
GATES:
The Curies themselves,
1041
00:52:31,749 --> 00:52:33,616
they wanted to think of elements
1042
00:52:33,684 --> 00:52:38,053
as immutable,
unchangeable parts of nature.
1043
00:52:38,122 --> 00:52:42,124
The idea that one
could have transmutation
1044
00:52:42,193 --> 00:52:45,895
from one element to another
was very disturbing,
1045
00:52:45,963 --> 00:52:48,264
even to her, at first.
1046
00:52:48,332 --> 00:52:50,566
EMERSON:
But the Curies' discoveries
inspired others
1047
00:52:50,635 --> 00:52:54,370
around the world to
pursue this daring theory.
1048
00:52:54,438 --> 00:52:57,106
KAISER:
The idea that finally
got pieced together was
1049
00:52:57,175 --> 00:53:00,042
that the energy was, in fact,
coming from the disintegration
1050
00:53:00,111 --> 00:53:01,777
of these atoms themselves.
1051
00:53:01,846 --> 00:53:04,813
Radioactivity was a sign that
the atom itself was unstable.
1052
00:53:04,882 --> 00:53:06,215
It could break apart.
1053
00:53:06,284 --> 00:53:08,984
This discovery implied
something even more profound.
1054
00:53:14,559 --> 00:53:16,525
Up to then,
most scientists had believed
1055
00:53:16,594 --> 00:53:19,461
atoms were the smallest
units of matter--
1056
00:53:19,530 --> 00:53:22,031
solid, unsplittable lumps.
1057
00:53:22,099 --> 00:53:25,334
But if radioactivity
was atoms falling apart,
1058
00:53:25,403 --> 00:53:26,969
there must be
even smaller pieces
1059
00:53:27,038 --> 00:53:29,772
inside still awaiting discovery.
1060
00:53:29,840 --> 00:53:32,641
Thanks to this
Polish expatriate,
1061
00:53:32,710 --> 00:53:35,611
this graduate student,
this young mother...
1062
00:53:35,680 --> 00:53:37,379
scientists hoping
to solve the mystery
1063
00:53:37,448 --> 00:53:41,850
of matter now had a pressing
new question to answer:
1064
00:53:41,919 --> 00:53:43,485
What's inside the atom?
1065
00:53:46,324 --> 00:53:48,724
Next time on
The Mystery of Matter...
1066
00:53:48,793 --> 00:53:50,693
MOSELEY:
There's a fundamental
quantity in the atom
1067
00:53:50,761 --> 00:53:53,629
which increases
by regular steps as we pass
1068
00:53:53,698 --> 00:53:55,531
from one element to the next.
1069
00:53:55,600 --> 00:53:56,765
WARK:
I think he must
have been astonished.
1070
00:53:58,169 --> 00:54:01,103
Phil, the Germans have
split the uranium atom!
1071
00:54:01,172 --> 00:54:03,973
GATES:
Seaborg figured
out how to turn it
1072
00:54:04,041 --> 00:54:05,507
into a new element, plutonium.
1073
00:54:05,576 --> 00:54:07,843
SEABORG:
No matter what you do with
the rest of your life,
1074
00:54:07,912 --> 00:54:12,181
nothing will be as important as
your work on this project.
1075
00:54:12,250 --> 00:54:13,349
It will change the world.
1076
00:54:17,088 --> 00:54:18,654
Major funding
1077
00:54:18,723 --> 00:54:19,822
for The Mystery of Matter:
Search for the Elements
1078
00:54:19,890 --> 00:54:21,290
was provided by...
1079
00:54:21,359 --> 00:54:23,325
The National Science
Foundation,
1080
00:54:23,394 --> 00:54:26,328
where discoveries begin.
1081
00:54:26,397 --> 00:54:28,731
Additional funding
provided by...
1082
00:54:28,799 --> 00:54:30,966
The Arthur Vining Davis
Foundations,
1083
00:54:31,035 --> 00:54:33,602
dedicated to strengthening
America's future
1084
00:54:33,671 --> 00:54:35,537
through education.
1085
00:54:35,606 --> 00:54:37,439
And by the following:
1086
00:54:47,184 --> 00:54:50,919
for the elements
and watch bonus
1087
00:54:50,988 --> 00:54:52,921
videos on the
featured
1088
00:54:52,990 --> 00:54:54,023
scientists,
visit pbs.org
1089
00:54:54,091 --> 00:54:55,891
/mysteryofmatter.
1090
00:54:56,193 --> 00:54:58,127
The Mystery
of Matter:
1091
00:54:58,195 --> 00:55:00,129
Search for
the Elements
1092
00:55:00,197 --> 00:55:02,064
is available on
DVD. To order,
1093
00:55:04,602 --> 00:55:07,870
visit shopPBS.org
or call
1094
00:55:07,938 --> 00:55:09,905
1-800-PLAY-PBS.
1095
00:55:12,410 --> 00:55:16,145
EMERSON:
Joseph Priestley was the first
to publish his discovery
1096
00:55:16,213 --> 00:55:18,080
She just said, "Hey, you don't
like what I'm doing?
1097
00:55:18,149 --> 00:55:19,548
I'm just going to work harder
and prove you wrong."
1098
00:55:19,617 --> 00:55:22,418
There's just so much about her
and her stick-to-itiveness
1099
00:55:22,486 --> 00:55:23,552
from the beginning.
1100
00:55:23,621 --> 00:55:25,854
It's so moving and so wonderful.
1101
00:55:28,259 --> 00:55:30,793
WOMAN:
Her courage throughout her life
1102
00:55:30,861 --> 00:55:32,661
is an enormous inspiration
to everyone,
1103
00:55:32,730 --> 00:55:34,129
but especially to women.
1104
00:55:34,198 --> 00:55:37,499
WOMAN:
She was certainly
an inspiration to me.
1105
00:55:37,568 --> 00:55:40,035
I come from a generation
when it was also not quite yet
1106
00:55:40,104 --> 00:55:43,105
fashionable to be a scientist.
1107
00:55:43,174 --> 00:55:45,874
And here was a woman
who had achieved it.
1108
00:55:45,943 --> 00:55:50,612
To not only be a scientist
but to be a wife, a mother,
1109
00:55:50,681 --> 00:55:52,481
a part of a community.
1110
00:55:52,550 --> 00:55:55,384
Those are very hard to do
all at once.
1111
00:55:55,453 --> 00:55:57,519
She was able to do that.
1112
00:55:57,588 --> 00:56:00,723
And as women came along, they
could look at that and say,
1113
00:56:00,791 --> 00:56:02,391
"Well, maybe I can do it too."
1114
00:56:02,460 --> 00:56:04,560
If you look a little different,
if you're a different gender,
1115
00:56:04,628 --> 00:56:08,564
a different race, there are many
barriers to overcome.
1116
00:56:08,632 --> 00:56:11,967
But you do what Marie did,
which is you put your head down
1117
00:56:12,036 --> 00:56:13,102
and you work harder.
1118
00:56:13,170 --> 00:56:15,971
MAN:
Curie's legacy is many fold.
1119
00:56:16,040 --> 00:56:17,506
She changed cherished truths
1120
00:56:17,575 --> 00:56:20,376
and notions about how
the world seems to work,
1121
00:56:20,444 --> 00:56:21,710
what's the universe made out of.
1122
00:56:21,779 --> 00:56:24,913
She challenged an equally
steadfast notion
1123
00:56:24,982 --> 00:56:26,648
of who should be contributing,
1124
00:56:26,717 --> 00:56:28,851
who could play the game
of science.
1125
00:56:28,919 --> 00:56:32,454
She showed by example that there
could be all kinds of people
1126
00:56:32,523 --> 00:56:35,657
doing really breathtakingly
important science.
1127
00:56:35,726 --> 00:56:37,393
All kids of people
could have a hand
1128
00:56:37,461 --> 00:56:39,928
in pursuing the mystery
of matter.